Network layer control plane: our

goals
 understand principles  instantiation, implementation
behind network control in the Internet:
plane: • OSPF, BGP
• traditional routing algorithms • OpenFlow, ODL and ONOS
• SDN controllers controllers
• network management, • Internet Control Message
configuration Protocol: ICMP
• SNMP

Network Layer: 5-1

 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap

 introduction
 routing protocols
 link state
 distance vector
 intra-ISP routing: OSPF
 routing among ISPs: BGP
 network management,
 SDN control plane
configuration
 Internet Control Message • SNMP
Protocol • NETCONF/YANG

Network Layer: 5-2

Network-layer functions
 forwarding: move packets from router’s
input to appropriate router output data plane
 routing: determine route taken by
packets from source to destination
control plane

Two approaches to structuring network control plane:

 per-router control (traditional)
 logically centralized control (software defined networking)

Network Layer: 5-3

Per-router control plane
Individual routing algorithm components in each and every
router interact in the control plane

Routing
Algorithm
control
plane

data
plane

values in arriving
packet header
0111 1
2
3

Network Layer: 5-4

Software-Defined Networking (SDN) control plane
Remote controller computes, installs forwarding tables in routers

Remote Controller

control
plane

data
plane

CA
CA CA CA CA
values in arriving
packet header

0111 1
2
3

Network Layer: 5-5

 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap

 introduction
 routing protocols
 link state
 distance vector
 intra-ISP routing: OSPF
 routing among ISPs: BGP  network management,
 SDN control plane configuration
 Internet Control Message • SNMP
Protocol • NETCONF/YANG

Network Layer: 5-6

Routing protocols mobile network
national or global ISP
Routing protocol goal: determine “good”
paths (equivalently, routes), from sending
hosts to receiving host, through network
application
transport
network
of routers link
physical
network

 path: sequence of routers packets

network
link link
physical physical

traverse from given initial source host to network

final destination host link

physical
network
link
physical network

 “good”: least “cost”, “fastest”, “least

link datacenter
physical network

congested” application

 routing: a “top-10” networking

transport
network
enterprise link

challenge! network physical

Network Layer: 5-7

Graph abstraction:
link costs
5
ca,b: cost of direct link connecting a and b
3
v w 5 e.g., cw,z = 5, cu,z = ∞
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 cost defined by network operator:
2
x 1
y could always be 1, or inversely related
to bandwidth, or inversely related to
congestion
graph: G = (N,E)
N: set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }
E: set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

Network Layer: 5-8

 Routing algorithm
classification
global: all routers have complete
topology, link cost info
• “link state” algorithms
How fast
dynamic: routes change
do routes static: routes change more quickly
change? slowly over time • periodic updates or in
response to link cost
changes
decentralized: iterative process of
computation, exchange of info with neighbors
• routers initially only know link costs to
attached neighbors
• “distance vector” algorithms
global or decentralized information? Network Layer: 5-9
 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap

 introduction
 routing protocols
 link state
 distance vector
 intra-ISP routing: OSPF
 routing among ISPs: BGP  network management,
 SDN control plane configuration
 Internet Control Message • SNMP
Protocol • NETCONF/YANG

Network Layer: 5-10

Dijkstra’s link-state routing algorithm
 centralized: network topology, link notation
costs known to all nodes
 cx,y: direct link cost from node
• accomplished via “link state
broadcast” x to y; = ∞ if not direct
neighbors
• all nodes have same info
 D(v): current estimate of cost
 computes least cost paths from one of least-cost-path from source
node (“source”) to all other nodes to destination v
• gives forwarding table for that node  p(v): predecessor node along
 iterative: after k iterations, know path from source to v
 N': set of nodes whose least-
least cost path to k destinations cost-path definitively known

