Crop Production and Management

Agricultural Practices
• When plants of the same kind are cultivated at
one place on a large scale, it is called a crop. For
example, crop of wheat means that all the plants
grown in a field are that of wheat.
• You already know that crops are of different types
like cereals, vegetables and fruits. These can be
classified on the basis of the season in which they
grow. India is a vast country. The climatic
conditions like temperature, humidity and rainfall
vary from one region to another. Accordingly, there
is a rich variety of crops grown in different parts of
the country. Despite this diversity, two broad
cropping patterns can be identified. These are :
• Kharif Crops : The crops which are sown
in the rainy season are called kharif crops.
The rainy season in India is generally from
June to September. Paddy, maize,
soyabean, groundnut and cotton are kharif
crops.
• Rabi Crops : The crops grown in the winter
season (October to March) are called rabi
crops. Examples of rabi crops are wheat,
gram, pea, mustard and linseed.
• Besides these, pulses and vegetables are
grown during summer at many places.
 Basic Practices of Crop Production
• Cultivation of crops involves several activities
undertaken by farmers over a period of time. You may
find that these activities are similar to those carried out
by a gardener or even by you when you grow
ornamental plants in your house. These activities or
tasks are referred to as agricultural practices which
are listed below:
• Preparation of soil
• Sowing
• Adding manure and fertilisers
• Irrigation
• Protecting from weeds
• Harvesting
• Storage
 Preparation of Soil
• The preparation of soil is the first step before growing a crop. One
of the most important tasks in agriculture is to turn the soil and
loosen it. This allows the roots to penetrate deep into the soil. The
loose soil allows the roots to breathe easily even when they go
deep into the soil. Why does the loosening of soil allow the roots
to breathe easily?
• The loosened soil helps in the growth of earthworms and
microbes present in the soil. These organisms are friends of the
farmer since they further turn and loosen the soil and add humus
to it. But why the soil needs to be turned and loosened?
• You have learnt in the previous classes that soil contains
minerals, water, air and some living organisms. In addition, dead
plants and animals get decomposed by soil organisms. In this
way, various nutrients in the dead organisms are released back
into the soil. These nutrients are again absorbed by plants.
• Sometimes, manure is added to the soil before tilling. This helps
in proper mixing of manure with soil. The soil is moistened before
sowing.
• Since only a few centimetres of the top layer of soil
supports plant growth, turning and loosening of soil
brings the nutrient-rich soil to the top so that plants can
use these nutrients. Thus, turning and loosening of soil
is very important for cultivation of crops.
• The process of loosening and turning of the soil is
called tilling or ploughing. This is done by using a
plough. Ploughs are made of wood or iron. If the soil is
very dry, it may need watering before ploughing. The
ploughed field may have big clumps of soil called
crumbs. It is necessary to break these crumbs.
Levelling the field is beneficial for sowing as well as for
irrigation.
• Levelling of soil is done with the help of a leveller.
Sometimes, manure is added to the soil before tilling.
This helps in proper mixing of manure with soil. The soil
 Agricultural Implements
Before sowing the seeds, it is necessary to break
soil clumps to get better yield. This is done with
the help of various tools. The main tools used for
this purpose are the plough, hoe and cultivator.

beam

ploughshaft

ploughshare

The plough
• Plough : This is being used since ancient
times for tilling the soil, adding fertilisers to the
crop, removing the weeds and turning the soil.
This is made of wood and is drawn by a pair of
bulls or other animals (horses and camels). It
contains a strong triangular iron strip called
ploughshare. The main part of the plough is a
long log of wood which is called a ploughshaft.
There is a handle at one end of the shaft. The
other end is attached to a beam which is
placed on the bulls’ necks. One pair of bulls
and a man can easily operate the plough .
• The indigenous wooden plough is increasingly
being replaced by iron ploughs nowadays.
• Hoe : It is a simple tool grip beam

