Essentials of

Biology
Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht

Chapter 5

The Dynamic Cell

5.1 What Is Energy?
• Energy is the capacity to do work
• Our biosphere gets its energy from
the sun
• 2 basic forms of energy
• Potential energy – stored energy
• Kinetic energy – energy of motion
• 2 forms are converted back and forth
Potential energy versus kinetic energy

e rgy potential ki n
eti
en energy ce
etic ne
k i n rgy
• Measuring energy
 Food energy measured in
calories
 calorie – amount of heat
required to raise temperature
of 1 gram of water by 1°C
 Kilocalorie or Calorie = 1,000
calories
• Value listed on food
packages
ATP: Energy for Cells
• Adenosine triphosphate
 Energy currency for cells
 Cells use ATP to carry out nearly all
activities
 One nucleotide along with 3 phosphate
groups makes it unstable
 Easily loses a phosphate group to become
ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
 Continual cycle of breakdown and
regeneration
ATP

adenine ribose triphosphate (ATP)

P P P
 The Structure of ATP
• ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
– Is the cell’s energy shuttle
– Provides energy for cellular functions

Adenine NH2

N C
C N
O O O HC
CH
C
-O O O O CH2
O
N
N

O - O - O -
H H

Phosphate groups H H Ribose

OH OH
 The ATP cycle

ATP

energy released during energy for cellular work

cellular respiration (e.g., protein synthesis,
muscle contraction)

ADP + P

• ATP releases energy quickly

• Amount of energy released is usually just
enough for a biological purpose
• Breakdown can be easily coupled to an
energy-requiring reaction
 ATP ADP + P

C+D A+B
Coupling

• Coupled reactions
 Energy-releasing reaction can drive an
energy-requiring reaction
 Usually energy-releasing reaction is ATP
breakdown
• Flow of energy
 Activities of chloroplasts and mitochondria
enable energy to flow from the sun
through all living things

 Photosynthesis – solar energy used to

convert water and carbon dioxide into
carbohydrates
• Food for plants and other organisms
 Cellular respiration – carbohydrates
broken down and energy used to build ATP
 Energy Conversions

Flow of energy heat solar

energy

chloroplast

O2
Chemical energy
CO2 and H2O
(carbohydrate)

mitochondrion

heat

ATP
Chemical work
Transport work
Mechanical work
Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes
E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6
A  B  C  D  E  F  G

• Metabolic pathway – series of linked

reactions
 Product of a previous reaction becomes
the reactant of the next reaction
 The letters A-G indicate substrates
 The letters E1-E6 represent enzymes
• Protein molecules that function as organic
catalysts speed up reactions
Enzymatic action

products
active substrate
site

enzyme reaction occurs enzyme

• Enzymes
 Act on substrates
 May facilitate breakdown or synthesis
reactions
Enzymatic action

substrate
active
site

• Enzyme’s active site

 Accommodates substrate
enzyme
 Like a lock and key – specific to one
substrate
 Induced fit model – undergoes slight shape
change to accommodate substrate
 Change in shape facilitates reaction
 Active site returns to original shape after
releasing product(s)
 Enzymes are not used up by the reaction
• Induced fit of a substrate
– Brings chemical groups of the active site into positions
that enhance their ability to catalyze the chemical
reaction

Substate

Active site

Enzyme- substrate
Enzyme complex

(a) (b)
• Energy of activation
 Molecules frequently do not react with
each other unless activated
 Energy of activation (Ea) – energy needed
to cause molecules to react with one
another
 Enzymes lower the amount of energy
required
 Enzymes bring substrates into contact and
even sometimes participate in reaction
 Energy of activation (Ea)

•A LOWER
without
enzyme

hurdle is
energy of activation
(more needed) easier/
with
enzyme faster to get
over
Potential Energy

energy of
reactant
activation
(less needed) •A LOWER
energy of
product activation
makes a
reaction
Reaction
easier/
faster
• Enzymes
– Lower the activation energy for chemical reactions
Activation energy
barrier

Enzyme
Reactants

Products

(a) Without enzyme (b) With enzyme

Cell Transport
• Plasma membrane regulates traffic in and out
of cell
• Selectively permeable – some substances
pass freely, some transported, some
prohibited
• 3 ways to enter
 Passive transport – substances move from higher
to lower concentration, no additional energy
required
 Active transport – substances move from lower to
higher concentration, additional energy is required
 Bulk transport – movement independent of
gradients, additional energy required
Molecules of dye Membrane (cross section)

WATER

Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium

(a) Diffusion of one solute

 Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium

Net diffusion Net diffusion Equilibrium

(b) Diffusion of two solutes

 Osmosis

• Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively

permeable membrane

• Water diffuses across a membrane from the region of

lower solute concentration (hypotonic) to the region of
higher solute concentration (hypertonic)
Lower Higher Same concentration
concentration concentration of sugar
of solute (sugar) of sugar

H2O

Selectively
permeable
membrane

Osmosis
• Effect of osmosis on
cells Red blood cells

 Isotonic solution
• Cell neither gains nor
loses water
• Concentration of water normal cells
same on both sides of Isotonic
the membrane solution

• 0.9% saline isotonic to normal cell

red blood cells

Osmosis in animal and

plant cells Plant cells
 Hypotonic solution
• Concentration of
water outside cell
greater than inside
cell
• Cell gains water cells swell, burst

• Animal cells may lyse Hypotonic

solution
or burst
normal turgid cell
• Plant cells use this to
remain turgid

Figure 5.13 Osmosis in

animal and plant cells
Hypertonic solution
• Concentration of
water outside cell less
than inside cell
shriveled cells
• Cell loses water
Hypertonic
• Animal cells shrink solution
• Plant cells undergo cytoplasm shrinks
plasmolysis and from cell wall

may wilt

Osmosis in animal and

plant cells
Active transport
Low concentration

Outside

transport ADP
protein

ATP P

Inside P

High concentration

• Active transport
 Cells expend energy to move molecules
against a concentration gradient
 Requires transport protein
 Sodium-potassium pump important in
maintaining gradient of ions used in nerve
impulse conduction
• Bulk Transport
 Macromolecules are often too
large to be moved by transport
proteins
 Vesicle formation takes them in
or out of cell
 Exocytosis – movement out of
cell
 Endocytosis – movement into
cell
Exocytosis

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plasma membrane

Inside

a. Exocytosis
Endocytosis
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Inside

b. Endocytosis