Network Layer: 5-11

Dijkstra’s link-state routing algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u} /* compute least cost path from u to all other nodes */
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to u /* u initially knows direct-path-cost only to direct neighbors */
5 then D(v) = cu,v /* but may not be minimum cost! */
6 else D(v) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12 D(v) = min ( D(v), D(w) + cw,v )
13 /* new least-path-cost to v is either old least-cost-path to v or known
14 least-cost-path to w plus direct-cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'
Network Layer: 5-12
Dijkstra’s algorithm: an example
v w x y z
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz
Initialization (step 0): For all a: if a adjacent to then D(a) = cu,a
5
3 find a not in N' such that D(a) is a minimum
v w 5 add a to N'
2
u 2 1 z update D(b) for all b adjacent to a and not in N' :
3 D(b) = min ( D(b), D(a) + ca,b )
1 2
x 1
y

Network Layer: 5-13

 Dijkstra’s algorithm: an example
5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

resulting least-cost-path tree from u: resulting forwarding table in u:

destination outgoing link
v w
v (u,v) route from u to v directly
u z x (u,x)
y (u,x) route from u to all
x y w (u,x) other destinations
x (u,x) via x
Network Layer: 5-14
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: another example
v w x y z
D(v), D(w), D(x), D(y), D(z), x
9
Step N' p(v) p(w) p(x) p(y) p(z)

0 u 7,u 3,u 5,u ∞ ∞ 5 7

4
1 uw 6,w 5,u 11,w ∞ 8
2 uwx 6,w 11,w 14,x 3 w z
u y
2
3 uwxv 10,v 14,x
3
4 uwxvy 12,y 7 4

5 uwxvyz v

notes:
 construct least-cost-path tree by tracing predecessor nodes
 ties can exist (can be broken arbitrarily)
Network Layer: 5-15
Dijkstra’s algorithm: discussion
algorithm complexity: n nodes
 each of n iteration: need to check all nodes, w, not in N
 n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2) complexity
 more efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn)
message complexity:
 each router must broadcast its link state information to other n routers
 efficient (and interesting!) broadcast algorithms: O(n) link crossings to disseminate a
broadcast message from one source
 each router’s message crosses O(n) links: overall message complexity: O(n2)

Network Layer: 5-16

 Dijkstra’s algorithm: oscillations possible
 when link costs depend on traffic volume, route oscillations possible
 sample scenario:
• routing to destination a, traffic entering at d, c, e with rates 1, e (<1), 1
• link costs are directional, and volume-dependent

a 2+e
a 0
a 2+e a
1 1+e 0 2+e 0
d b d 1+e 1 b d 0 0 b d 1+e 1 b
0 0
e 1 0 1
1 0
c 0 1 1
c 1+e 1 1 0 0 1
c 1 c
e e e
e
given these costs, given these costs, given these costs,
initially find new routing…. find new routing…. find new routing….
resulting in new costs resulting in new costs resulting in new costs

Network Layer: 5-17

 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap

 introduction
 routing protocols
 link state
 distance vector
 intra-ISP routing: OSPF
 routing among ISPs: BGP  network management,
 SDN control plane configuration
 Internet Control Message • SNMP
Protocol • NETCONF/YANG

Network Layer: 5-18

Distance vector algorithm
Based on Bellman-Ford (BF) equation (dynamic programming):
Bellman-Ford equation

Let Dx(y): cost of least-cost path from x to y.

Then:
Dx(y) = minv { cx,v + Dv(y) }

v’s estimated least-cost-path cost to y

min taken over all neighbors v of x direct cost of link from x to v
Network Layer: 5-19
Bellman-Ford Example
Suppose that u’s neighboring nodes, x,v,w, know that for destination z:
Dv(z) = 5 Dw(z) = 3 Bellman-Ford equation says:
5
Du(z) = min { cu,v + Dv(z),
3 w
v 5 cu,x + Dx(z),
2
u 2 1 z cu,w + Dw(z) }
3
1 2
= min {2 + 5,
x 1
y 1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
Dx(z) = 3
node achieving minimum (x) is
next hop on estimated least-
cost path to destination (z)
Network Layer: 5-20
Distance vector algorithm
key idea:
 from time-to-time, each node sends its own distance vector estimate
to neighbors
 when x receives new DV estimate from any neighbor, it updates its
own DV using B-F equation:
Dx(y) ← minv{cx,v + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N

 under minor, natural conditions, the estimate Dx(y) converge to the

actual least cost dx(y)