which is used for removing handle

weeds and for loosening

the soil. It has a long rod of
bent plate
wood or iron. A strong, rod

broad and bent plate of iron A hoe

is fixed to one of its ends

and works like a blade. It is
pulled by animals.
• Cultivator : Nowadays
ploughing is done by
tractor-driven cultivator. The
use of cultivator saves
labour and time Cultivator driven by a tractor
 Sowing
• Sowing is an important part of
crop production. Before sowing,
good quality, clean and healthy
seeds of a good variety—are
selected. Farmers prefer to use
seeds which give high yield.
• Traditional tool : The tool used
traditionally for sowing seeds is
shaped like a funnel. The seeds
are filled into the funnel, passed
down through two or three pipes Traditional method of sowing
having sharp ends. These ends
pierce into the soil and place
seeds there.
• Seed drill : Nowadays the seed
drill is used for sowing with the help
of tractors. This sows the seeds
uniformly at equal distance and
depth. It ensures that seeds get
covered by the soil after sowing.
This protects seeds from being
eaten by birds. Sowing by using a
seed drill saves time and labour.
• Appropriate distance between the A seed drill
seeds is necessary to avoid
overcrowding of plants. This allows
plants to get sufficient sunlight,
nutrients and water from the soil. At
times a few plants may have to be
removed to prevent overcrowding.
 Adding Manure and Fertilisers
• The substances which are added to the soil in the form of
nutrients for the healthy growth of plants are called manure and
fertilisers.
• Soil supplies mineral nutrients to the crop plants. These nutrients
are essential for the growth of plants. In certain areas, farmers
grow crop after crop in the same field. The field is never left
uncultivated or fallow.
• Continuous cultivation of crops makes the soil poor in nutrients.
Therefore, farmers have to add manure to the fields to replenish
the soil with nutrients. This process is called manuring. Improper
or insufficient manuring results in weak plants.
• Manure is an organic substance obtained from the decomposition
of plant or animal wastes. Farmers dump plant and animal waste
in pits at open places and allow it to decompose. The
decomposition is caused by some microorganisms. The
decomposed matter is used as organic manure.
• Fertilisers are chemicals which are rich in a particular
nutrient. How are they different from manure? Fertilisers
are produced in factories. Some examples of fertilisers
are— urea, ammonium sulphate, super phosphate,
potash, NPK (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium).
• The use of fertilisers has helped farmers to get better
yield of crops such as wheat, paddy and maize. But
excessive use of fertilisers has made the soil less fertile.
Fertilisers have also become a source of water
pollution. Therefore, in order to maintain the fertility of
the soil, we have to substitute fertilisers with organic
manure or leave the field uncultivated (fallow) in
between two crops.
• The use of manure improves soil texture as well as its
water retaining capacity. It replenishes the soil with
nutrients.
• Another method of replenishing the soil with
nutrients is through crop rotation. This can
be done by growing different crops
alternately. Earlier, farmers in northern India
used to grow legumes as fodder in one
season and wheat in the next season. This
helped in the replenishment of the soil with
nitrogen. Farmers are being encouraged to
adopt this practice.
• In the previous classes, you have learnt
about Rhizobium bacteria. These are present
in the nodules of roots of leguminous plants.
They fix atmospheric nitrogen
Differences between Fertiliser and
Manure
S.No Fertiliser Manure

1 Fertiliser is a man-made inorganic Manure is a natural substance

salt. obtained by the decomposition
of cattle dung
and plant residues.

2 Fertiliser is prepared in factories. Manure can be prepared in the

fields.

3 Fertiliser does not provide any humus Manure provides a lot of humus
to the soil. to the soil.

4 Fertilisers are very rich in plant Manure is relatively less rich in

nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus and plant nutrients.
potassium.

