Chapter 4

Network Layer

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Network Layer 4-1

Chapter 4: network layer
chapter goals:
❖ understand principles behind network
layer services:
▪ network layer service models
▪ forwarding versus routing
▪ how a router works
▪ routing (path selection)
▪ broadcast, multicast
❖ instantiation, implementation in the
Internet

Network Layer 4-2

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
▪ hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
▪ ▪ RIP
datagram format
▪ ▪ OSPF
IPv4 addressing
▪ ▪ BGP
ICMP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-3

Network layer
application
❖ transport segment transport
network

from sending to data link

physical
network
receiving host
network
data link data link
network physical
physical
data link
❖ on sending side physical network
data link
network
data link

encapsulates physical physical

segments into network

data link
network
data link
datagrams physical
network
data link
physical

❖ on receiving side, physical

application

delivers segments to network

data link
physical
network
transport
network

transport layer
network data link data link
data link physical physical
physical

❖ network layer
protocols in every
host, router
❖ router examines Network Layer 4-4
Two key network-layer
functions
❖ forwarding: move analogy:
packets from
router’s input to ❖ routing: process of
appropriate router planning trip from
output source to dest
❖ routing: determine ❖ forwarding: process
route taken by of getting through
packets from source single interchange
to dest.
▪ routing algorithms

Network Layer 4-5

Interplay between routing and
forwarding
routing algorithm routing algorithm determines
end-end-path through network

local forwarding forwarding table determines

table
header output link local forwarding at this router
value 010 3
0 2
010 2
1 1
0111
100
1
value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1

3 2

Network Layer 4-6

Connection setup
❖ 3rd important function in some network
architectures:
▪ ATM, frame relay, X.25
❖ before datagrams flow, two end hosts and
intervening routers establish virtual
connection
▪ routers get involved
❖ network vs transport layer connection
service:
▪ network: between two hosts (may also involve
intervening routers in case of VCs)
▪ transport: between two processes

Network Layer 4-7

Network service model
Q: What service model for “channel”
transporting datagrams from sender to
receiver?
example services example services
for individual for a flow of
datagrams: datagrams:
❖ guaranteed delivery ❖ in-order datagram
❖ guaranteed delivery delivery
with less than 40 ❖ guaranteed
msec delay minimum bandwidth
to flow
❖ restrictions on
changes in inter-
packet spacing
Network Layer 4-8
Network layer service
models:
Guarantees
Network Service Congestion
Architectur Model Bandwidth ?Los Orde Timing feedback
e s r
best effort none no no
Internet no no (inferred
CBR constant yes via loss)
ATM rate yes yes no
VBR guaranteed yes congestion
ATM rate yes yes no
ABR guaranteed no congestion
ATM minimum no yes yes
UBR none no
ATM no yes no

Network Layer 4-9

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
▪ hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
▪ ▪ RIP
datagram format
▪ ▪ OSPF
IPv4 addressing
▪ ▪ BGP
ICMP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-10

Connection, connection-less
service
❖ datagram network provides network-
layer connectionless service
❖ virtual-circuit network provides network-
layer connection service
❖ analogous to TCP/UDP connecton-
oriented / connectionless transport-
layer services, but:
▪ service: host-to-host
▪ no choice: network provides one or
the other
▪ implementation: in network core

Network Layer 4-11

Virtual circuits
“source-to-dest path behaves much like
telephone circuit”
▪ performance-wise
▪ network actions along source-to-dest path

❖ call setup, teardown for each call before data

can flow
❖ each packet carries VC identifier (not
destination host address)
❖ every router on source-dest path maintains
“state” for each passing connection
❖ link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers)
may be allocated to VC (dedicated resources
= predictable service)
Network Layer 4-12
VC implementation
a VC consists of:
1. path from source to destination
2. VC numbers, one number for each link
along path
3. entries in forwarding tables in routers
along path
❖ packet belonging to VC carries VC
number (rather than dest address)
❖ VC number can be changed on each
link.
▪ new VC number comes from forwarding
table

Network Layer 4-13

 VC forwarding table
12 22 32

1 3
2
VC number
interface
forwarding number
table in
northwest
Incoming interface
router: Incoming VC # Outgoing interface Outgoing VC #

1 12 3 22
2 63 1 18
3 7 2 17
1 97 3 87
… … …
…

VC routers maintain connection state

information! Network Layer 4-14
Virtual circuits: signaling
protocols
❖ used to setup, maintain
teardown VC
❖ used in ATM, frame-relay, X.25
❖ not used in today’s Internet

application application
5. data flow 6. receive
transport transport
network 4.begins
call 3.data
accept
connected
1. initiate call network
data link 2. incoming
call call
data link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-15

Datagram networks
❖ no call setup at network layer
❖ routers: no state about end-to-end
connections
▪ no network-level concept of “connection”
❖ packets forwarded using destination host
address
application application
transport transport
network 1. send datagrams 2. receive datagrams network
data link data link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-16

Datagram forwarding
table
4 billion IP
routing algorithm addresses, so rather
than list individual
local forwarding
destination address
table
dest address output list range of
address-range 3 link
addresses
1 2 (aggregate table
address-range
2
2
1
entries)
address-range
3
address-range
IPdestination address in4
arriving packet’s header
1
3 2

Network Layer 4-17

Datagram forwarding
table
Destination Address Range Link Interface

11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

through 0
11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000

through 1
11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000

through 2
11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111

otherwise 3

Q: but what happens if ranges don’t divide

up so nicely? Network Layer 4-18
Longest prefix matching
longest prefix
when looking for forwarding table entry
matching
for given destination address, use longest
address prefix that matches destination
address.
Destination Address Range Link interface
11001000 00010111 00010*** ********* 0
11001000 00010111 00011000 ********* 1
11001000 00010111 00011*** ********* 2
otherwise 3

examples
: DA: 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001 which
DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010 interface?
which
interface?
Network Layer 4-19
Datagram or VC network:
why?
Internet (datagram) ATM (VC)
❖ data exchange among ❖ evolved from
computers telephony
▪ “elastic” service, no ❖ human conversation:
strict timing req. ▪ strict timing, reliability
requirements
❖ many link types ▪ need for guaranteed
▪ different characteristics service
▪ uniform service difficult ❖ “dumb” end systems
❖ “smart” end systems ▪ telephones
▪ complexity inside
(computers) network
▪ can adapt, perform
control, error recovery
▪ simple inside
network, complexity
at “edge”

Network Layer 4-20

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
▪ hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
▪ ▪ RIP
datagram format
▪ ▪ OSPF
IPv4 addressing
▪ ▪ BGP
ICMP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-21