Network Layer: 5-21

Distance vector algorithm:
each node: iterative, asynchronous: each local
iteration caused by:
 local link cost change
wait for (change in local link
cost or msg from neighbor)  DV update message from neighbor

distributed, self-stopping: each

recompute DV estimates using node notifies neighbors only when
DV received from neighbor its DV changes
 neighbors then notify their
if DV to any destination has neighbors – only if necessary
changed, notify neighbors  no notification received, no
actions taken!

Network Layer: 5-22

 Distance vector: example
DV in a:
Da(a)=0
Da(b) = 8
Da(c) = ∞ a b c
8 1
Da(d) = 1

t=0 Da(e) = ∞
Da(f) = ∞ 1 1
Da(g) = ∞
 All nodes have
Da(h) = ∞
distance estimates
Da(i) = ∞ A few asymmetries:
to nearest d e f  missing link
neighbors (only) 1 1
 larger cost
 All nodes send
their local
distance vector to 1 1 1
their neighbors

g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-23

 Distance vector example:
iteration
a b c
8 1

t=1 1 1
All nodes:
 receive distance
vectors from
neighbors d e f
 compute their new 1 1
local distance
vector
 send their new
1 1 1
local distance
vector to neighbors

g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-24

 Distance vector example:
iteration
a
compute compute
b compute
c
8 1

t=1 1 1
All nodes:
 receive distance
vectors from
neighbors d
compute compute
e compute
f
 compute their new 1 1
local distance
vector
 send their new
1 1 1
local distance
vector to neighbors

g
compute h
compute compute
i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-25

 Distance vector example:
iteration
a b c
8 1

t=1 1 1
All nodes:
 receive distance
vectors from
neighbors d e f
 compute their new 1 1
local distance
vector
 send their new
1 1 1
local distance
vector to neighbors

g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-26

 Distance vector example:
iteration
a b c
8 1

t=2 1 1
All nodes:
 receive distance
vectors from
neighbors d e f
 compute their new 1 1
local distance
vector
 send their new
1 1 1
local distance
vector to neighbors

g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-27

 Distance vector example:
iteration
compute
a compute
b compute
c
2 1

t=2 1 1
All nodes:
 receive distance
vectors from
neighbors d
compute compute
e compute
f
 compute their new 1 1
local distance
vector
 send their new
1 1 1
local distance
vector to neighbors

g
compute compute
h compute
i
8 1

Network Layer: 5-28

 Distance vector example:
iteration
a b c
8 1

t=2 1 1
All nodes:
 receive distance
vectors from
neighbors d e f
 compute their new 1 1
local distance
vector
 send their new
1 1 1
local distance
vector to neighbors

g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-29

Distance vector example:
iteration

…. and so on

Let’s next take a look at the iterative computations at nodes

Network Layer: 5-30

 Distance vector example:
DV in b: DV in c:

computation
Dc(a) = ∞
Db(a) = 8 Db(f) = ∞
Db(c) = 1 Db(g) = ∞ Dc(b) = 1
DV in a: Db(d) = ∞ Db(h) = ∞ Dc(c) = 0
Da(a)=0 Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞ Dc(d) = ∞
Da(b) = 8 Dc(e) = ∞
Da(c) = ∞ a b c Dc(f) = ∞
8 1
Da(d) = 1 Dc(g) = ∞

t=1 Da(e) = ∞
Da(f) = ∞ 1 1
Dc(h) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞
 b receives DVs Da(g) = ∞ DV in e:
from a, c, e Da(h) = ∞ De(a) = ∞
Da(i) = ∞ De(b) = 1
d e f De(c) = ∞
1 1
De(d) = 1
De(e) = 0
De(f) = 1
1 1 1
De(g) = ∞
De(h) = 1
De(i) = ∞
g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-31

