Revision FOP Part 2
Revision FOP Part 2
PERSONALITY
Concept of Personality
● Term personality originates from the Latin word “persona” which refers to the mask
worn by theatre actors in Rome.
● Gordon Allport (1937) gave the widely used comprehensive definition - “Personality
is the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psycho-physical systems
that determine his characteristic behaviour and his unique adjustment to the
environment.”
● In layman terms, we can conceptualise personality as the behaviour arising sum of
inner and outer qualities in interaction with social situations.
● Psychologists see personality as a product of nature and nurture, i. E., as a product of
innate factors and environmental factors.
Biological Foundation of Personality
The biological foundation of personality explores the idea that our genes and brain structures
influence our personality traits. Psychologists have studied how biology shapes our tendencies
to behave in certain ways.
● Genetics: Twin studies have shown a significant heritability for personality traits, meaning
that a portion of the variation in personality can be attributed to genes.
● Brain structures: Different areas of the brain are associated with various personality
traits. For instance, the amygdala is linked to fear and emotional processing, while the
prefrontal cortex is involved in decision-making and impulse control.
● Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers in the brain, like dopamine and serotonin,
influence mood, motivation, and reward processing, all of which can contribute to
personality.
MAJOR APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY
There are multiple ways of approaching personality based on theoretical models and schools of
psychology which aim to explore human behaviour. The most prominent of these are mentioned
below and discussed further.
● Trait Approach
● Psychodynamic Approach
● Social- cognitive Approach
● Phenomenological- Humanistic Approach
Trait Approach
A pioneer theorist of personality, he proposed that humans possess a three level hierarchy of
traits which determine behaviour in different situations with different plans.
❖ Cardinal
❖ Central
❖ Secondary
Figure: Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory (1936)
Raymond Cattell’s Personality Factors Theory
❖ Source Traits: These are stable and considered to be the building blocks of personality.
❖ Surface Traits: These result from the interaction of source traits.
Cattell proposed the each individual has these 16 traits in various degrees.
Also known as the temperament theory, Eysenck focused on biological dimensions of personality
and how these dimensions are related to the environmental or social aspects.
Eysenck’s original research found two dimensions of temperament: Neuroticism and Extraversion-
Introversion. Eysenck later added Psychoticism as well.
All these three dimensions could be measured by Questionnaire prepared by Eysenck called
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire.
Figure: Eysenck's Biological Trait Model
Paul Costa and Robert McCrae’s Big Five Factor Model of Personality
After examining possible personality traits following research, they came up with five major
personality factors, also termed as the OCEAN model.
❖ Open to Experience: Willingness of a person to try new things and being open to
different experiences
❖ Conscientiousness: Related to a person’s organisational skills and their motivation
❖ Extraversion: Tendency of a person to be outgoing in nature, meeting new people,
making friends, assertive and fun loving
❖ Agreeableness: Based on the person’s readiness to be altruistic, pleasant and lenient.
❖ Neuroticism: Refers to emotional stability or instability
On the basis of this model, NEO PI (NEO Personality Inventory) has been developed which is
found to be highly reliable and useful source of measuring personality.
Psychodynamic Approach
❖ Conscious Mind - It includes everything of which a person is aware at any point of time.
Our present perceptions, thoughts and feelings are part of our conscious mind.
❖ Preconscious Mind/Subconscious Mind - It includes information, events, thoughts,
feelings, and concerns that is not in awareness at a particular time but can be retrieved
and recalled with a little effort.
❖ Unconscious Mind - It holds thoughts and desires that are far below the level of person’s
awareness. This part of mind surfaces only in symbolic forms and is directly hidden all
the time. Freud argued that most of the psychic processes are unconscious in nature.
Structure of Personality
Freud divided personality into three separate but interacting parts: Id, Ego, and Superego. These
are not physical divisions, but terms used for strong psychological forces, the existence of
which is inferred from the ways people behave.
❖ Id- It is the pool of biological drives that arise from our needs for food, water, love etc.
The instinctual drive of id is Libido, it is the constructive energy of life primarily sexual in
nature.
❖ Ego- Ego is the rational part of personality. The primary role of ego is to serve as a
mediator between id and reality. Ego operates on Reality Principle, which means that
considering the past experiences it finds the best time to seek most pleasure with least
pain.
❖ Superego- It includes individual’s conscience, ideals, morals and values. It is the ethical
dimension of personality. It is governed by Morality Principle. It plays on morals and
duties.
Figure: Structure and Level of Personality by Freud
Defence Mechanisms
The conflicts among id, ego and superego are central in psychoanalytic theory. Freud
proposed that the ego tries to resolve this conflict. Often, it resolves the conflict via defense
mechanisms. These are mental activities that prevent anxiety that rises because of conflict.
Psychosexual Stages of Development
Sigmund Freud proposed that personality development happens through five psychosexual stages in
childhood. These stages focus on different erogenous zones, areas of the body that provide pleasure.
According to Freud, how we navigate each stage shapes our personality.