Router architecture overview
two key router functions:
❖ run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)
❖ forwarding datagrams from incoming to outgoing
link
forwarding tables computed, routing
pushed to input ports routing, management
processor
control plane (software)

forwarding data
plane (hardware)

high-seed
switching
fabric

router input ports router output ports

Network Layer 4-22
Input port functions
link lookup,
layer forwarding
line protocol switch
termination (receive fabric
) queueing

physical layer:
bit-level
reception
data link decentralized switching:
layer: ❖ given datagram dest., lookup
e.g., Ethernet output port using forwarding table
see chapter 5 in input port memory (“match plus
action”)
❖ goal: complete input port
processing at ‘line speed’
❖ queuing: if datagrams arrive faster
than forwarding rate intoNetwork
switchLayer 4-23
Switching fabrics
❖ transfer packet from input buffer to
appropriate output buffer
❖ switching rate: rate at which packets
can be transfer from inputs to outputs
▪ often measured as multiple of input/output line rate
▪ N inputs: switching rate N times line rate desirable
❖ three types of switching fabrics

memor
y

memory bus crossbar

Network Layer 4-24

Switching via memory
first generation routers:
❖traditional computers with switching under
direct control of CPU
❖packet copied to system’s memory
❖ speed limited by memory bandwidth (2 bus
crossings per datagram)

input output
port memory port
(e.g., (e.g.,
Ethernet) Ethernet)

system bus

Network Layer 4-25

Switching via a bus
❖ datagram from input port
memory
to output port memory via
a shared bus
❖ bus contention: switching
speed limited by bus
bus
bandwidth
❖ 32 Gbps bus, Cisco 5600:
sufficient speed for access
and enterprise routers

Network Layer 4-26

Switching via interconnection
network
❖ overcome bus bandwidth
limitations
❖ banyan networks, crossbar,
other interconnection nets
initially developed to connect
processors in multiprocessor
❖ advanced design:
crossba
fragmenting datagram into r
fixed length cells, switch cells
through the fabric.
❖ Cisco 12000: switches 60
Gbps through the
interconnection network
Network Layer 4-27
Output ports This slide in HUGELY
important!

datagram
switch buffer link
fabric layer line
protocol termination
queueing (send)

❖buffering required when(packets) can be

Datagram
datagrams arrive lostfrom
due tofabric faster
congestion, lack of
than the transmission rate buffers
❖schedulingPriority
discipline chooses
scheduling – who gets best
among queued datagrams
performance, networkfor
neutrality
transmission Network Layer 4-28
Output port queueing

switc
switc
h
h
fabric
fabric

at t, packets more one packet time later

from input to output

❖ buffering when arrival rate via switch

exceeds output line speed
❖ queueing (delay) and loss due to output
port buffer overflow!
Network Layer 4-29
How much buffering?
❖ RFC 3439 rule of thumb: average
buffering equal to “typical” RTT (say
250 msec) times link capacity C
▪ e.g., C = 10 Gpbs link: 2.5 Gbit buffer
❖ recent recommendation: with N flows,
buffering equal to
RTT . C
N

Network Layer 4-30

Input port queuing
❖ fabric slower than input ports combined ->
queueing may occur at input queues
▪ queueing delay and loss due to input buffer
overflow!
❖ Head-of-the-Line (HOL) blocking: queued
datagram at front of queue prevents others in
queue from moving forward

switc switc
h h
fabric fabric

output port contention: one packet time

only one red datagram can later: green
be transferred. packet
lower red packet is blocked experiences HOL
blocking
Network Layer 4-31
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
▪ hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
▪ ▪ RIP
datagram format
▪ ▪ OSPF
IPv4 addressing
▪ ▪ BGP
ICMP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-32

The Internet network layer
host, router network layer functions:

transport layer: TCP, UDP

routing IP protocol
• addressing conventions
protocols
• datagram format
• path selection
network • RIP, OSPF, BGP
• packet handling
layer forwarding
conventions

table
ICMP
protocol
• error reporting
• router “signaling”
link layer

physical layer

Network Layer 4-33

 IP datagram format
IP protocol version 32 bits
number total datagram
header length type of length (bytes)
ver head. length
(bytes) len service for
“type” of data fragment fragmentation/
16-bit identifier flgs
offset reassembly
max number time to upper header
remaining hops live layer checksum
(decremented at
32 bit source IP address
each router)
32 bit destination IP address
upper layer protocol
to deliver payload to options (if any) e.g. timestamp,
record route
how much overhead? data taken, specify
❖ 20 bytes of TCP (variable length, list of routers
❖ 20 bytes of IP typically a TCP to visit.
❖ = 40 bytes + app or UDP
layer overhead segment)

Network Layer 4-34

 IP fragmentation,
reassembly
❖ network links have
MTU (max.transfer
size) - largest fragmentation:

…
possible link-level in: one large datagram
frame out: 3 smaller datagrams
▪ different link
types, different
MTUs reassembly
❖ large IP datagram
divided
(“fragmented”) …
within net
▪ one datagram
becomes several
datagrams
▪ “reassembled” Network Layer 4-35
 IP fragmentation,
reassembly
length ID fragflag offset
example: =4000 =x =0 =0
❖ 4000 byte
datagram one large datagram becomes
❖ MTU = 1500 several smaller datagrams
bytes
1480 bytes in length ID fragflag offset
data field =1500 =x =1 =0

offset = length ID fragflag offset

1480/8 =1500 =x =1 =185

length ID fragflag offset

=1040 =x =0 =370

Network Layer 4-36

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
▪ hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
▪ ▪ RIP
datagram format
▪ ▪ OSPF
IPv4 addressing
▪ ▪ BGP
ICMP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-37

IP addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1
❖ IP address: 32-bit
223.1.2.1
identifier for host,
router interface 223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
❖ interface:
connection between 223.1.3.27
host/router and 223.1.1.3
223.1.2.2
physical link
▪ router’s typically
have multiple
interfaces 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

▪ host typically has

one or two interfaces
(e.g., wired Ethernet,
223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001
wireless 802.11)
❖ IP addresses 223 1 1 1
associated with
each interface Network Layer 4-38
IP addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1
Q: how are 223.1.2.1
interfaces actually
connected? 223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

A: we’ll learn about

that in chapter 5, 223.1.1.3
223.1.3.27

6. 223.1.2.2

A: wired Ethernet interfaces

connected by Ethernet switches
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

For now: don’t need to worry

about how one interface is
connected to another (with no
A: wireless WiFi interfaces
intervening router)
connected by WiFi base station

Network Layer 4-39

Subnets
❖IP address: 223.1.1.1
▪subnet part - high
order bits 223.1.1.2 223.1.2.1
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
▪host part - low
order bits 223.1.2.2
❖what’s a subnet ? 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27

▪device interfaces subnet

with same subnet
part of IP address 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

▪can physically
reach each other
without intervening network consisting of 3
router subnets

Network Layer 4-40

Subnets
223.1.1.0/2
4 223.1.2.0/2
recipe 223.1.1.1 4

❖ to determine the 223.1.1.2 223.1.2.1

subnets, detach 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

each interface 223.1.2.2

from its host or 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27

router, creating subnet

islands of isolated
networks 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

❖ each isolated
network is called
223.1.3.0/2
a subnet 4
subnet mask:
/24
Network Layer 4-41
Subnets 223.1.1.2

how many? 223.1.1.1 223.1.1.4

223.1.1.3

223.1.9.2 223.1.7.0

223.1.9.1 223.1.7.1
223.1.8.1 223.1.8.0

223.1.2.6 223.1.3.27

223.1.2.1 223.1.2.2 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

Network Layer 4-42

IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
▪ subnet portion of address of arbitrary
length
▪ address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is #
bits in subnet portion of address
subnet host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/23

Network Layer 4-43

IP addresses: how to get
one?
Q: How does a host get IP address?

