BA437 MODELS

OF LEADERSHIP &
LEADERSHIP
DEVELOPMENT
Prof. Victor H. Arenas
Fall 2024
Agenda
Class Introductions

The Syllabus

Break

Leadership Discussion: Brief History of Leadership

Experience
& Chapter 1: The Nature of Leadership
Break

Wrap-up and Homework

Objectives

Understand the different ways leadership has been defined.

Understand the major types of leadership theories that have been

studied.

Understand the different ways leadership effectiveness is determined.

Understand what aspects of leadership have been studied the most.

Understand the organization of this book.

Course Professor

Industrial-Organizational Psychologist who has

been teaching at The Chicago School in the
BA Program since 2018.

Prior work experience includes as a school

administrator, counselor, therapist; as an HR
Business Partner and Personnel Manager.
Other prior training and education include in
Introduction
mass communications, s
My role as the instructor is to serve as your
academic mentor, developer and coach.
Who are we?
■Student
Introductions

Name
Previous Education
Course expectations
Hopes for your future
Interesting activity or
activities this summer
The
Syllabus
Textbooks
Important Dates
Online vs. In-person
Discussions
Assignments
Submissions
 10
MINUTE
BREAK
In-Class Discussion:
Brief History of Leadership
Experience
1. List three people you would categorize as
leaders, one from
• Childhood
• Family or close circle of friends
• Employment / volunteer experience
2. Share why you believe each one of these
individuals is a leader.
3. Discuss if you recognize yourself as a leader.
Why or why not?
 The key to successful
leadership
is influence, not authority.
Kenneth H.
Blanchard
Historical Context
■ Scientific research on the topic did not begin until the 20 th century.
■ Much of the history has been on the determinants of leadership
effectiveness
■ Social Scientist seek to study the traits, abilities, behaviors, sources of power,
or aspects of the situation to determine how well a leader can influence
followers and accomplish task objectives.
■ Growing interest has emerged in understanding leadership as a shared process
in a team or organization, and if he process is or is not effective
■ People often ask, What makes for a great leader? Why do some people emerge
as leaders? And the determinants of a leader’s actions

■ Textbook focus: Major theories and research findings on leadership

effectiveness
– Emphasis on managerial leadership in formal organizations (e.g., business
corporations, government agencies, hospitals, and universities).
Definition of Leadership
■ Terminology Challenge
– Several imprecise terms are often used or relegated to
the word:
■ Power
■ Authority
■ Management
■ Administration
■ Control
■ Supervision
■ Leadership has been defined in terms of traits, behaviors,
influence, interaction patterns, role relationships, and
occupation of an administrative position.
Definitions of Leadership
 Leadership is “the behavior of an individual … directing the activities of a group toward a
shared goal” (Hemphill & Coons, 1957, p. 7).
 Leadership is “the influential increment over and above mechanical compliance with the
routine directives of the organization” (Katz & Kahn, 1978, p. 528).
 Leadership is “the process of influencing the activities of an organized group toward goal
achievement” (Rauch & Behling, 1984, p. 46).
 “Leadership is about articulating visions, embodying values, and creating the environment
within which things can be accomplished” (Richards & Engle, 1986, p. 206).
 “Leadership is a process of giving purpose (meaningful direction) to collective effort, and
causing willing effort to be expended to achieve purpose” (Jacobs & Jaques, 1990, p. 281).
 Leadership “is the ability to step outside the culture … to start evolutionary change
processes that are more adaptive” (Schein, 1992, p. 2).
 “Leadership is the process of making sense of what people are doing together so that people
will understand and be committed” (Drath & Palus, 1994, p. 4).
 Leadership is “the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to
contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organization …” (House et al., 1999,
p. 184).
 “Leadership is a formal or informal contextually rooted and goal-influencing process that
occurs between a leader and a follower, groups, of followers, or institutions” (Antonakis &
Day, 2018, p. 5).
Leadership
Specialized Role Shared Influence
“The Leader” Process
■ Leader has a role that cannot ■ Focus on leadership as a social
be shared too widely to avoid process or pattern of relationships
jeopardizing effectiveness ■ Functions of leader may be
performed by different people who
■ Note: One can be a leader “influence” what the group does,
and both a follower. and the how in relation to others.
■ Focus attention on the ■ Leadership may be exhibited by
attributes that determine the formally selected leader or
selection of designated informally (via interactive process)
leaders, typical behaviors of ■ Focus attention on complex
designated leader, and effects influence process among
of their behavior on others. members, the context, conditions,
the how and consequences
Controversy about Definition of Leadership

Type of Influence Process

■ Focus on Results
– Enthusiastic commitment by followers
– Indifferent compliance
– Reluctant Obedience
■ Focus on Rewards and punishments to manipulate or coerce followers
– Calls into questions ethical or unethical use of power

Purpose of Influence Attempts

■ Purpose and Outcome
– Begs the question: who is the beneficiary, the Leader or
Followers?
– Unintended consequences (positive and negative)
Controversy about Definition of
Leadership (Cont.)
Influence based on Reason or Emotions
■ Examining the emotional, value-based aspects of leadership
which lead to exceptional achievements of groups and
organizations.
■ Leaders inspiring followers to sacrifice for a greater good.