 Distance vector example:
DV in b: DV in c:

computation
Dc(a) = ∞
Db(a) = 8 Db(f) = ∞
Db(c) = 1 Db(g) = ∞ Dc(b) = 1
DV in a: Db(d) = ∞ Db(h) = ∞ Dc(c) = 0
Da(a)=0 Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞ Dc(d) = ∞
Da(b) = 8 Dc(e) = ∞
Da(c) = ∞ a b c Dc(f) = ∞
8 compute 1
Da(d) = 1 Dc(g) = ∞

t=1 Da(e) = ∞
Da(f) = ∞ 1 1
Dc(h) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞
 b receives DVs Da(g) = ∞ DV in e:
from a, c, e, Da(h) = ∞ De(a) = ∞
computes: e
Da(i) = ∞ De(b) = 1
d e f De(c) = ∞
1
Db(a) = min{cb,a+Da(a), cb,c +Dc(a), cb,e+De(a)} = min{8,∞,∞} =8 1
De(d) = 1
Db(c) = min{cb,a+Da(c), cb,c +Dc(c), c b,e +De(c)} = min{∞,1,∞} = 1
De(e) = 0
Db(d) = min{cb,a+Da(d), cb,c +Dc(d), c b,e +De(d)} = min{9,∞,2} = 2 De(f) = 1
1 1 1
Db(e) = min{cb,a+Da(e), cb,c +Dc(e), c b,e +De(e)} = min{∞,∞,1} = 1 De(g) = ∞
Db(f) = min{cb,a+Da(f), cb,c +Dc(f), c b,e +De(f)} = min{∞,∞,2} = 2
DV in b: De(h) = 1
Db(g) = min{cb,a+Da(g), cb,c +Dc(g), c b,e+De(g)} = min{∞, ∞, ∞} = ∞ Db(a) = 8 Db(f) =2 De(i) = ∞
g h 1Db(c) = 1 Db(g)i = ∞
1 ∞, 2} = 2
Db(h) = min{cb,a+Da(h), cb,c +Dc(h), c b,e+De(h)} = min{∞,
Db(d) = 2 Db(h) = 2
Db(i) = min{cb,a+Da(i), cb,c +Dc(i), c b,e+De(i)} = min{∞, ∞, ∞} = ∞ Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞
Network Layer: 5-32
 Distance vector example:
DV in b: DV in c:

computation
Dc(a) = ∞
Db(a) = 8 Db(f) = ∞
Db(c) = 1 Db(g) = ∞ Dc(b) = 1
DV in a: Db(d) = ∞ Db(h) = ∞ Dc(c) = 0
Da(a)=0 Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞ Dc(d) = ∞
Da(b) = 8 Dc(e) = ∞
Da(c) = ∞ a b c Dc(f) = ∞
8 1
Da(d) = 1 Dc(g) = ∞

t=1 Da(e) = ∞
Da(f) = ∞ 1 1
Dc(h) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞
 c receives DVs Da(g) = ∞ DV in e:
from b Da(h) = ∞ De(a) = ∞
Da(i) = ∞ De(b) = 1
d e f De(c) = ∞
1 1
De(d) = 1
De(e) = 0
De(f) = 1
1 1 1
De(g) = ∞
De(h) = 1
De(i) = ∞
g h i
1 1

Network Layer: 5-33

 Distance vector example:
DV in b: DV in c:

computation
Dc(a) = ∞
Db(a) = 8 Db(f) = ∞
Db(c) = 1 Db(g) = ∞ Dc(b) = 1
Db(d) = ∞ Db(h) = ∞ Dc(c) = 0
Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞ Dc(d) = ∞
Dc(e) = ∞
a b c
compute Dc(f) = ∞
8 1
Dc(g) = ∞

t=1 1 1
Dc(h) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞
 c receives DVs
from b computes:

d b(a}} = 1 + 8 = 9
Dc(a) = min{cc,b+D e f
DV in c:
Dc(b) = min{cc,b+Db(b)} = 1 + 0 = 1
Dc(a) = 9
Dc(d) = min{cc,b+Db(d)} = 1+ ∞ = ∞ Dc(b) = 1
Dc(e) = min{cc,b+Db(e)} = 1 + 1 = 2 Dc(c) = 0
Dc(f) = min{cc,b+Db(f)} = 1+ ∞ = ∞ Dc(d) = 2
Dc(g) = min{cc,b+Db(g)} = 1+ ∞ = ∞ Dc(e) = ∞ * Check out the online interactive
Dc(f) = ∞ exercises for more examples:
g b(h)} = 1+ ∞ = ∞
Dc(h) = min{cbc,b+D h i http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive/
Dc(g) = ∞
Dc(i) = min{cc,b+Db(i)} = 1+ ∞ = ∞
Dc(h) = ∞
Network Layer: 5-34
Dc(i) = ∞
 Distance vector example:
DV in b:

computation Db(a) = 8
Db(c) = 1
Db(f) = ∞
Db(g) = ∞
DV in e:
Db(d) = ∞ Db(h) = ∞
DV in d:
Db(e) = 1 Db(i) = ∞ De(a) = ∞
Dc(a) = 1
De(b) = 1
Dc(b) = ∞ a b c De(c) = ∞
Dc(c) = ∞ 8 1
De(d) = 1
Dc(d) = 0
t=1 Dc(e) = 1
1
Q: what is new DV computed in e at
1t=1?
De(e) = 0
De(f) = 1
 e receives DVs Dc(f) = ∞
De(g) = ∞
from b, d, f, h Dc(g) = 1
De(h) = 1
Dc(h) = ∞
De(i) = ∞
Dc(i) = ∞ d compute
e f DV in f:
1 1
DV in h: Dc(a) = ∞
Dc(a) = ∞ Dc(b) = ∞
Dc(b) = ∞ Dc(c) = ∞
Dc(c) = ∞ 1 1 1
Dc(d) = ∞
Dc(d) = ∞ Dc(e) = 1
Dc(e) = 1 Dc(f) = 0
Dc(f) = ∞ g h i Dc(g) = ∞
1 1
Dc(g) = 1 Dc(h) = ∞
Dc(h) = 0 Dc(i) = 1 Network Layer: 5-35
Distance vector: state
information diffusion
Iterative communication, computation steps diffuses information through network:
t=0 c’s state at t=0 is at c only
a b c
8 1
c’s state at t=0 has propagated to b, and
t=1 may influence distance vector computations
up to 1 hop away, i.e., at b 1 1 t=1
t=2
c’s state at t=0 may now influence distance
t=2 vector computations up to 2 hops away, i.e.,
d e f
at b and now at a, e as well 1 1
c’s state at t=0 may influence distance vector
t=3 computations up to 3 hops away, i.e., at b,a,e
1 1 1 t=3
and now at c,f,h as well
c’s state at t=0 may influence distance vector
t=4 computations up to 4 hops away, i.e., at b,a,e, g h i
c, f, h and now at g,i as well 1 1
t=4
 Distance vector: link cost
changes
link cost changes: 1
y
4 1
 node detects local link cost change
x z
 updates routing info, recalculates local DV 50

 if DV changes, notify neighbors

t0 : y detects link-cost change, updates its DV, informs its neighbors.

“good news t1 : z receives update from y, updates its table, computes new least
travels fast”
cost to x , sends its neighbors its DV.
t2 : y receives z’s update, updates its distance table. y’s least costs
do not change, so y does not send a message to z.