Advantages of Manure : The organic manure is considered better

than fertilisers. This is because :
•it enhances the water holding capacity of the soil.
•it makes the soil porous due to which exchange of gases becomes
easy.
•it increases the number of friendly microbes.
•it improves the texture of the soil.
 Irrigation
• All living beings need water to live. Water is important for
proper growth and development. Water is absorbed by the
plant roots. Along with water, minerals and fertilisers are also
absorbed. Plants contain nearly 90% water. Water is essential
because germination of seeds does not take place under dry
conditions. Nutrients dissolved in water are transported to
each part of the plant. Water also protects the crop from both
frost and hot air currents. To maintain the moisture of the soil
for healthy crop growth, fields have to be watered regularly.
• The supply of water to crops at regular intervals is called
irrigation. The time and frequency of irrigation varies from
crop to crop, soil to soil and season to season. In summer, the
frequency of watering is higher. Why is it so? Could it be due
to the increased rate of evaporation of water from the soil and
the leaves?
• Sources of irrigation : The sources of water for irrigation are
— wells, tubewells, ponds, lakes, rivers, dams and canals.
Traditional Methods of Irrigation
• The water available in wells, lakes and canals is
lifted up by different methods in different
regions, for taking it to the fields.
• Cattle or human labour is used in these
methods. So these methods are cheaper, but
less efficient. The various traditional ways are:
 moat (pulley -system)
 chain pump
 dhekli, and
 rahat (Lever system)
• Pumps are commonly used for lifting water.
Diesel, biogas, electricity and solar energy is
used to run these pumps.
 Moat Dhekli

Chain pump Rahat

Modern Methods of Irrigation
Modern methods of irrigation help us to use water economically. The
main methods used are as follows:
Sprinkler System: This system is more useful on the uneven land
where sufficient water is not available. The perpendicular pipes,
having rotating nozzles on top, are joined to the main pipeline at
regular intervals. When water is allowed to flow through the main
pipe under pressure with the help of a pump, it escapes from the
rotating nozzles. It gets sprinkled on the crop as if it is raining.
Sprinkler is very useful for lawns, coffee plantation and several
other crops

Sprinkler system
 Drip system : In this system, the water falls
drop by drop directly near the roots. So it is
called drip system. It is the best technique for
watering fruit plants, gardens and trees . Water
is not wasted at all. It is a boon in regions where
availability of water is poor.

Drip System
• Weeds are also controlled by using
certain chemicals, called weedicides,
like 2,4-D. These are sprayed in the
fields to kill the weeds. They do not
damage the crops. The weedicides are
diluted with water to the extent
required and sprayed in the fields with
a sprayer.
• As already mentioned, the weedicides
are sprayed during the vegetative
growth of weeds before flowering and
Spraying weedicide
seed formation. Spraying of
weedicides may affect the health of
farmers. So they should use these
chemicals very carefully. They should
cover their nose and mouth with a
piece of cloth during spraying of these
chemicals.
 Protection from Weeds
• In a field many other undesirable plants may grow naturally
along with the crop. These undesirable plants are called
weeds.
• The removal of weeds is called weeding. Weeding is
necessary since weeds compete with the crop plants for
water, nutrients, space and light. Thus, they affect the growth
of the crop. Some weeds interfere even in harvesting and may
be poisonous for animals and human beings.
• Farmers adopt many ways to remove weeds and control their
growth. Tilling before sowing of crops helps in uprooting and
killing of weeds, which may then dry up and get mixed with
the soil. The best time for the removal of weeds is before they
produce flowers and seeds. The manual removal includes
physical removal of weeds by uprooting or cutting them close
to the ground, from time to time. This is done with the help of
a khurpi. A seed drill is also used to uproot weeds.
 Harvesting
• Harvesting of a crop is an important task.
The cutting of crop after it is mature is
called harvesting. In harvesting, crops are Sickle