Direct or Indirect Leadership

■ Impact on immediate followers and through indirect interactions
– Business Cascading
– Formal programs, management systems & Structural forms
(e.g., Selection process, promotions, innovation, control,
formal rules, procedures, specialized subunits, etc.
– Organizational Cultural Beliefs and Values
 Leadership Vs. Management
Leadership Management
■ Can be spawned by direct or ■ May include managing a
indirect means function with no subordinates
■ Individual may not hold the ■ Most agree that a success as
title of manager (informal a manager involves leading
leader)

LEADERSHIP – the process of influencing others to understand and

agree what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of
facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared
objectives. (Yukl, G. A., & Gardner, W. L., 2020).
Moving forward, leadership will be treated as both a specialized role and a social
influence process.
Which means that rational and emotional processes are viewed as also essential aspects
of leadership.
What Leaders Can Influence
 The choice of objectives and strategies to pursue
 The motivation of members to achieve the
objectives
 The mutual trust and cooperation of members
 The organization and coordination of work activities
 The allocation of resources to activities and
objectives
 The development of member skills and confidence
 The learning and sharing of new knowledge by
members
 The enlistment of support and cooperation from
Indicators of Leadership Effectiveness
Objective Measures of Performance
■ Sales, profits, market share, ROI, ROA, Productivity, Budget
Expenditures, Corporate Stock
■ In business: absenteeism, voluntary turnover, grievances,
complaints to higher management, sabotage, etc.

Subjective Measures of Effectiveness

■ Ratings from Leaders, Superiors, Peers, or Subordinates, and
outside observers
■ Follower Attitudes (often from questionnaires or interviews)
Immediate and Delayed
Outcomes
Figure Causal Chain of Effects from Two Types of Leader Behavior.
Yukl, G. A., & Gardner, W. L.,
2020

The Casual Chain of Effects. Notice the Mediating Variables help explain the
effects of the preceding one onto the next one.
The end results may be delayed as we move along the Causal Chain of Effects.
We must also be cognizant of “contamination.”
Criteria for Evaluating Leadership Effectiveness

More recent methods

Common Methods of assessing:
■ Social Networks Within the Organization – to determine which
individuals exert influence and leadership within the network.
■ Implicit Measures – to tap into automatic cognitive processes that
people use without conscious awareness to describe leaders (terms like
charismatic, authentic, ethical, and empowering).
■ Biosensor Methods – which combine biology (e.g., genetic assessments
of DNA0, chemistry (e.g., drawing blood to examine chemical markers),
and technology (e.g., neuroimaging using MRI) to examine physical and
psychological traits and behaviors
■ Behavioral Genetics – studies that compare the attributes of identical
twins raised apart.
■ Facial Expressions - examining how people react to leaders
Criteria for Evaluating Leadership Effectiveness

Rest on the objectives and values of the person making

the evaluation (e.g., top mgt, employees, customers, or
shareholders).
Common Methods of assessing:
■ Survey questionnaires often measuring how much a leaders uses different
types of behavior and behavior patterns related to measures of outcomes
influenced by the leader (e.g., subordinate satisfaction, task commitment,
performance).
■ Descriptions of leader actions and decisions obtained from observations,
diaries, case studies, biographies, critical incidents, or interviews with the
leader and subordinates.
■ Experimentation (Lab experiments) of the different patterns of leader
behavior on group processes and outcomes. (e.g., scenario method, field
experiments, quasi-experimental field studies).
 10
MINUTE
BREAK
Major Perspectives in
Leadership Theory and
Research
Characteristics of the Leader
 Traits (motives, personality)
Characteristics of the Situation
 Type of organizational unit
 Values, integrity, and moral development  Size of organizational unit
 Confidence and optimism  Position power and authority of leader
 Skills and expertise  Task structure and complexity
 Leadership Behavior  Organizational culture
 Influence tactics  Environmental uncertainty and change
 Attributions about followers  External dependencies and constraints
 Affect (e.g., emotions and moods) and affective  National cultural values
displays  Temporal factors
 Mental models (beliefs and assumptions
Characteristics of the Followers
 Traits (needs, values, self-concepts)
 Confidence and optimism
 Skills and expertise
 Attributions about the leaders
 Affect (e.g., emotions and moods) and affective
displays
 Task commitment and effort
 Satisfaction with job and leader Figure: Causal Relationship Among the Primary
 Cooperation and mutual trust Types of Leadership Variables. Yukl, G. A., & Gardner, W.
L., 2020
Five Major Approaches to
Leadership
The Trait Approach – emphasizes attributes of leaders such as personality, motives, values and skills
Assumes some people are natural leaders who possesses certain traits others do not.
Much research was conducted however, no traits were discovered that would guarantee leadership success .