Network Layer: 5-37

Distance vector: link cost
changes
link cost changes: 60
y
4 1
 node detects local link cost change
x z
 “bad news travels slow” – count-to-infinity problem: 50

• y sees direct link to x has new cost 60, but z has said it has a path at cost of 5. So
y computes “my new cost to x will be 6, via z); notifies z of new cost of 6 to x.
• z learns that path to x via y has new cost 6, so z computes “my new cost to
x will be 7 via y), notifies y of new cost of 7 to x.
• y learns that path to x via z has new cost 7, so y computes “my new cost to
x will be 8 via y), notifies z of new cost of 8 to x.
• z learns that path to x via y has new cost 8, so z computes “my new cost to
x will be 9 via y), notifies y of new cost of 9 to x.
…
 see text for solutions. Distributed algorithms are tricky!
Network Layer: 5-38
Comparison of LS and DV
algorithms
message complexity robustness: what happens if router
LS: n routers, O(n2) messages sent malfunctions, or is compromised?
DV: exchange between neighbors; LS:
convergence time varies • router can advertise incorrect link cost
• each router computes only its own
speed of convergence table
LS: O(n2) algorithm, O(n2) messages DV:
• may have oscillations
• DV router can advertise incorrect path
DV: convergence time varies cost (“I have a really low cost path to
• may have routing loops everywhere”): black-holing
• count-to-infinity problem
• each router’s table used by others:
error propagate thru network

Network Layer: 5-39

 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap

 introduction
 routing protocols
 intra-ISP routing: OSPF
 routing among ISPs: BGP
 SDN control plane
 Internet Control Message  network management,
Protocol configuration
• SNMP
• NETCONF/YANG

Network Layer: 5-40

Making routing scalable
our routing study thus far - idealized
 all routers identical
 network “flat”
… not true in practice
scale: billions of destinations: administrative autonomy:
 can’t store all destinations in  Internet: a network of networks
routing tables!  each network admin may want to
 routing table exchange would control routing in its own network
swamp links!

Network Layer: 5-41

Internet approach to scalable routing
aggregate routers into regions known as “autonomous
systems” (AS) (a.k.a. “domains”)

intra-AS (aka “intra-domain”): inter-AS (aka “inter-domain”):

routing among within same AS routing among AS’es
(“network”)  gateways perform inter-domain
 all routers in AS must run same intra- routing (as well as intra-domain
domain protocol routing)
 routers in different AS can run different
intra-domain routing protocols
 gateway router: at “edge” of its own AS,
has link(s) to router(s) in other AS’es
Network Layer: 5-42
Interconnected ASes
forwarding table configured by intra-
and inter-AS routing algorithms
Intra-AS
Routing
Inter-AS
Routing  intra-AS routing determine entries for
forwarding destinations within AS
table
 inter-AS & intra-AS determine entries
for external destinations

intra-AS
3c
routing3a inter-AS routing intra-AS
2c
3b 2a routing
2b
1c
AS3 intra-AS
1a routing 1b AS2
1d
AS1

Network Layer: 5-43

 Inter-AS routing: a role in intradomain forwarding
 suppose router in AS1 receives AS1 inter-domain routing must:
datagram destined outside of AS1: 1. learn which destinations reachable
• router should forward packet to through AS2, which through AS3
gateway router in AS1, but which 2. propagate this reachability info to all
one? routers in AS1

3c
3a other
2c
3b 2a networks
2b
1c
AS3
other 1a 1b AS2
networks
1d
AS1

Network Layer: 5-44

Intra-AS routing: routing within an AS
most common intra-AS routing protocols:
 RIP: Routing Information Protocol [RFC 1723]
• classic DV: DVs exchanged every 30 secs
• no longer widely used
 EIGRP: Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
• DV based
• formerly Cisco-proprietary for decades (became open in 2013 [RFC 7868])
 OSPF: Open Shortest Path First [RFC 2328]
• link-state routing

Network Layer: 5-45

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
routing
 “open”: publicly available
 classic link-state
• each router floods OSPF link-state advertisements (directly over IP
rather than using TCP/UDP) to all other routers in entire AS
• multiple link costs metrics possible: bandwidth, delay
• each router has full topology, uses Dijkstra’s algorithm to compute
forwarding table

Network Layer: 5-46

 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap

 introduction
 routing protocols
 intra-ISP routing: OSPF
 routing among ISPs: BGP
 SDN control plane
 Internet Control Message  network management,
Protocol configuration
• SNMP
• NETCONF/YANG