❖ hard-coded by system admin in a file

▪ Windows: control-panel->network-
>configuration->tcp/ip->properties
▪ UNIX: /etc/rc.config
❖ DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol: dynamically get address from as
server
▪ “plug-and-play”

Network Layer 4-44

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol
goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address
from network server when it joins network
▪ can renew its lease on address in use
▪ allows reuse of addresses (only hold address
while connected/“on”)
▪ support for mobile users who want to join network
(more shortly)
DHCP overview:
▪ host broadcasts “DHCP discover” msg [optional]
▪ DHCP server responds with “DHCP offer” msg
[optional]
▪ host requests IP address: “DHCP request” msg
▪ DHCP server sends address: “DHCP ack” msg
Network Layer 4-45
DHCP client-server
scenario
DHCP
223.1.1.0/24
server
223.1.1.1 223.1.2.1

223.1.1.2 arriving DHCP

223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
client needs
address in
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2 this
223.1.1.3
network
223.1.2.0/24

223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

223.1.3.0/24

Network Layer 4-46

DHCP client-server
scenario
DHCP server: 223.1.2.5 DHCP discover arriving
client
src : 0.0.0.0, 68
Broadcast: is there a
dest.: 255.255.255.255,67
DHCP server
yiaddr: 0.0.0.0out
transaction
there?ID: 654

DHCP offer
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
Broadcast: I’m a DHCP
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
server! Here’s an IP
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction
address youID:can
654 use
lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
src: 0.0.0.0, 68
dest:: 255.255.255.255, 67
Broadcast: OK. I’ll
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
take that IPID:address!
transaction 655
lifetime: 3600 secs

DHCP ACK
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255,
Broadcast: 68
OK. You’ve
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
gottransaction
that IPID:address!
655
lifetime: 3600 secs
Network Layer 4-47
DHCP: more than IP
addresses
DHCP can return more than just allocated
IP address on subnet:
▪ address of first-hop router for client
▪ name and IP address of DNS sever
▪ network mask (indicating network versus
host portion of address)

Network Layer 4-48

DHCP: example
DHCP DHC ❖ connecting laptop
DHCP P needs its IP address,
DHCP UDP
DHCP IP
addr of first-hop
Eth router, addr of DNS
Phy server: use DHCP
DHCP
❖ DHCP request
encapsulated in UDP,
DHCP DHC 168.1.1.1 encapsulated in IP,
DHCP P encapsulated in 802.1
DHCP UDP
IP
❖ Ethernet frame
DHCP router with DHCP
Eth server built into broadcast (dest:
Phy router FFFFFFFFFFFF) on LAN,
received at router
running DHCP
❖ Ethernet server
demuxed to
IP demuxed, UDP
demuxed to DHCP

Network Layer 4-49

DHCP: example
DHCP DHC ❖ DCP server
DHCP P formulates DHCP
DHCP UDP ACK containing
DHCP IP client’s IP address,
Eth IP address of first-
Phy
hop router for client,
name & IP address
❖ encapsulation of
DHCP DHC of DNSserver,
DHCP serverframe
DHCP P forwarded to client,
DHCP UDP demuxing up to
IP router with DHCP
DHCP
DHCP at client
DHCP
Eth server built into ❖ client now knows its
Phy router IP address, name
and IP address of
DSN server, IP
address of its first-
hop router

Network Layer 4-50

 DHCP:
Wireshark Message type: Boot Reply (2)
reply
output (home
Hardware type: Ethernet
Hardware address length: 6
Hops: 0
LAN) Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
Seconds elapsed: 0
Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast)
Message type: Boot Request (1)
Hardware type: Ethernet Client IP address: 192.168.1.101 (192.168.1.101)
Hardware address length: 6 Your (client) IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
request Next server IP address: 192.168.1.1 (192.168.1.1)
Relay agent IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Seconds elapsed: 0 Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast) Server host name not given
Client IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Boot file name not given
Your (client) IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Magic cookie: (OK)
Next server IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP ACK
Relay agent IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Option: (t=54,l=4) Server Identifier = 192.168.1.1
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a Option: (t=1,l=4) Subnet Mask = 255.255.255.0
(00:16:d3:23:68:8a) Option: (t=3,l=4) Router = 192.168.1.1
Server host name not given Option: (6) Domain Name Server
Boot file name not given Length: 12; Value: 445747E2445749F244574092;
Magic cookie: (OK) IP Address: 68.87.71.226;
Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP Request IP Address: 68.87.73.242;
Option: (61) Client identifier IP Address: 68.87.64.146
Length: 7; Value: 010016D323688A; Option: (t=15,l=20) Domain Name =
Hardware type: Ethernet "hsd1.ma.comcast.net."
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a
(00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Option: (t=50,l=4) Requested IP Address = 192.168.1.101
Option: (t=12,l=5) Host Name = "nomad"
Option: (55) Parameter Request List
Length: 11; Value: 010F03062C2E2F1F21F92B
1 = Subnet Mask; 15 = Domain Name
3 = Router; 6 = Domain Name Server
44 = NetBIOS over TCP/IP Name Server
……
Network Layer 4-51
IP addresses: how to get
one?
Q: how does network get subnet part of IP
addr?
A: gets allocated portion of its provider
ISP’s address space

ISP's block 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/20

Organization 0 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/23

Organization 1 11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000 200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2 11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000 200.23.20.0/23
... ….. …. ….
Organization 7 11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000 200.23.30.0/23

Network Layer 4-52

Hierarchical addressing: route
aggregation
hierarchical addressing allows efficient
advertisement of routing
information:
Organization
0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization
1 “Send me
200.23.18.0/23 anything
Organization with addresses
2 200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night- beginning
. 200.23.16.0/20”
. . ISP
Interne
.
Organization . t
7
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me
ISPs-R-
anything
Us
with addresses
beginning
199.31.0.0/16”

Network Layer 4-53

Hierarchical addressing: more specific
routes
ISPs-R-Us has a more specific route to
Organization 1
Organization
0
200.23.16.0/23

“Send me
anything
Organization with addresses
2 200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night- beginning
. 200.23.16.0/20”
. . ISP
Interne
.
Organization . t
7
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-
with addresses
Us
Organization beginning
1 199.31.0.0/16
200.23.18.0/23
or 200.23.18.0/23”

Network Layer 4-54

IP addressing: the last word...

Q: how does an ISP get block of

addresses?
A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for
Assigned
Names and Numbers
http://www.icann.org/
▪ allocates addresses
▪ manages DNS
▪ assigns domain names, resolves
disputes

Network Layer 4-55

NAT: network address
translation
rest of local network
Internet (e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24 10.0.0.1

10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7

10.0.0.3

all datagrams leaving datagrams with source

local or
network have same destination in this
single source NAT IP network
address: have 10.0.0/24
138.76.29.7,different address for Network Layer 4-56
NAT: network address
translation
motivation: local network uses just one IP
address as far as outside world is
concerned:
▪ range of addresses not needed from ISP:
just one IP address for all devices
▪ can change addresses of devices in local
network without notifying outside world
▪ can change ISP without changing
addresses of devices in local network
▪ devices inside local net not explicitly
addressable, visible by outside world (a
security plus)
Network Layer 4-57
NAT: network address
translation
implementation: NAT router must:

▪ outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address,

port #) of every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP
address, new port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using
(NAT IP address, new port #) as destination
addr