pulled out or cut close to the ground. It

usually takes 3 to 4 months for a cereal
crop to mature.
• Harvesting in our country is either done
manually by sickle or by a machine called
harvester. In the harvested crop, the grain
seeds need to be separated from the chaff. Combine
This process is called threshing. This is
carried out with the help of a machine
called ‘combine’ which is in fact a
harvester as well as a thresher.
• Farmers with small holdings of land do the
separation of grain and chaff by
winnowing Winnowing machine
 Storage
• Storage of produce is an important
task. If the harvested grains are to be
kept for longer time, they should be
safe from moisture, insects, rats and
microorganisms. Harvested grains
have more moisture. If freshly
harvested grains (seeds) are stored Silos for storage of grains
without drying, they may get spoilt or
attacked by organisms, making them
unfit for use or for germination. Hence,
before storing them, the grains are
properly dried in the sun to reduce the
moisture in them. This prevents the
attack by insect pests, bacteria and
fungi.
• Farmers store grains in jute bags or
metallic bins. However, large scale
storage of grains is done in silos and
Storage of grains in gunny bags
granaries to protect them from pests in granaries
like rats and insects.
Dried neem leaves are used for storing
food grains at home. For storing large
quantities of grains in big godowns,
specific chemical treatments are required
to protect them from pests and
microorganisms
 Food from Animals
Many people living in the coastal areas
consume fish as a major part of their diet.
In the previous classes you have learnt
about the food that we obtain from plants.
We have just seen that the process of crop
production involves a number of steps like
selection of seeds, sowing, etc. Similarly,
animals reared at home or in farms, have to
be provided with proper food, shelter and
care. When this is done on a large scale, it
is called animal husbandry.
 Transport of Water , Mineral and Food
in Plants
• Green plants make their own food by a process called
photosynthesis. They used carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere enters the leaves through stomata. Water and
minerals are absorbed from the soil by the roots . This water
needs to be carried to the leaves and other parts of the plant.
• The food prepared by the leaves also needs to be
transported to all parts of the plant. So , all plants need a
transport system to
 Transport water and minerals absorbed by the roots up to
leaves
 Transport food prepared by the leaves to all other parts of
the plant
• The transport system in plants moves the absorbed or
synthesized substances from one part of the plant to the
other.
• Unlike animals , plants do not have
a well developed transport system.
In single-celled plants ( like
Chlamydomonas) and simple
multicellular plants (like Spirogyra),
transport of materials occurs
through diffusion.
• In higher multicellular plants ,
transport is carried out by special
conducting tissues-xylem and
pholem.
• The xylem and phloem are also
called vascular tissues or vascular
bundles . These vascular tissues
extend from the root tip to the shoot
tip of the plant. The cells of the
xylem and phloem from the long
tubes for transportation of materials
to all parts of the plants.
CONDUCTING TISSUES IN PLANTS
Xylem
Xylem is a complex conducting tissue. It is
made up of four types of cells- vessels,
tracheids, xylem parenchyma and xylem
fibers. Except for the xylem parenchyma , all
other cells are dead. The cells of the xylem are
thick walled. They form a tube-like passage for
conduction of water.
1. Vessels: These are long tube-like structures. They are formed by a
row of cells placed end to end . The end walls between the cells
dissolve to form a continuous hollow tube. They are both at both
ends. The walls have deposition of lignin , so they provide
mechanical support. They transport water and minerals laterally
and vertically upwards.
2. Tracheids: These are long and narrow cells that taper at both ends.
The walls have deposition of lignin. They help in the upward
conduction of water and provide mechanical support.
3. Xylem Fibers: These are long and narrow sclerenchymatous cells.
They taper at both ends. They provide mechanical support.
4. Xylem Parenchyma: These are living cells. The have thin cell walls.
They store food. They also help in the conduction of water and
minerals.
Functions
5. It carries water and minerals upwards from the roots to the leaves
through tracheids and vessels.
6. It gives mechanical support to plants.
Phloem
Phloem is also a complex conducting tissue. It is made
up of four types of cells – sieve tubes, companion
cells, phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres.

