Gas Engine Basics

Gas Engine Design

• Basic Engine Design
– Based on proven diesel engine
• Common Components
– Crankshaft
– Cylinder block
– Rods & bearings
– Covers & pumps
• Unique Gas Components
– Fuel systems
– Ignition systems
– Cylinder heads
– Pistons
– Valves
Diesel vs. Gas Engine

• Diesel engines use superheated air (heated by high

compression ratio) to ignite fuel
• Diesel engines can achieve higher power output than gas
engines of same size; thus diesel cylinder pressures are
higher than those in gas engines
• Diesel engine fuel injection equipment must produce high
injection pressure, meter fuel precisely, and inject fuel at
the correct timing
Gas vs. Diesel Engine

• Gas engines mix fuel and air before they enter the cylinder,
then ignite the mixture with an electric spark
• In-cylinder temperature, pressure, air-fuel ratio, and other
factors must be closely controlled to avoid detonation
• Gas engine components must tolerate high exhaust
temperatures (due to limited excess air during combustion)
• Gas engines require air-fuel mixing equipment
• Gas engines require spark ignition equipment
Gas & Diesel Compression Ratios

• Diesel – typical range 13.0:1 to 16.5:1

• Gas – typical range 8.0:1 to 12.0:1

– HCR
• Best fuel economy with natural gas
– LCR
• Improved tolerance to low quality fuel gas
Gas & Diesel Rating Limitations

• Diesel - limited by structural load

– Robust structure to support higher ratings and higher cylinder
pressures than equivalent displacement gas engine
• Gas - limited by thermal load and detonation
– High temperature capable components to withstand high exhaust
temperatures
– Controls for air-fuel ratio, inlet charge temperature, and ignition
timing to avoid detonation
Normal Combustion
• Spark ignites compressed fuel-air
mixture
• Burning from flame "kernel" develops
into flame front, expanding across
the combustion chamber
• Expansion of burning gases pushes
out ahead of the flame front,
compressing unburned "end gas"
while forcing piston downward in the
cylinder
Detonation
• One or more controlling parameters
exceed limits for normal operation:
– Cylinder pressure/temperature
– Ignition timing
– Load
– Air/fuel ratio
– Compression ratio
– Fuel characteristics
• End gas reaches critical temperature
before being ignited by flame front
• Secondary combustion causes rapid
local pressure/temperature rise
Consequences of Detonation

• These photos show the kind of damage that can result

from uncontrolled detonation in a gas engine
Causes of Detonation – Design

• Inlet conditions must be controlled by design

– Inlet temperature and pressure of the air-fuel mixture must be
controlled to limit peak temperature during combustion
– Specific turbo boost levels work with the design compression
ratio to limit inlet pressure level; exhaust wastegate aids in
controlling boost level
– Separate-circuit aftercooling (SCAC) is required to regulate inlet
temperature on turbocharged gas engines
Causes of Detonation – Site Set-up

• On-site set-up must be correct for the specific application

– Site rating capability must be determined based on site altitude
and expected maximum ambient temperature, and by the fuel
characteristics
– Ignition timing and air-fuel ratio must be set correctly to match the
requirements of the site fuel
– External cooling system must be capable of the full required heat
rejection under all site conditions
Fuel Fundamentals - Hydrocarbons
methane = CH4
• Chemical structure
– Natural gas is essentially composed of saturated H
I
hydrocarbons with the formula CnH2n+2 (also known H-C-H
I
as “alkanes” or “paraffins”) H
– The simplest molecule in the series is methane, ethane = C2H6
CH4 HH
– Additional members of the series are found by adding I I

a carbon atom with two additional hydrogen atoms H-C-C-H

I I
attached HH
– Shorthand notation is by number of carbon atoms,
propane = C3H8
methane = “C1”, ethane = “C2”, propane = “C3”
HHH
I I I
H-C-C-C-H
I I I
HHH
Fuel Fundamentals - Isomers
• Chemical structure n-butane = C4H10
– Larger members of the HHHH
series may be found in I I I I
different physical structures H-C-C-C-C-H
I I I I
called isomers. HHHH
– Straight chain isomers are
called “normal” or “n” i-butane = C4H10
– Branched isomers are HI HI HI
called “iso-” or “i”
H-C-C-C-H
– Multiple branches are I I I

possible HCH
I
HHH
Fuel Sampling
• Fuel sample can be used to determine
– heating value
– methane number
– fuel contaminants
• Fuel samples must be measured properly
– Chromatographs detect only gases, not liquids
– Liquids can damage the engine and must be removed
• Fuel samples must be current
– fuel composition may change over time
Typical Gas Chromatograph Analysis
Raw Gas Finished Gas
Component Mol.% Mol.%

N2 Nitrogen 5.29 5.84

CO2 Carbon Dioxide 6.39 6.81
C1 Methane 59.06 65.05
C2 Ethane 16.00 15.98
C3 Propane 9.37 5.68
iC4 i-Butane 0.67 0.19
nC4 n-Butane 1.95 0.39
iC5 i-Pentane 0.39 0.03
nC5 n-Pentane 0.48 0.02
C6 + Hexane (plus) 0.40 0.01
TOTAL 100.00 100.00

H2 S Hydrogen Sulfide 10 ppm

Heating Value, 60 F @ 15.02 psia. 1274 1114

BTU/Cu. Ft. (Dry)
BTU/Cu. Ft. (Saturated) 1150 1004

Specific Gravity 0.872 0.786

Methane Number 37.8 57.2

Methane Number
• Caterpillar Methane Number program
– Included in GERP program
• User inputs
– fuel chemistry from gas analysis
• Program outputs
– fuel heating values (LHV & HHV)
– Methane Number
– stoichiometric air/fuel ratio
– relative power ratio
Example Methane Number Output
Standard Condition of a Gas
• An established reference point for temperature and pressure
– Standard Conditions:
14.696 psia & 60°F (101.3 kPa & 15.6°C)
• scf = standard cubic feet
– Normal Conditions:
101.3 kPa & 0°C (14.696 psia & 32°F)
• Nm3 = normal cubic meters

• NOTE: These are standard notations in use by Caterpillar.