▪ remember (in NAT translation table) every

(source IP address, port #) to (NAT IP address,
new port #) translation pair

▪ incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address,

new port #) in dest fields of every incoming
datagram with corresponding (source IP Network
address,
Layer 4-58
 NAT: network address
translation
NAT translation table 1: host 10.0.0.1
2: NAT router WAN side addr LAN side addr
changes datagram sends datagram to
source addr from 138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1, 3345 to ……
138.76.29.7, 5001, ……
updates table S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1
1
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
2 D: 128.119.40.186, 80 10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7 S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345
4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001 3 10.0.0.3
4: NAT router
3: reply arrives changes datagram
dest. address: dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345

Network Layer 4-59

NAT: network address
translation
❖ 16-bit port-number field:
▪ 60,000 simultaneous connections
with a single LAN-side address!
❖ NAT is controversial:
▪ routers should only process up to
layer 3
▪ violates end-to-end argument
• NAT possibility must be taken into
account by app designers, e.g., P2P
applications
▪ address shortage should instead be
solved by IPv6
Network Layer 4-60
NAT traversal problem
❖ client wants to connect to
server with address
10.0.0.1 client
10.0.0.1
▪ server address 10.0.0.1
local to LAN (client can’t ?
use it as destination addr) 10.0.0.4
▪ only one externally visible
NATed address: 138.76.29.7 138.76.29.7 NAT
❖ solution1: statically router
configure NAT to forward
incoming connection
requests at given port to
server
▪ e.g., (123.76.29.7, port
2500) always forwarded to
10.0.0.1 port 25000
Network Layer 4-61
NAT traversal problem
❖ solution 2: Universal Plug
and Play (UPnP) Internet
Gateway Device (IGD) 10.0.0.1
Protocol. Allows NATed IGD
host to:
❖ learn public IP address
(138.76.29.7)
❖ add/remove port NAT
router
mappings (with lease
times)

i.e., automate static NAT

port map configuration

Network Layer 4-62

 NAT traversal problem
❖ solution 3: relaying (used in Skype)
▪ NATed client establishes connection to relay
▪ external client connects to relay
▪ relay bridges packets between to
connections

2. connection
to 1. connection 10.0.0.1
relay initiated to
by client relay initiated
3. relaying by NATed host
client established
138.76.29.7 NAT
router

Network Layer 4-63

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
▪ hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
▪ ▪ RIP
datagram format
▪ ▪ OSPF
IPv4 addressing
▪ ▪ BGP
ICMP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-64

ICMP: internet control message
protocol
❖ used by hosts &
Type Code description
routers to
0 0 echo reply (ping)
communicate 3 0 dest. network unreachable
network-level 3 1 dest host unreachable
information 3 2 dest protocol unreachable
▪ error reporting: 3 3 dest port unreachable
unreachable host, 3 6 dest network unknown
network, port, 3 7 dest host unknown
protocol 4 0 source quench (congestion
▪ echo request/reply control - not used)
(used by ping) 8 0 echo request (ping)
❖ network-layer 9 0 route advertisement
“above” IP: 10 0 router discovery
11 0 TTL expired
▪ ICMP msgs carried in
12 0 bad IP header
IP datagrams
❖ ICMP message: type,
code plus first 8 Network Layer 4-65
Traceroute and ICMP
❖ source sends series ❖ when ICMP
of UDP segments to messages arrives,
dest source records RTTs
▪ first set has TTL =1
▪ second set has TTL=2, stopping criteria:
etc. ❖ UDP segment
▪ unlikely port number eventually arrives at
❖ when nth set of destination host
datagrams arrives to ❖ destination returns
nth router: ICMP “port
▪ router discards unreachable”
datagrams
▪ and sends source ICMP
message (type 3,
messages (type 11, code 3)
code 0) ❖ source stops
3 probes
▪ ICMP 3 probes
messages
includes name of
router3&probes
IP address
Network Layer 4-66
 IPv6: motivation
❖ initial motivation: 32-bit address space
soon to be completely allocated.
❖ additional motivation:
▪ header format helps speed
processing/forwarding
▪ header changes to facilitate QoS

IPv6 datagram format:

▪ fixed-length 40 byte header
▪ no fragmentation allowed

Network Layer 4-67

IPv6 datagram format
priority: identify priority among
datagrams in flow
flow Label: identify datagrams in same
“flow.”
ver
(concept
pri
of“flow” not well
flow label
defined). payload len next hdr hop limit
next header: identify upper
source address
(128 bits)
layer
protocol for datadestination address
(128 bits)

data

32 bits
Network Layer 4-68
Other changes from IPv4
❖ checksum: removed entirely to reduce
processing time at each hop
❖ options: allowed, but outside of header,
indicated by “Next Header” field
❖ ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
▪ additional message types, e.g. “Packet Too
Big”
▪ multicast group management functions

Network Layer 4-69

Transition from IPv4 to
IPv6
❖ not all routers can be upgraded
simultaneously
▪ no “flag days”
▪ how will network operate with mixed
IPv4 and IPv6 routers?
❖ tunneling: IPv6 datagram carried as
payload in IPv4 datagram among IPv4
routers
IPv4 header fields IPv6 header
fieldssource dest IPv4 payload
IPv4 source, dest addr IPv6
addr
UDP/TCP payload

IPv6 datagram
IPv4 datagram
Network Layer 4-70
Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

Network Layer 4-71

Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

flow: X src:B src:B flow: X

src: A dest: E src: A
dest:
dest: E
dest:
F Flow: Flow: F
X X
Src: A Src: A
data Dest: F Dest: F data

data data

A-to-B: E-to-F:
IPv6 B-to-C: B-to-C: IPv6
IPv6 IPv6
inside inside Network Layer 4-72
IPv4 IPv4
IPv6:
adoption
❖ US National Institutes of Standards
estimate [2013]:
▪ ~3% of industry IP routers
▪ ~11% of US gov’t routers

❖ Long (long!) time for deployment, use

▪ 20 years and counting!
▪ think of application-level changes in last 20
years: WWW, Facebook, …
▪ Why?

Network Layer 4-73

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
▪ hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
▪ ▪ RIP
datagram format
▪ ▪ OSPF
IPv4 addressing
▪ ▪ BGP
ICMP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-74

Interplay between routing,
forwarding
routing algorithm determines
routing algorithm
end-end-path through network
forwarding table determines
local forwarding
tableaddress local forwarding at this router
dest output
address-range 3 link
1 2
address-range 2
2 1
address-range
3
address-range
IPdestination address in4
arriving packet’s header
1
3 2

Network Layer 4-75

Graph abstraction
5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y
graph: G = (N,E)

N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }

E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

aside: graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts, e.g.,

P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections

Network Layer 4-76

Graph abstraction: costs
5
c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
3 e.g., c(w,z) = 5
v w 5
2
u cost could always be 1,
2
3
1 z or
1 2 inversely related to
x 1
y
bandwidth,
or inversely related to
congestion
cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)

key question: what is the least-cost path

between u and z ?
routing algorithm: algorithm that finds that
least cost path Network Layer 4-77
Routing algorithm
classification
Q: global or decentralized Q: static or
information? dynamic?
global: static:
❖ all routers have ❖ routes change slowly
complete topology, link over time
cost info dynamic:
❖ “link state” algorithms ❖ routes change more
decentralized: quickly
❖ router knows ▪ periodic update
physically-connected ▪ in response to link
neighbors, link costs to cost changes
neighbors
❖ iterative process of
computation, exchange
of info with neighbors
❖ “distance vector” Network Layer 4-78
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
▪ hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
▪ ▪ RIP
datagram format
▪ ▪ OSPF
IPv4 addressing
▪ ▪ BGP
ICMP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-79