1. Sieve Tubes: These are tube- like structures. They

are made of elongated and thin walled cells , joined
end to end. The end walls are perforated (have
pores). They are called sieve plates . They conduct
food.
2. Companion Cells : These are elongated thin-walled cells. They are placed
adjacent to
sieve tubes and are connected to them by pores. They also help in the
conduction of
food minerals.
3.Phloem Fibres: These are thick walled, spindle-shaped, dead cells made of
sclerenchvmatous fibres . They give mechanical strength to the plant.
4. Phloem Parenchyma: These are thin-walled parenchyma cells. They store food.
Functions
Phloem transports food prepared by the leaves to other parts of the plant. The
food moves in both directions (upwards and downwards) in the phloem. The
sieve tubes conduct food alongwith companion cells. The phloem fibres give
mechanical strength to the plant. Phloem parenchyma stores food.
 IMPORTANCE OF WATER AND
MINERALS FOR PLANTS
Water
1. It transports substances in the solution form one part to another.
2. It is used for making food by the process of photosynthesis.[ Water
combines with carbon dioxide in the presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll to make glucose(food)].
3. The excess water evaporates from the surface of leaves by the
process of transpiration. It provides suction pull that causes ascent
of sap. It also provides a cooling effect.

Minerals
Minerals(nutrients) are necessary for the growth and development
of plants. Plants get these minerals from the soil.
On the basis of quantity , these minerals are divided into two
groups – micronutrients and macronutrients.
Micronutrients are required in small quantities, whereas
macronutrients are required in large quantities.
.S.no Nutrients Major Roles Deficiency symptoms

Macronutrients
1. Nitrogen (N) Essential constituent of all Yellowing of leaves and
proteins and chlorophyll wrinkling of grains

2. Phosphorus(P) Constituent of certain proteins Premature falling of leaves,

and cell membrane purple and red spots of leaves ,
delay in germination of seeds.
3. Potassium(K) Involved in opening and closing Curling of leaf tips, yellowing of
of stomata leaves and poor plant growth.

Micronutrients
4. Iron (Fe) Constituent of certain enzymes Yellowing of leaves and weak
and proteins stem

5. Zinc(Zn) Controls the activity of certain Yellowing of leaves, deformed

enzymes and is a constituent leaves and stunted growth in
of plant hormones plants.
6. Manganese(Mn) Constituent of certain enzymes Yellowing of leaves with grey
spots
 TRANSPORT OF WATER AND MINERALS
Absorption of Water and Minerals by Root Hair

Plants absorb water and minerals through

their roots. Roots have a large number of
root hair. These are fine outgrowths of the
epidermal cells of the roots.
The epidermal cells have an outer cell wall
and an inner cell membrane. The cell wall is
a freely permeable membrane. It allows all
substances to pass through it.
The cell membrane is semi-permeable in nature. It allows water molecules to pass
through, but no the larger molecules. Thus , water molecules enter the cytoplasm
through cell membrane.
Features of root hair that help in the absorption of water-
1. They have a large surface area that allows more absorption of water.
2. Numerous tiny pores are present all over the membranes of root hair. Water
molecules enter through these pores.
3. The cell sap of root cells is more concentrated ( contains more solute) than the
surrounding soil water.
4. The cell wall of root hair is freely permeable and the cell membrane is semi-
permeable.
Movement of Water Molecules
Water Molecules move in plants in three ways – diffusion, osmosis and active transport.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of molecules ( solid,liquid or gas) from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration until equilibrium is reached.

Water enters the root cell through the cell wall by

diffusion. This process does not require energy.

Osmosis
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules
from the region of higher water concentration
to the region of lower water concentration
through a semi-permeable membrane.
Osmosis
The concentration of water in soil is higher as compared to root cells. We have
read that cell sap is more concentrated. Thus , water enters the root cells from the
soil through osmosis.