Please check the specific conditions referenced by your gas analysis
source to be certain they are not different.
Common Fuel Types
• Natural Gas • Propane (HD-5)
• methane • 95% propane
• ethane • Landfill & Digester Gas
• propane • methane (50-65%)
• butane • carbon dioxide
• pentane • nitrogen
• Field Gas • Pyrolysis of wood, rubber
• similar to natural gas
• carbon monoxide
• hot (many heavy HCs)
• hydrogen
• Associated Gas • methane
• many heavy HCs • nitrogen
• often with inerts (CO2, N2)
Natural Gas Sub-Types
• Field Gas – Gas in the original state as extracted from the well
(also called wellhead gas or "wet" gas)
• Associated Gas – Gas recovered from formations containing crude
oil. May originate dissolved in the oil or as a cap of free gas
above the oil. Typically saturated with heavy hydrocarbons,
often with significant amounts of CO2
• Dry Pipeline Gas – Processed well gas which has been stripped of
liquid hydrocarbons (butane, pentane, etc.)
• Sour Gas – Raw gas containing high concentrations of sulfur
compounds (typically H2S). Compounds are corrosive and can
cause engine damage. May require special engine configuration or
fuel treatment to lower sulfur level.
Stoichiometry

• The correct ratio of fuel and air for complete combustion

– Governed by the chemical reaction equation for combustion
– Depends on fuel being burned

Combustion equation for methane

CH4 + 2O2 = 2H2O + CO2

Combustion equation for propane

C3H8 + 5O2 = 4H2O + 3CO2
Heating Value of Gas
• The amount of energy released during the combustion of a fuel with
the correct amount of oxygen
– Higher Heat Value (HHV) = Total heat energy released
– Lower Heat Value (LHV) = Usable heat energy released
– Latent heat of vaporization = Heat energy consumed in changing water from a
liquid to a gas

water vapor

CH4 + 2O2 = 2H2O + CO2

Methane Number

• A measure of a gaseous fuel's resistance to uncontrolled

combustion (“detonation”)
– Empirical scale measuring unknown gases against two reference
gases (methane = 100, hydrogen = 0)
– Higher values indicate a lower tendency toward detonation
– Caterpillar Methane Number program values are used in the Fuel
Usage Guide for each gas engine rating to establish detonation
based derates and appropriate ignition timing
Other Site Rating Influences – Turbo

• Turbocharger can only boost pressure up to a certain ratio

(turbo pressure ratio = boost pressure / ambient pressure)
• When ambient air density drops too low the turbo can no
longer deliver enough combustion air and the engine must
derate
• Ambient air density varies with site altitude, prevailing
barometric pressure, and with ambient air temperature
• Use maximum expected ambient temperature to
adequate site rating under all site conditions
ensure
Other Site Rating Influences – SCAC

• The aftercooler must deliver air to the inlet manifold at a

specified temperature to achieve the designed margin
against the onset of detonation
• Any circumstances that limit aftercooler performance can
lead to high inlet manifold air temperatures, forcing a
derate to stay out of detonation
• When sizing the radiator, please use all appropriate
tolerances and fouling factors to ensure proper cooling
system performance under all conditions
Other Site Rating Influences – Exhaust

• The temperature of the exhaust gas exiting the cylinder

determines the temperature of the exhaust valves and
manifolds
• Exhaust temperature is affected by:
– fuel gas burn rate (a function of gas composition)
– air-fuel ratio (excess air cools combustion temperatures)
– ignition timing (later ignition results in late burning)
• CO2 in the fuel can slow the burn rate of some fuels,
resulting in higher exhaust valve temperatures
Transient Response Difference
• Diesel – direct fuel path for • Gas – longer fuel path adds
changes in load delay to load change
– Direct injection means fueling changes – Fuel-air pre-mixing means fueling changes
due to changes in load are immediate due to changes in load have a longer path
= excellent transient response to the cylinder = decreased transient
response
QUESTIONS?
Working Blank Slide
Extra Slides
The entire charge air system:
Compression Ratio
• Low Compression Ratio • High Compression Ratio
– Low Methane Number Gas – Best Fuel Efficiency
– Larger Methane Number Range – Use With High CO2 in Fuel
– Limited to Lower CO2 Content Due to High – Detonation Concerns When Heavy
Exhaust Temps Hydrocarbons Present

Low High
Bio Gas
Natural
Gas Field
Gas
Propan 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
e
Methane number
Rich burn vs Lean burn
Factors Influencing Detonation

• Ignition Timing TDC

– RISK: Too much spark 60

advance starts combustion 0
50
early, results in rapid pressure 0

CYLINDER PRESSURE
40
rise leading to detonation 0
30
– Controlled by: 0
20
• Application – proper timing 0
10
settings at installation should 0
0
be determined based on fuel
characteristics and load
0

8
2
6
0
4

14
20
26
35
60
-4
2
8
-4

-2
-2
-1
-1
-3

CRANK
ANGLE
Detonation

• Localized combustion occurs

away from flame front
• High pressure oscillations result,
producing sharp metallic noise
called “knock”
• High pressure / temperatures
detrimental to engine