A Link-State Routing
Algorithm
Dijkstra’s algorithm notation:
❖ net topology, link ❖ c(x,y): link cost from
costs known to all node x to y; = ∞ if
nodes not direct neighbors
▪ accomplished via “link ❖ D(v): current value
state broadcast” of cost of path from
▪ all nodes have same source to dest. v
info ❖ p(v): predecessor
❖ computes least cost node along path
paths from one node from source to v
(‘source”) to all other ❖ N': set of nodes
nodes whose least cost
▪ gives forwarding table path definitively
for that node known
❖ iterative: after k
iterations, know least Network Layer 4-80
Dijsktra’s Algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to u
5 then D(v) = c(u,v)
6 else D(v) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'

Network Layer 4-81

Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
D(v D(w D(x D(y D(z
Step N' ) ) ) ) )
0 u 7,u
p(v) 3,u
p(w) 5,u
p(x) ∞
p(y) ∞
p(z)
1 uw 6,w 5,u 11,w ∞
2 uwx 6,w 11,w 14,x
3 uwxv 10,v 14,x
4 uwxvy 12,y
5 uwxvyz x
9

notes: 5 7
4
❖ construct shortest path
tree by tracing 8
predecessor nodes 3
u w y z
❖ ties can exist (can be 2
broken arbitrarily)
3
7 4
v
Network Layer 4-82
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: another
example
Step N' D(v),p(v D(w),p(w D(x),p(x D(y),p(y D(z),p(z
0 u ) ) ) ) )
1 ux 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
2 uxy 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
3 uxyv 2,u 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 3,y 4,y
5 uxyvw 4,y
z
5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

Network Layer 4-83

Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
(2)
resulting shortest-path tree
from u:
v w
u z
x y

resulting forwarding
table in u: destination link
v (u,v)
x (u,x)
y (u,x)
w (u,x)
z (u,x)
Network Layer 4-84
 Dijkstra’s algorithm,
discussion
algorithm complexity: n nodes
❖ each iteration: need to check all nodes, w,
not in N
❖ n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)
❖ more efficient implementations possible:
O(nlogn)
oscillations possible:
❖ e.g., support link cost equals amount of
A 1+
1 carried A 0 A A
traffic:
2+ 0 2+ 2+ 0
D e
0 0 B D e
1+ 1 B D e
B De
1+ 1 B
0 0
0 e 0 e 0 e
1
C C 0 1
C 1+ C 0
1 e
e
given these given these given these
initially costs, costs, costs,
find new find new find new
routing…. routing…. routing….
Network Layer 4-85
resulting in new resulting in new resulting in new
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
▪ hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
▪ ▪ RIP
datagram format
▪ ▪ OSPF
IPv4 addressing
▪ ▪ BGP
ICMP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-86

Distance vector algorithm
Bellman-Ford equation (dynamic
programming)

let
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to
y
then v

dx(y) = min {c(x,v) + dvneighbor

cost from (y) } v to
cost to destination y
neighbor v
min taken over all
neighbors v of x
Network Layer 4-87
Bellman-Ford example
5
3
clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z B-F equation says:
3
1 du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
2
1
x y
c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) +
dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
node achieving minimum is next 5 + 3} = 4
hop in shortest path, used in
forwarding table
Network Layer 4-88
Distance vector algorithm
❖ Dx(y) = estimate of least cost from x to
y
▪ x maintains distance vector Dx = [Dx(y): y є
N]
❖ node x:
▪ knows cost to each neighbor v: c(x,v)
▪ maintains its neighbors’ distance
vectors. For each neighbor v, x
maintains
Dv = [Dv(y): y є N ]

Network Layer 4-89

Distance vector algorithm
key idea:
❖ from time-to-time, each node sends its
own distance vector estimate to
neighbors
❖ when x receives new DV estimate from
neighbor, itv{c(x,v)
Dx(y) ← min updates + Dits own DV using B-
v(y)} for each node y ∊
FNequation:
❖ under minor, natural conditions, the
estimate Dx(y) converge to the actual
least cost dx(y)

Network Layer 4-90

Distance vector algorithm
iterative, each
asynchronous: node:
each local iteration
caused by: wait for (change in local link
cost or msg from neighbor)
❖ local link cost
change
❖ DV update message recompute estimates
from neighbor
distributed:
if DV to any dest has
❖ each node notifies
neighbors only when changed, notify neighbors
its DV changes
▪ neighbors then notify
their neighbors if
necessary
Network Layer 4-91
 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost cost
table x to y x to y
x z0 2 7 x z0
2 3
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0

fro
fro

m
m

z ∞∞ ∞ z 1
7 1
0
node y cost
table x to y y
2 1
x z∞ ∞ ∞
x z
y 2 0 7
fro
m

z 1∞∞ ∞

node cost
z x to y
table z∞ ∞ ∞
x
y ∞∞ ∞
fro
m

z 7 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-92
 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost cost cost
table x to y x to y x to y
x z0 2 7 x z0
2 3 x z0 2 3
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 y

fro
2 0
fro

m
m

fro
z ∞∞ ∞ z 1

m
7 1 z 1
3 1 0
0
node y cost cost cost
table x to y x to y xto y y
2 1
x z∞ ∞ ∞ x z0 2 7 z0 2 3
x x z
y 2 0 y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 7
fro

fro
m

fro
m
z 1∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 z 3 1 0
0
node cost cost cost
z x to y x to y xto y
table
x z∞ ∞ ∞ x z0 2 7 x z0 2 3
y y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
fro

fro

∞∞ ∞
m
fro

m
m

z z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
7 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-93
 Distance vector: link cost
changes
link cost changes: 1
❖ node detects local link cost y
4 1
change
x z
❖ updates routing info, 5
recalculates 0
distance vector
❖ if DV tchanges,
: y detects notify
link-cost change, updates its DV, informs its
“gooneighbors
0

d neighbors.
news t1 : z receives update from y, updates its table, computes new
trave least cost to x , sends its neighbors its DV.
ls
fast” t2 : y receives z’s update, updates its distance table. y’s least costs
do not change, so y does not send a message to z.

Network Layer 4-94

Distance vector: link cost
changes
link cost changes: 6
❖ node detects local link cost 0 y
4 1
change
x z
❖ bad news travels slow - 5
“count to infinity” problem! 0
❖ 44 iterations before
algorithm stabilizes: see
poisoned
text reverse:
❖ If Z routes through Y to get to X :
▪ Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance to X is infinite (so Y
won’t route to X via Z)
❖ will this completely solve count to infinity
problem?