1. Oral Stage (Birth - 1 year): The mouth is the primary source of pleasure through activities like
sucking and breastfeeding.
2. Anal Stage (1 - 3 years): Focus shifts to the anus as pleasure is derived from controlling bowel
movements. Toilet training becomes a key conflict during this stage.
3. Phallic Stage (3 - 6 years): Genitals become the erogenous zone. Freud introduced the Oedipus
complex (boys desiring mothers and fearing fathers) and Electra complex (girls desiring fathers
and fearing mothers) here.
4. Latency Stage (6 - 12 years): Sexual urges are repressed as children focus on developing social
and academic skills.
5. Genital Stage (12 years onwards): Sexual interests re-emerge, but this time focused on mature
sexual relationships.
Social-Cognitive Approach
Skinner’s Behaviourism
Albert Bandura emphasised on the cognitive aspect. He showed that people learn cognitively by
observing others. The learning does not take place merely by experiencing rewards. Most of the
social learning, which occurs, is because of observation. Learning through observation is also
called Modeling.
Bandura also used the term “Reciprocal Determinism”, to explain how environment,
behaviour and cognitive factors of a person work in interplay leading in a particular kind of
behaviour. All these three factors influence behaviour.
Hence, Bandura believed that to understand a person’s personality, it’s important to understand
his personal, environmental, and behavioural variables and these personal variables are most
affected by modeling, self-beliefs, and self-expectations.
Walter Mischel and Yuichi Shoda – The Cognitive Affective Personality System (CAPS)
CAPS is a system consisting of 5 different variables which are continuously interacting with
environment and with one another generating the distinctive pattern of behaviour which
eventually formulate a person’s personality. These five variables are-
❖ Encoding Strategies
❖ Expectancies and Belief
❖ Goals and Values
❖ Affect
❖ Competencies and Self regulatory behaviour
It’s important to understand that the interplay of all these variables with diverse situations lead
to the formation of unique personalities styles.
Phenomenological-Humanistic Approach
The primary interest of humanistic theories is in experiencing people, focusing on the present,
emphasising on personal responsibility, focusing on personal growth and ultimately emphasising
on improvement.
● Self-Concept vs. Ideal Self: Rogers distinguished between our self-concept, which is how we perceive
ourselves currently, and our ideal self, which represents who we aspire to be.
● Self-Actualization: A core human motive, according to Rogers, is the drive towards self-actualization,
the process of fulfilling our full potential and becoming the best version of ourselves.
● Positive Regard: For healthy development, Rogers emphasized the need for positive regard, which is
feeling valued and accepted by others, especially significant figures in our lives, for who we truly are
(unconditional positive regard) rather than for what we do or achieve (conditional positive regard).
● Empathy: Empathy, the ability to understand and share the feelings of another person, is another
crucial element. When we experience empathy from others, it fosters self-exploration and growth.
● Congruence: Congruence, a state where our self-concept aligns with our experiences and behavior, is
essential for psychological well-being. Incongruence, on the other hand, can lead to distress.
Culture, Gender and Personality
Cultural Influence
● Cultures have certain defined norms and value system. These norms and values influence
the way we perceive, relate, and behave in situations.
● Physical, social and religious aspects affect a person’s personality.
● The different aspects and dimensions which could be studied while focusing on culture
and its impact on personal development are tightness and complexity.
○ Tightness - how many rules are there for the performance of behaviour in a particular
culture; and
○ Complexity - the diversity of values and norms.
● The differences between the collectivistic and individualistic cultures in terms of
disposition, identity, personal norms, etc. have an impact as well/
Gender Schemas
Gender schemas are an organised cognitive structure that inform our understanding of attributes,
beliefs, norms and behaviours that are expected from males and females in a particular society.
It influences personality and behaviour both. For e.g., males are encouraged for more emotional
strength and self sufficiency in comparison to females. On the other hand, females are expected
to be more kind, helpful and emotional in the interpersonal relationship.
INTELLIGENCE
Definitions of Intelligence
“Intelligence is the judgment or common sense, initiative, the ability to adapt oneself” and again
“to judge well, understand well, reason well —these are the essentials of intelligence.” - Alfred
Binet (1905)
“The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and
to deal effectively with his/her environment” - David Wechsler (1958)
“The ability to derive information, learn from experience, adapt to the environment, understand,
and correctly utilise thought and reason.” - APA Dictionary of Psychology
“Intelligence is the mental ability necessary for adaptation to, as well as shaping and selection
of, any environmental context.” - Robert Sternberg (1985)
MAJOR APPROACHES TO INTELLIGENCE
Over the years, psychologists have tried to understand intelligence through multiple approaches and
theoretical framework.
● Psychometric Approach
● Spearman’s “g” Factor Theory
● Crystallised and Fluid Intelligence
● Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Psychometric Approach
● Standardized Tests and Assessments: The psychometric approach utilizes standardized tests and
assessments designed to be reliable (consistent) and valid (accurate measure of what they intend to
assess). These tests present individuals with a series of tasks or questions designed to tap into various
cognitive abilities.