The Behavior Approach – focus on what managers do on the job. Behaviors are then measured to outcomes.
With time the focus grew to examine specific types of leader behaviors ( task-oriented, etc.).

The Power-Influence Approach – seeks to explain leadership effectiveness in terms of the amount and type of
power possessed by the leader and how power is exercised. Note that the power to influence radiates beyond
subordinates.

The Situational Approach – emphasizes the importance of contextual factors that influence leader behavior and
how it influences outcomes such as subordinate satisfaction and performance (e.g., nature of the work, type of
organization, nature of the external environment). Looking at aspects of the situation in relationship to traits,
skills, or behaviors and the likelihood of leadership effectiveness.

The Values-Based Approach – Highlight the importance of deeply held leader values that appeal to and influence
followers. (theories that flow from this approach: ethical leadership, authentic leadership, servant leadership, spiritual
leadership).
Note: Some leadership approaches emphasize leader and follower values as well as leader behavior (e.g.,
charismatic and transformational leadership).
Levels of Conceptualization of Leadership Theories

Describing Leaders on levels based on

o Primary Research Question
o Type of Criterion variables used to evaluate leadership effectiveness
o Type of mediating processes used toe explain leadership influence.

Figure Four Levels of

Conceptualization for Leadership Processes
Research Questions at Different Levels of
Conceptualization

Intra-Individual Theories Group-Level Theories

 How leader traits and values influence leadership behavior  How different leader-member relations affect each other and
 How leader skills are related to leader behavior team performance
 How leaders make decisions  How leadership is shared in the group or team
 How leaders manage their time  How leaders organize and coordinate the activities of team
 How leaders are influenced by role expectations and members
constraints  How leaders influence cooperation and resole disagreements in
 How leaders react to feedback and learn from experience the team or unit
 How leaders experience and display affect (e.g., emotions  How leaders influence collective efficacy and optimism for the
and moods) team or unit
 How leaders form leadership identities  How leaders influence collective learning and innovation in the
 How leaders can use self-development techniques team or unit
 How leaders influence collective identification of members with
Dyadic Theories the team or unit
 How leaders influence the share mental models of team members
 How a leader influences subordinate motivation and task
 How unit leaders obtain resources and support from the
commitment
 organization and other units
How a leader facilitates the work of a subordinate
 Organizational-Level Theories
How a leader interprets information about a subordinate
 How a leader develops a subordinate’s skills and confidence  How top executives influence members at other levels
 How a leader influences subordinate loyalty an trust  How leaders are selected at each level (and implications of
 How a leader uses influence tactics with a subordinate, peer, process for the firm)
or boss  How leaders influence organizational culture
 Ho a leader and subordinate influence each other  How leaders influence the efficiency and the cost of internal
 How a leader develops a cooperative exchange relationship operations
with a subordinate  How leaders influence human relations and human capital in the
 How a leader influences a follower to identify with the leader organization
 Ho w leaders make decisions about competitive strategy and
external initiatives
 How conflicts among leaders are resolved in an organization
 How leaders influence innovation and major change in an
Other Theories
• Multilevel Theories – include constructs from more than one level of explanation
• Leader-Centered or Follower-Centered Theory – depends on where the focus is placed on the leader
or the follower

• Descriptive or Prescriptive Theory - Descriptive theories explain leadership processes, describe the
typical activities of leaders, and explain why certain behaviors occur in particular situations. Prescriptive
theories specify what leaders must do to become effective, and they identify any necessary conditions for using
a particular type of behavior effectively.

• Universal or Contingency Theory - describes some aspect of leadership that applies to all types
of situations, and the theory can be either descriptive or prescriptive.

 Most researchers evaluate leadership effectiveness in terms of the consequences for followers and
other organization stakeholders, but the choice of outcome variables has differed considerably
from researcher to researcher.
 Criteria differ in many important respects, including how immediate they are, and whether they
have subjective or objective measures.
 When evaluating leadership effectiveness, multiple criteria should be considered to deal with
these complexities and the different preferences of various stakeholders
How we will proceed
• Calendar Alterations

• Assignment Edits

• Zoom Participation and In-Class Participation

Final Thoughts on Leadership

 Homework
Week discussion post (due dates:
Thursday and Sunday)
“You are never
Read Chapter 2 for next class:
too young to
lead and never Leadership Behavior
too old to Review syllabus and submit any
learn.” questions you may have to
- Kofi Anan Professor A.
Mark your calendars for due dates
and in-class meetings
THANK YOU
Welcome the Leader in you!