Network Layer 4-95

Comparison of LS and DV
algorithms
message complexity robustness: what
❖ LS: with n nodes, E links, happens if router
O(nE) msgs sent malfunctions?
❖ DV: exchange between LS:
neighbors only
▪ node can advertise
▪ convergence time incorrect link cost
varies
▪ each node computes
speed of only its own table
convergence DV:
❖ LS: O(n2) algorithm ▪ DV node can advertise
requires O(nE) msgs incorrect path cost
▪ may have oscillations ▪ each node’s table used
by others
❖ DV: convergence time
• error propagate thru
varies
network
▪ may be routing loops
▪ count-to-infinity
problem Network Layer 4-96
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
▪ hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
▪ ▪ RIP
datagram format
▪ ▪ OSPF
IPv4 addressing
▪ ▪ BGP
ICMP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-97

Hierarchical
routing
our routing study thus far -
idealization
❖ all routers identical
❖ network “flat”
… not true in practice
scale: with 600 administrative
million autonomy
destinations: ❖ internet = network of
❖ can’t store all dest’s networks
in routing tables! ❖ each network admin
❖ routing table may want to control
exchange would routing in its own
swamp links! network
Network Layer 4-98
Hierarchical
routing
❖ aggregate routers gateway router:
into regions, ❖ at “edge” of its own
“autonomous AS
systems” (AS) ❖ has link to router in
❖ routers in same another AS
AS run same
routing protocol
▪ “intra-AS” routing
protocol
▪ routers in different
AS can run
different intra-AS
routing protocol
Network Layer 4-99
Interconnected ASes

3
3a 2c
3b c 2a
AS3 2
1c AS2 b
1a 1b AS1
1d ❖ forwarding table
configured by both
intra- and inter-AS
Intra-AS Inter-AS routing algorithm
Routing Routing
algorith algorith ▪ intra-AS sets
m m
Forwarding
entries for internal
table dests
▪ inter-AS & intra-AS
sets entries for
external dests
Network Layer 4-100
 Inter-AS tasks
❖ suppose router in AS1 must:
AS1 receives 1. learn which dests
datagram destined are reachable
outside of AS1: through AS2, which
▪ router should through AS3
forward packet to 2. propagate this
gateway router, reachability info to
but which one? all routers in AS1
job of inter-AS routing!
3c
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a network
other 1a 2b s
network 1b AS2
s AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-101

 Example: setting forwarding table in
router 1d
❖ suppose AS1 learns (via inter-AS protocol) that
subnet x reachable via AS3 (gateway 1c), but not
via AS2
▪ inter-AS protocol propagates reachability info to
all internal routers
❖ router 1d determines from intra-AS routing info that
its interface I is on the least cost path to 1c
▪ installs forwarding table entry (x,I)

3c … x
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a network
other 1a 2b s
network 1b AS2
s AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-102

Example: choosing among multiple
ASes
❖ now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol
that subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from
AS2.
❖ to configure forwarding table, router 1d must
determine which gateway it should forward
packets towards for dest x
▪ this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!

3c … x …
3b
3a …
AS3 2c other
1c 2a network
other 1a 2b s
network 1b AS2
s AS1 1d
?
Network Layer 4-103
 Example: choosing among multiple
ASes
❖ now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol
that subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from
AS2.
❖ to configure forwarding table, router 1d must
determine towards which gateway it should
forward packets for dest x
▪ this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!
❖ hot potato routing: send packet towards closest
of two routers.

use routing info determine from

learn from inter-AS hot potato routing: forwarding table the
from intra-AS
protocol that subnet choose the gateway interface I that leads
protocol to determine
x is reachable via that has the to least-cost gateway.
costs of least-cost
multiple gateways smallest least cost Enter (x,I) in
paths to each
of the gateways forwarding table

Network Layer 4-104

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
▪ hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
▪ ▪ RIP
datagram format
▪ ▪ OSPF
IPv4 addressing
▪ ▪ BGP
ICMP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-105

Intra-AS Routing
❖ also known as interior gateway
protocols (IGP)
❖ most common intra-AS routing
protocols:
▪ RIP: Routing Information Protocol
▪ OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
▪ IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol (Cisco proprietary)

Network Layer 4-106

 RIP ( Routing Information
Protocol)
❖ included in BSD-UNIX distribution in 1982
❖ distance vector algorithm
▪ distance metric: # hops (max = 15 hops), each link has
cost 1
▪ DVs exchanged with neighbors every 30 sec in response
message (aka advertisement)
▪ each advertisement: list of up to 25 destination subnets
(in IP addressing sense)

from router A to destination subnets:

u v subnet hops
w u 1
A B
v 2
w 2
x x 3
z C D y 3
y z 2
Network Layer 4-107
RIP: example

z
w x y
A D B

C
routing table in router D
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer 4-108
RIP: example
A-to-D advertisement
dest next hops
w - 1
x - 1
z C 4
…. … ... z
w x y
A D B

C
routing table in router D
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
A 5
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer 4-109
RIP: link failure, recovery
if no advertisement heard after 180 sec -->
neighbor/link declared dead
▪ routes via neighbor invalidated
▪ new advertisements sent to neighbors
▪ neighbors in turn send out new advertisements
(if tables changed)
▪ link failure info quickly (?) propagates to entire
net
▪ poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong
loops (infinite distance = 16 hops)

Network Layer 4-110

RIP table processing
❖ RIP routing tables managed by
application-level process called route-d
(daemon)
❖ advertisements sent in UDP packets,
periodically repeated
routed routed

transport transprt
(UDP) (UDP)
forwardin
network forwarding network
g
(IP) table (IP)
table
link link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-111

OSPF (Open Shortest Path
First)
❖ “open”: publicly available
❖ uses link state algorithm
▪ LS packet dissemination
▪ topology map at each node
▪ route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm
❖ OSPF advertisement carries one entry per
neighbor
❖ advertisements flooded to entire AS
▪ carried in OSPF messages directly over IP
(rather than TCP or UDP
❖ IS-IS routing protocol: nearly identical to
OSPF
Network Layer 4-112
OSPF “advanced” features (not
in RIP)
❖ security: all OSPF messages authenticated
(to prevent malicious intrusion)
❖ multiple same-cost paths allowed (only
one path in RIP)
❖ for each link, multiple cost metrics for
different TOS (e.g., satellite link cost set
“low” for best effort ToS; high for real time
ToS)
❖ integrated uni- and multicast support:
▪ Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same
topology data base as OSPF
❖ hierarchical OSPF in large domains.
Network Layer 4-113
Hierarchical
OSPF
boundary router
backbone router

backbon
area e
border
routers

area 3

internal
routers
area 1
area 2

Network Layer 4-114

Hierarchical
OSPF
❖ two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
▪ link-state advertisements only in area
▪ each nodes has detailed area topology;
only know direction (shortest path) to
nets in other areas.
❖ area border routers: “summarize”
distances to nets in own area, advertise to
other Area Border routers.
❖ backbone routers: run OSPF routing
limited to backbone.
❖ boundary routers: connect to other AS’s.