The concentration of water and minerals is same in all root cells. When water
enters the root hair, its concentration increases as compared to adjacent cortex
cells. Thus water moves from the root hair cells to cells of the cortex, then
endodermis, then pericycle, and finally reaches the xylem tissue through osmosis.
 Water is transported upwards to the stem, leaves and branches through
xylem. The upward movement of water and minerals(against gravity)
in a plant through xylem is called ascent of sap.
The root hair absorb water and minerals from the soil through diffusion.
The water molecules enter the root hair cells by osmosis, because the
concentration of water is higher in the soil as compared to root hair cells.
Active Transport

Unlike water , the concentration of minerals is more

in the root hair cells than in the soil. Therefore , they
need to be absorbed from the lower concentration
(soil) to the higher concentration(cell) . This
movement needs energy. It is called active
transport. The movement of particles from a
region of lower concentration to a region of
higher concentration by utilizing energy is called
active transport. Hence, active transport occurs
against concentration gradient. The minerals
dissolved in water are transported in the solution
form. When the concentration of minerals in soil is
higher than that in the cells of root hair, they enter the
root hair cells through diffusion.
 TRANSPIRATION
Plants absorb water through their roots. It is a continuous process. The
water goes to all parts of the plants. The plants utilise and retain only a small
amount of water.( The plants use water for making food. Some amount of
water is stored in certain parts). The remaining water evaporates into the
atmosphere through stomata.(Stomata are present on epidermis of the leaf).
This process is called transpiration.

The loss of excess water from plants mainly through leaves as water
vapour is called transpiration.

Transpiration helps in ascent of sap. Due to transpiration, the concentration

of water in the cells of leaves decreases. As a result, water from neighbouring
xylem vessels enters the leaf cells. The loss of water from a leaf creates a
suction force. As a result, water from the cells below that rises upwards. This
pulls the water upwards from the roots to great heights in tall trees. Water
molecules are pulled up because of their tendency of cohesion, i.e. sticking
with each other.

The suction pull produced in xylem vessels by transpiration is similar to the

Root Pressure
Due to the continuous inflow of water, pressure develops in
the roots. It is called root pressure. It helps in the upward
conduction of water, i.e., ascent of sap , up to certain height.

The process of transpiration and absorption of water by

root hair are independent.
As water is lost through transpiration, more water is
absorbed by root hair. This water rises in the xylem by the
capillary force. Xylem tissues are narrower in diameter and
act like capillary tubes, so capillary force acts upon them.

When the loss of water through transpiration is more than

the absorption of water by root hair, the plant cells start
losing water. Due to excessive loss of water, the leaves,
stem and flowers begin to droop. This is called wilting. It
usually happens in hot and dry weather.
Factors Affecting The Rate Of Transpiration
1. Sunlight: Rate of transpiration is faster during
daytime. This is because stomata are open during
daytime to allow the entry of carbon dioxide for the
process of photosynthesis.
2. Temperature : Rate of transpiration increases with
increase in temperature. That is why on a hot summer
day transpiration is faster than on a cold winter day.
3. Humidity: Rate of transpiration decreases with
increase in humidity. This happens because air has
already enough moisture, so it cannot hold any more.
4. Wind: Rate of transpiration increases when wind blows
faster, because water vapour is quickly removed from
the leaves.
Importance Of Transpiration
1. Absorption: It helps maintain the
concentration of sap inside the plant body.
When leaves lose water through transpiration,
more water is pulled upwards(from roots,
through xylem) to replace the lost water. It
results in further absorption and transport of
water and minerals from the soil.
2. Cooling effect: During the process of
transpiration, water is evaporated from the
plant. Evaporation causes cooling of the plant
body ( The head needed for evaporation is
taken from the plant).
 TRANSLOCATION OF FOOD IN
PLANTS
During photosynthesis, leave synthesise
glucose (food) . This glucose is converted
into sucrose and transported to various
parts of the plant, through the phloem. The
transportation of food from leaves to other
parts of a plant is called translocation.