● The G-factor theory, introduced by Charles Spearman in 1904, suggests that a single, general
intelligence factor, denoted by "g," underlies all cognitive abilities.
● Spearman observed correlations between scores on different intelligence tests, leading him to believe
that a common factor was influencing performance across these tasks.
● g factor is thought to represent our overall intellectual capacity and influences our ability to learn,
reason, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.
● Specific abilities, such as verbal fluency, spatial reasoning, or mathematical aptitude, are seen as
facets of this broader g factor. He also termed these as “s” factors.
Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities
● Extending Spearman’s theory of “g” and “s” factors, Thurstone’s theory of intelligence has been
influential in the domain of intelligence testing, and his ideas are still widely used today.
● Thurstone used Spearman's work utilising matrix algebra to demonstrate that seven primary abilities,
rather than the “g” factor, better fit the data than the two-factor theory.
● These abilities are used to measure intelligence and can be used to assess the mental capabilities of
individuals. He argued that these abilities are independent and that the sum of their abilities determines
a person’s overall intelligence.
● Building upon the G-factor theory, Raymond Cattell (1963) proposed a further distinction within
intelligence, differentiating between fluid and crystallized intelligence.
Represents the knowledge, skills, and Refers to our ability to think abstractly, solve
understanding we accumulate throughout novel problems, and reason inductively. It is
life through education and experience. It's independent of prior learning and allows us to
like your mental toolbox, filled with adapt to new situations and challenges.
learned information and strategies that Imagine solving a logic puzzle for the first
you can readily apply to solve problems time; you rely on your Gf to identify patterns,
or answer questions. analyze relationships, and arrive at a solution.
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Formulated by psychologist Robert Sternberg in 1985, this theory argues against a single intelligence factor and
proposes three distinct aspects of intelligence that work together:
● Analytical Intelligence (Componential): This refers to our ability to think analytically, solve problems
logically,and analyze information critically. It's essentially the "book smarts" or problem-solving skills
traditionally associated with intelligence.
● Creative Intelligence (Experiential): This aspect focuses on our ability to come up with novel ideas, think
outside the box, and approach problems creatively. It's about generating new solutions and adapting existing
knowledge to new situations.
● Practical Intelligence (Contextual): This represents our ability to adapt to everyday situations and contexts
effectively. It's often referred to as "street smarts" and involves understanding social cues, navigating social
situations, and applying knowledge and skills in practical ways to achieve goals.
BROADER CONCEPTIONS OF KNOWLEDGE
Broader conceptions of intelligence move away from the traditional view of a single, fixed intelligence
quotient (IQ) and encompass a wider range of abilities and skills. Some key aspects of this view include:
● Multiple Intelligences: Theories like Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposed that
intelligence is multifaceted.
● Cognitive Processes: Includes problem-solving strategies, information processing, and decision-
making abilities.
● Contextual Intelligence: Intelligence is seen as adaptable and context-dependent.
● Emotional Intelligence: The ability to understand and manage one's own emotions, as well as
recognize and respond to the emotions of others, is increasingly recognized as a crucial component of
intelligence.
● More inclusive view: Recognizes different strengths and talents, potentially helping identify and
nurture potential in various domains.
Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
In 1983, Gardner proposes that human intelligence is multifaceted and consists of eight (with a possible
ninth called existential intelligence) distinct intelligences, each relatively independent of the others.
● Self-awareness: This component refers to the ability to recognise and understand one’s emotions,
thoughts, and behaviours and how they affect one’s behaviour.
● Self-regulation: It involves the ability to manage and regulate one’s emotions, thoughts, and
behaviours.
● Social awareness: It involves the ability to recognise and understand the emotions of others. It
involves being empathetic and understanding the perspective of others.
● Relationship management:It refers to the ability to establish and maintain positive relationships with
others. It involves effective communication, conflict resolution, and the ability to work collaboratively.
Benefits of Emotional Intelligence
● Nature vs. Nurture: Intelligence is a complex dance between genetics (heredity) and environment
(nurture). Genes set a potential range, while environment influences how much that potential is
realized.
● Heredity's Role: Genes influence cognitive functions like memory and problem-solving. Twin studies
suggest a significant genetic influence.
● Environment's Impact: Early childhood experiences, socioeconomic status, education, and cultural
factors all play a role in shaping intelligence.
● While research of twin studies and adoptive studies has shown that genetic factors account for around
half of the differences in intelligence among individuals, environmental factors such as nutrition,
education, and access to resources also contribute to intelligence levels.
● Overall, research has shown that heredity and environment both play a complex role in influencing
intelligence and determining its level.
EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE
The extremes of human intelligence fall on a spectrum. IQ (intelligence quotient) has been used to measure
intelligence by using appropriate tests.
Intellectual Giftedness
Intellectual Disability
● It is a term used to describe a range of conditions that affect a person's cognitive functioning and
adaptive skills.
● Individuals with ID may experience limitations in areas such as learning, communication, self-care,
social interaction and problem-solving
● The severity of ID varies greatly from person to person.