Network Layer 4-115

Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
❖ BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de
facto inter-domain routing protocol
▪ “glue that holds the Internet together”
❖ BGP provides each AS a means to:
▪ eBGP: obtain subnet reachability
information from neighboring ASs.
▪ iBGP: propagate reachability information to
all AS-internal routers.
▪ determine “good” routes to other networks
based on reachability information and
policy.
❖ allows subnet to advertise its existence
to rest of Internet: “I am here”
Network Layer 4-116
 BGP basics
❖ BGP session: two BGP routers (“peers”) exchange
BGP messages:
▪ advertising paths to different destination network prefixes
(“path vector” protocol)
▪ exchanged over semi-permanent TCP connections

❖ when AS3 advertises a prefix to AS1:

▪ AS3 promises it will forward datagrams towards that prefix
▪ AS3 can aggregate prefixes in its advertisement

3c
BGP
3a message
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a network
other 1a 2b s
network 1b AS2
s AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-117

BGP basics: distributing path
information
❖ using eBGP session between 3a and 1c, AS3
sends prefix reachability info to AS1.
▪ 1c can then use iBGP do distribute new prefix info to
all routers in AS1
▪ 1b can then re-advertise new reachability info to AS2
over 1b-to-2a eBGP session
❖ when router learns of new prefix, it creates
entry for prefix in its forwarding table.

eBGP
3a session
iBGP
3b
AS3
session 2c other
1c 2a network
other 1a 2b s
network 1b AS2
s AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-118

Path attributes and BGP
routes
❖ advertised prefix includes BGP attributes
▪ prefix + attributes = “route”
❖ two important attributes:
▪ AS-PATH: contains ASs through which prefix
advertisement has passed: e.g., AS 67, AS 17
▪ NEXT-HOP: indicates specific internal-AS router
to next-hop AS. (may be multiple links from
current AS to next-hop-AS)
❖ gateway router receiving route
advertisement uses import policy to
accept/decline
▪ e.g., never route through AS x
▪ policy-based routing
Network Layer 4-119
BGP route selection
❖ router may learn about more than 1
route to destination AS, selects route
based on:
1. local preference value attribute: policy
decision
2. shortest AS-PATH
3. closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato
routing
4. additional criteria

Network Layer 4-120

BGP messages
❖ BGP messages exchanged between peers over
TCP connection
❖ BGP messages:
▪ OPEN: opens TCP connection to peer and
authenticates sender
▪ UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws
old)
▪ KEEPALIVE: keeps connection alive in absence
of UPDATES; also ACKs OPEN request
▪ NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg;
also used to close connection

Network Layer 4-121

Putting it Altogether:
How Does an Entry Get
Into a Router’s Forwarding
Table?
❖ Answer is complicated!

❖ Ties together hierarchical routing

(Section 4.5.3) with BGP (4.6.3) and
OSPF (4.6.2).

❖ Provides nice overview of BGP!

How does entry get in forwarding
table?

routing algorithms

Assume prefix
local forwarding is
entr table
prefix output port
y 138.16.64/22 3
in another AS.
124.12/16 2
212/8 4
………….. …

Dest IP
1

3 2
How does entry get in forwarding
table?
High-level overview
1. Router becomes aware of prefix
2. Router determines output port for prefix
3. Router enters prefix-port in forwarding
table
Router becomes aware of
prefix
3c
BGP
3a message
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a network
other 1a 2b s
network 1b AS2
s AS1 1d

❖ BGP message contains “routes”

❖ “route” is a prefix and attributes: AS-PATH, NEXT-HOP,
…
❖ Example: route:
❖ Prefix:138.16.64/22 ; AS-PATH: AS3 AS131 ;
NEXT-HOP: 201.44.13.125
Router may receive multiple
routes
3c
BGP
3a message
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a network
other 1a 2b s
network 1b AS2
s AS1 1d

❖ Router may receive multiple routes for

same prefix
❖ Has to select one route
Select best BGP route to
prefix
❖ Router selects route based on shortest
AS-PATH

❖ Example:
selec
t
❖ AS2 AS17 to 138.16.64/22
❖ AS3 AS131 AS201 to 138.16.64/22

❖ What if there is a tie? We’ll come back

to that!
Find best intra-route to BGP
route
❖ Use selected route’s NEXT-HOP attribute
▪ Route’s NEXT-HOP attribute is the IP address of
the router interface that begins the AS PATH.
❖ Example:
❖ AS-PATH: AS2 AS17 ; NEXT-HOP: 111.99.86.55
❖ Router uses OSPF to find shortest path
from 1c to 111.99.86.55

3c
3a 111.99.86.5
3b
AS3 5 2c other
1c 2a network
other 1a 2b s
network 1b AS2
s AS1 1d
Router identifies port for
route
❖ Identifies port along the OSPF shortest
path
❖ Adds prefix-port entry to its forwarding
table:
▪ (138.16.64/22 , port 4)

3c router
3a port
3b
AS3 1 2c other
1c 4 2a network
2 3
other 1a 2b s
network 1b AS2
s AS1 1d
 Hot Potato Routing
❖ Suppose there two or more best inter-
routes.
❖ Then choose route with closest NEXT-HOP
▪ Use OSPF to determine which gateway is
closest
▪ Q: From 1c, chose AS3 AS131 or AS2 AS17?
▪ A: route AS3 AS201 since it is closer
3c
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a network
other 1a 2b s
network 1b AS2
s AS1 1d
How does entry get in forwarding
table?
Summary
1. Router becomes aware of prefix
▪ via BGP route advertisements from other
routers
2. Determine router output port for prefix
▪ Use BGP route selection to find best inter-AS
route
▪ Use OSPF to find best intra-AS route
leading to best inter-AS route
▪ Router identifies router port for that best
route
3. Enter prefix-port entry in forwarding
table
 BGP routing policy
legend provide
B : networ
r
X k
W A
customer
C network
:
Y

❖ A,B,C are provider networks

❖ X,W,Y are customer (of provider networks)
❖ X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
▪ X does not want to route from B via X to C
▪ .. so X will not advertise to B a route to C

Network Layer 4-132

 BGP routing policy (2)
legend provide
B : networ
r
X k
W A
customer
C network
:
Y

❖ A advertises path AW to B
❖ B advertises path BAW to X
❖ Should B advertise path BAW to C?
▪ No way! B gets no “revenue” for routing CBAW since
neither W nor C are B’s customers
▪ B wants to force C to route to w via A
▪ B wants to route only to/from its customers!

Network Layer 4-133

Why different Intra-, Inter-AS
routing ?
policy:
❖ inter-AS: admin wants control over how its
traffic routed, who routes through its net.
❖ intra-AS: single admin, so no policy
decisions needed
scale:
❖ hierarchical routing saves table size,
reduced update traffic
performance:
❖ intra-AS: can focus on performance
❖ inter-AS: policy may dominate over
performance
Network Layer 4-134
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state
datagram networks ▪ distance vector
▪ hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a
router 4.6 routing in the
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol Internet
▪ ▪ RIP
datagram format
▪ ▪ OSPF
IPv4 addressing
▪ ▪ BGP
ICMP
▪ IPv6 4.7 broadcast and
multicast routing

Network Layer 4-135

Broadcast routing
❖ deliver packets from source to all other
nodes
❖ source duplication is inefficient:
duplicate
duplicat R1 creation/ R1
e transmission
duplicat
R2 R2 e

R3 R4 R3 R4

source in-network
duplication duplication

❖ source duplication: how does source

determine recipient addresses?
Network Layer 4-136
In-network duplication
❖ flooding: when node receives broadcast
packet, sends copy to all neighbors
▪ problems: cycles & broadcast storm
❖ controlled flooding: node only
broadcasts pkt if it hasn’t broadcast
same packet before
▪ node keeps track of packet ids already
broadacsted
▪ or reverse path forwarding (RPF): only
forward packet if it arrived on shortest path
between node and source
❖ spanning tree:
▪ no redundant packets received by any node
Network Layer 4-137
Spanning tree
❖ first construct a spanning tree
❖ nodes then forward/make copies only
along spanning tree