Network Layer: 5-47

Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de facto inter-domain routing
protocol
• “glue that holds the Internet together”
 allows subnet to advertise its existence, and the destinations it can
reach, to rest of Internet: “I am here, here is who I can reach, and how”
 BGP provides each AS a means to:
• eBGP: obtain subnet reachability information from neighboring ASes
• iBGP: propagate reachability information to all AS-internal routers.
• determine “good” routes to other networks based on reachability information
and policy

Network Layer: 5-48

eBGP, iBGP connections
2b

2a 2c
∂
1b 3b
2d
1a 1c ∂
3a 3c
AS 2
1d 3d

AS 1 eBGP connectivity AS 3
logical iBGP connectivity

1c gateway routers run both eBGP and iBGP protocols

Network Layer: 5-49

BGP basics
 BGP session: two BGP routers (“peers”) exchange BGP messages over
semi-permanent TCP connection:
• advertising paths to different destination network prefixes (BGP is a “path
vector” protocol)
 when AS3 gateway 3a advertises path AS3,X to AS2 gateway 2c:
• AS3 promises to AS2 it will forward datagrams towards X
AS 3 3b
AS 1 1b 3a 3c
1a 1c AS 2 3d
2b
1d BGP advertisement:
2a 2c X
AS3, X
2d
Network Layer: 5-50
Path attributes and BGP routes
 BGP advertised route: prefix + attributes
• prefix: destination being advertised
• two important attributes:
• AS-PATH: list of ASes through which prefix advertisement has passed
• NEXT-HOP: indicates specific internal-AS router to next-hop AS
 policy-based routing:
• gateway receiving route advertisement uses import policy to
accept/decline path (e.g., never route through AS Y).
• AS policy also determines whether to advertise path to other other
neighboring ASes

Network Layer: 5-51

BGP path advertisement
AS 3 3b
AS 1 1b 3a 3c
1a 1c AS 2 3d X
2b
1d AS3, X
AS2,AS3,X 2a 2c

2d

 AS2 router 2c receives path advertisement AS3,X (via eBGP) from AS3 router 3a
 based on AS2 policy, AS2 router 2c accepts path AS3,X, propagates (via iBGP) to all
AS2 routers
 based on AS2 policy, AS2 router 2a advertises (via eBGP) path AS2, AS3, X to
AS1 router 1c
Network Layer: 5-52
BGP path advertisement (more)
AS 3 3b
AS 1 1b AS3,X 3a 3c
AS3,X
AS3,X
1a 1c AS 2 3d X
2b
AS3,X
1d AS3, X
AS2,AS3,X 2a 2c

2d

gateway router may learn about multiple paths to destination:

 AS1 gateway router 1c learns path AS2,AS3,X from 2a
 AS1 gateway router 1c learns path AS3,X from 3a
 based on policy, AS1 gateway router 1c chooses path AS3,X and advertises path
within AS1 via iBGP
Network Layer: 5-53
 BGP path advertisement
AS 3 3b
AS 1 1b AS3,X 3a 3c
AS3,X
1
AS3,X
1a 1c AS 2 3d X
2 2b
local link AS3,X
2 1
interfaces 1d AS3, X
at 1a, 1d AS2,AS3,X 2a 2c

2d

dest interface  recall: 1a, 1b, 1d learn via iBGP from 1c: “path to X goes through 1c”
… …
1c 1
 at 1d: OSPF intra-domain routing: to get to 1c, use interface 1
X 1  at 1d: to get to X, use interface 1
… …

Network Layer: 5-54

 BGP path advertisement
AS 3 3b
AS 1 1b 3a 3c
1
1a 1c AS 2 3d X
2 2b
1d
2a 2c

2d

dest interface
… …  recall: 1a, 1b, 1d learn via iBGP from 1c: “path to X goes through 1c”
1c 2  at 1d: OSPF intra-domain routing: to get to 1c, use interface 1
X 2
… …  at 1d: to get to X, use interface 1
 at 1a: OSPF intra-domain routing: to get to 1c, use interface 2
 at 1a: to get to X, use interface 2
Network Layer: 5-55
Why different Intra-, Inter-AS routing ?
policy:
 inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic routed, who
routes through its network
 intra-AS: single admin, so policy less of an issue
scale:
 hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced update traffic
performance:
 intra-AS: can focus on performance
 inter-AS: policy dominates over performance

