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Graph Theory
Lecture - 4

Dr. Ilyas Fakhir

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Induced Subgraph
• For any set S of vertices of G, the vertex induced subgraph or simply an
induced subgraph <S> is the maximal subgraph of G with vertex set S.
• Thus, two vertices of S are adjacent in <S> if and only if they are adjacent
in G.

• Here H is not an induced subgraph since v 4v3 ∈ E(G), but v4v3 ∉ E(H). On the
other hand, the graph J is an induced subgraph of G. Thus, every induced
subgraph of a graph G is obtained by deleting a subset of vertices from G.
 Directed Graph

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• Adjacency Matrix:

1 2 3
4 1

4
 Directed Graph

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• Incidence Matrix:
• Degrees: Row-wise sums give vertex degrees, i.e.,
• For digraphs A is not symmetric and row-, colum-wise sums
differ
,
• Spectrum: G is d-regular if and only if 1 is an eigenvector of
A, i.e.,
A1 = d1
 Directed Graph

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• A graph can be also represented by its |V | × |E| incidence
matrix B
⇒ B is in general not a square matrix, unless |V | = |E|
• For undirected graphs, the entries of B are

• For digraphs we also encode the direction of the edge,

namely
 Directed Graph

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e1 e2 e3 e4 e5
1
2
3
4

• If the graph is weighted, modify nonzero entries

accordingly
 Operations on Graphs

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• The cartesian product G x H of graphs G and H is defined as
follows:
 label the vertices of H in some way;
 in a copy of G, replace each vertex of G by a copy of H;
 add an edge joining vertices in two adjacent copies of H if
and only if they have the same label.
 In other words, if G has vertex set V(G) = {a1, a2, ... , ag }
and H has vertex set V(H) = {b1,b2 , … ,bh } , then G x H
has vertex set V(G) x V(H), and the edges set of G x H is
defined as follows: (ai , bj ) is adjacent to (ak , bl) if
 ai = ak and bj ∼ bl or (∼ represents adjacent)
 bj = bl and ai ∼ ak
 It is clear that G x H and H x G are isomorphic. Similarly (G
x H) x J and G x (H x J) are isomorphic. 7
Cartesian Product: Example

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Let’s create P3 × P2 as an
example:

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Cartesian Product: Example

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(a1 , b3)
(a1 , b2)
(a1 , b1) (a1 , b4)

(a2 , b3)
(a2 , b2)
(a2 , b1) (a2 , b4)

(a3 , b1) (a3 , b4)

(a3 , b2) (a3 , b3)

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Operations on Graph

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• Decomposition
 A graph G is said to be decomposed (or partitioned) into
two subgraphs H1 and H2 if H1H2 = G and H1∩H2= a null
graph
 where the null graph is one without any edges. In other
words, every edge of G occurs either in H1 or in H2, but
not in both. Some of the vertices, however, may occur
in both H1 and H2 .
• Deletion
 If v is a vertex in a graph G, then G-v denotes the
subgraphs of G obtained by deleting v and all edges
incident on v from G, then G-v is called vertex deleted
subgraph of G. 10
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B B
B

e
C
A C A C
A

v D
v D
D
G G-e
G-v

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• Fusion
 A pair of vertices Vi and Vj in a graph are said to be
fused (or merged) if these two vertices are replaced
by a single new vertex v in such a way that every
edge that was incident on Vi or Vj (or both) is incident
on v.

D
A A

C
C v
B B
E

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Distance in Connected Graph

• Thedistance between two vertices x and y of a

connected graph is represented as D(x, y).
• Two vertices of G are connected if and only if
they lie in the same component of G; G is a
connected graph if and only if all pairs of its
vertices are connected.
• If
vertices x and y are connected, then their
distance D(x, y) is the length of the shortest
path joining them; by definition D(x, x) = O.

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Example

• If
G is a connected graph, the distance function
D(x, y) has the following properties for all
vertices x, y and z:
 (i) D(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y;

 (iii) D(x, y) + D(y, z) ≥ D(x, z).

 (ii) D(x, y) = D(y, x);

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 Radius, Diameter and Eccentricity

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• Suppose G is a connected graph and x is a vertex of G. The
eccentricity ε(x) of x is the largest value of D(x,y), where y
ranges through all the vertices. i.e. ε(x) = max{D(x,y): y in
V(G)}.
• The distance from a particular vertex to all other vertices
in the graph is taken and among those distances, the
eccentricity is the highest of distances.
• The diameter Dim = Dim(G) is the maximum value of ε(x)
for all vertices x of G. Thus, Dim(G) = max{ε(x): x in V(G)}.
• The radius R = R(G) is the smallest value of ε(x).
Therefore, R(G) = min{ε(x): x in V(G)}.
• The minimum among all the maximum distances between
a vertex to all other vertices is considered as the radius of 15
 Example

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• Find ε(x) for every vertex x of the graph G of Figure
given below. What are the diameter and radius of this
graph?
 The vertices most distant from a are c and e, so ε(a) =
D(a, c) = D(a, e) = 3. Similarly ε(b) = D(b, c) = D(b, e)
= 2, ε(c) = D(c, a) = D(c, d) = 3, ε(d) = D(d, c) = 3,
ε(e) = D(e, a) = 3, ε(f) = D(f, a) = D(f, d) = 2. So
Dim(G) = 3 and R(G) = 2.

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 Example

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• Find ε(x) for every vertex x of the graph G of Figure
given below. What are the diameter and radius of this
graph?
 The vertices most distant from a are c and e, so ε(a)
= D(a, b) = D(a, c) = D(a, c) = 1. Similarly ε(a) =
D(a, e) = D(a, f) = 2, ε(a) = D(a, g) = 3. Similarly,
ε(b) = ε(c) = ε(e) = ε(f) = ε(g) = 3 & ε(d) = 2.

Dim(G) = 3.
R(G) = 2.

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Example

• If G is a connected weighted graph, the weighted

distance function W(x, y) has the following
properties for all vertices x, y and z in G:
(i) W(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y;

(iii) W(x, y) + W(y, z) ≥ W(x, z).

(ii) W(x, y) = W(y, x);

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Cutpoints and Bridges

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• Among connected graphs, some are connected so
slightly that removal of a single vertex or edge will
disconnect them. Such vertices and edges are quite
important.
• A vertex x is called a cutpoint in G if G – x contains more
components than G does; in particular if G is connected,
then a cutpoint is a vertex x such that G – x is
disconnected.
• Similarly, a bridge (or cutedge) is an edge whose
deletion increases the number of components.

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Example

• As an example, consider the graphs in Figure below;

the left-hand graph has cutpoints u and y and
cutedge uy, while the right-hand graph has cutpoint
x and no cutedge.

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