A A

B B
c c

D D
F E F E

G G
(a) broadcast initiated at A (b) broadcast initiated at D

Network Layer 4-138

Spanning tree: creation
❖ center node
❖ each node sends unicast join message
to center node
▪ message forwarded until it arrives at a node
already belonging to spanning tree

A A
3
B B
c c
4
2
D D
F E F E
1 5
G G
(a) stepwise construction of (b) constructed spanning
spanning tree (center: E) tree
Network Layer 4-139
Multicast routing: problem
statement
goal: find a tree (or trees) connecting
routers having local mcast group members
legend
❖ tree: not all paths between routers used group
❖ shared-tree: same tree used by all group members member
not group
❖ source-based: different tree from each member
sender to rcvrs
router
with a
group
member
router
without
group
member

shared tree source-based trees

Network Layer 4-140
Approaches for building mcast
trees
approaches:
❖ source-based tree: one tree per source
▪ shortest path trees
▪ reverse path forwarding
❖ group-shared tree: group uses one tree
▪ minimal spanning (Steiner)
▪ center-based trees

…we first look at basic approaches, then specific protocols

adopting these approaches

Network Layer 4-141

Shortest path tree
❖ mcast forwarding tree: tree of shortest
path routes from source to all receivers
▪ Dijkstra’s algorithm

s: source LEGEND
R1 2 router with attached
1 R4
group member
R2 5 router with no attached
3 4 group member
R5
i link used for forwarding,
R3 6
i indicates order link
R6 R7 added by algorithm

Network Layer 4-142

Reverse path forwarding

❖ rely on router’s knowledge of unicast

shortest path from it to sender
❖ each router has simple forwarding
behavior:
if (mcast datagram received on incoming
link on shortest path back to center)
then flood datagram onto all outgoing
links
else ignore datagram

Network Layer 4-143

Reverse path forwarding:
example
s: source LEGEND
R1
R4 router with attached
group member
R2
router with no attached
R5 group member
R3 datagram will be forwarded
R6 R7
datagram will not be
forwarded

❖ result is a source-specific reverse SPT

▪ may be a bad choice with asymmetric
links
Network Layer 4-144
Reverse path forwarding:
pruning
❖ forwarding tree contains subtrees with no mcast
group members
▪ no need to forward datagrams down subtree
▪ “prune” msgs sent upstream by router with no
downstream group members
s: source
LEGEND
R1
R4
router with attached
group member
R2
P
router with no attached
R5 group member
P
R3 P prune message
R6 links with multicast
R7 forwarding

Network Layer 4-145

Shared-tree: steiner tree

❖steiner tree: minimum cost tree

connecting all routers with attached
group members
❖ problem is NP-complete
❖ excellent heuristics exists
❖ not used in practice:
▪ computational complexity
▪ information about entire network needed
▪ monolithic: rerun whenever a router needs
to join/leave

Network Layer 4-146

Center-based trees
❖ single delivery tree shared by all
❖ one router identified as “center” of tree
❖ to join:
▪ edge router sends unicast join-msg
addressed to center router
▪ join-msg “processed” by intermediate
routers and forwarded towards center
▪ join-msg either hits existing tree branch for
this center, or arrives at center
▪ path taken by join-msg becomes new
branch of tree for this router

Network Layer 4-147

Center-based trees:
example
suppose R6 chosen as center:

LEGEND

R1 router with attached

R4
3 group member

R2 router with no attached

2 group member
1
R5 path order in which join
messages generated
R3
1 R6
R7

Network Layer 4-148

Internet Multicasting Routing:
DVMRP
❖ DVMRP: distance vector multicast
routing protocol, RFC1075
❖ flood and prune: reverse path
forwarding, source-based tree
▪ RPF tree based on DVMRP’s own routing
tables constructed by communicating
DVMRP routers
▪ no assumptions about underlying unicast
▪ initial datagram to mcast group flooded
everywhere via RPF
▪ routers not wanting group: send upstream
prune msgs

Network Layer 4-149

DVMRP: continued…
❖soft state: DVMRP router periodically (1
min.) “forgets” branches are pruned:
▪ mcast data again flows down unpruned branch
▪ downstream router: reprune or else continue to
receive data
❖ routers can quickly regraft to tree
▪ following IGMP join at leaf
❖ odds and ends
▪ commonly implemented in commercial router

Network Layer 4-150

Tunneling
Q: how to connect “islands” of multicast
routers in a “sea” of unicast routers?

physical topology logical topology

❖ mcast datagram encapsulated inside “normal”

(non-multicast-addressed) datagram
❖ normal IP datagram sent thru “tunnel” via
regular IP unicast to receiving mcast router
(recall IPv6 inside IPv4 tunneling)
❖ receiving mcast router unencapsulates to get
mcast datagram Network Layer 4-151
PIM: Protocol Independent
Multicast
❖ not dependent on any specific
underlying unicast routing algorithm
(works with all)
❖ two different multicast distribution
scenarios :
dense: sparse:
❖ group members ❖ # networks with group
densely packed, in members small wrt #
“close” proximity. interconnected
❖ bandwidth more networks
plentiful ❖ group members “widely
dispersed”
❖ bandwidth not plentiful
Network Layer 4-152
Consequences of sparse-dense
dichotomy:
dense sparse:
❖ group membership by ❖ no membership until
routers assumed until routers explicitly join
routers explicitly prune ❖ receiver- driven
❖ data-driven construction of mcast
construction on mcast tree (e.g., center-
tree (e.g., RPF) based)
❖ bandwidth and non- ❖ bandwidth and non-
group-router group-router processing
processing profligate conservative

Network Layer 4-153

PIM- dense mode
flood-and-prune RPF: similar to
DVMRP but…
❖ underlying unicast protocol provides
RPF info for incoming datagram
❖ less complicated (less efficient)
downstream flood than DVMRP
reduces reliance on underlying
routing algorithm
❖ has protocol mechanism for router to
detect it is a leaf-node router

Network Layer 4-154

PIM - sparse
mode
❖ center-based
approach R1
❖ router sends join R4
join
msg to rendezvous
R2
point (RP) join
▪ intermediate R5
routers update join
R3
state and forward R6
join
all data multicast R7
❖ after joining via RP, rendezvous
from rendezvous
router can switch to point
point
source-specific tree
▪ increased
performance: less
concentration,
shorter paths Network Layer 4-155
PIM - sparse
mode
sender(s):
R1
❖ unicast data to R4
join
RP, which
distributes down R2
join
RP-rooted tree R5
❖ RP can extend R3
join

mcast tree R6
upstream to all data multicast R7
rendezvous
source from rendezvous point
point
❖ RP can send stop
msg if no
attached
receivers Network Layer 4-156
Chapter 4: done!
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and ▪ link state, distance
datagram networks vector, hierarchical
routing
4.3 what’s inside a 4.6 routing in the
router Internet
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol ▪ RIP, OSPF, BGP
▪ datagram format, IPv4
4.7 broadcast and
addressing, ICMP, IPv6
multicast routing
❖ understand principles behind network layer
services:
▪ network layer service models, forwarding
versus routing how a router works, routing
(path selection), broadcast, multicast
❖ instantiation, implementation in the Internet
Network Layer 4-157