Network Layer: 5-56

Hot potato routing
AS 3 3b
AS 1 1b 3a 3c
1a 1c AS 2 3d X
2b 112
1d AS1,AS3,X AS3,X
2a 2c
201 263

2d
OSPF link weights

 2d learns (via iBGP) it can route to X via 2a or 2c

 hot potato routing: choose local gateway that has least intra-domain
cost (e.g., 2d chooses 2a, even though more AS hops to X): don’t worry
about inter-domain cost!
Network Layer: 5-57
BGP route selection
 router may learn about more than one route to destination
AS, selects route based on:
1. local preference value attribute: policy decision
2. shortest AS-PATH
3. closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato routing
4. additional criteria

Network Layer: 5-58

 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap

 introduction
 routing protocols
 intra-ISP routing: OSPF
 routing among ISPs: BGP
 SDN control plane
 Internet Control Message  network management,
Protocol configuration
• SNMP
• NETCONF/YANG

Network Layer: 5-59

ICMP: internet control message protocol
 used by hosts and routers to
Type Code description
communicate network-level 0 0 echo reply (ping)
information 3 0 dest. network unreachable
3 1 dest host unreachable
• error reporting: unreachable host, 3 2 dest protocol unreachable
network, port, protocol 3 3 dest port unreachable
• echo request/reply (used by ping) 3 6 dest network unknown
3 7 dest host unknown
 network-layer “above” IP: 4 0 source quench (congestion
• ICMP messages carried in IP control - not used)
8 0 echo request (ping)
datagrams 9 0 route advertisement
 ICMP message: type, code plus first 10 0 router discovery
11 0 TTL expired
8 bytes of IP datagram causing 12 0 bad IP header
error
Network Layer: 4-60
Traceroute and ICMP
3 probes 3 probes

3 probes

 source sends sets of UDP segments to

stopping criteria:
destination  UDP segment eventually
• 1st set has TTL =1, 2nd set has TTL=2, etc. arrives at destination host
 datagram in nth set arrives to nth router:  destination returns ICMP
• router discards datagram and sends source “port unreachable”
ICMP message (type 11, code 0) message (type 3, code 3)
 source stops
• ICMP message possibly includes name of
router & IP address
 when ICMP message arrives at source: record RTTs
Network Layer: 4-61
Network layer: Summary
we’ve learned a lot!
 approaches to network control plane
• per-router control (traditional)
• logically centralized control (software defined networking)
 traditional routing algorithms
• implementation in Internet: OSPF , BGP
 SDN controllers
• implementation in practice: ODL, ONOS
 Internet Control Message Protocol
 network management
next stop: link layer!
Network Layer: 5-62
Network layer, control plane: Done!
 introduction
 routing protocols
 link state
 distance vector
 intra-ISP routing: OSPF
 routing among ISPs: BGP
 network management,
 SDN control plane configuration
 Internet Control Message • SNMP
Protocol • NETCONF/YANG

Network Layer: 5-63

Additional Chapter 5 slides

Network Layer: 5-64

Distance vector: another example
cost to cost to
Dx() x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1 Dx(z) = min{cx,y+ Dy(z), cx,z+ Dz(z)}

z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
cost to y
Dy() x y z
Dx(y) = min{cx,y + Dy(y), cx,z+ Dz(y)}
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ = min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2
x z
7
from

y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞

cost to
Dz() x y z
x ∞∞ ∞
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0
time Network Layer: 5-65
Distance vector: another example
cost to cost to cost to
Dx() x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1

from
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0

cost to cost to cost to y

Dy() x y z x y z x y z 2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
x z
7
from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from
y 2 0 1

from
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0

cost to cost to cost to

Dz() x y z x y z x y z

x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

from
y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
time Network Layer: 5-66