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‫صدق ألله العظيم‬ ‫‪June 23, 2025‬‬
 Biology and Cell biology
By

Dr. Inas Saad

University of Technology - Biomedical Engineering Department –

Biomechanics Branch

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  Biology is a branch of science that deals with living organisms and their
vital processes. Biology encompasses diverse fields.
 The field deals with all the physicochemical aspects of life, including:
botany, conservation, ecology, evolution, genetics, marine biology,
medicine, microbiology, molecular biology, physiology, and zoology.
 Modern principles of other fields chemistry, medicine, and physics, for
example are integrated with those of biology in areas such as
biochemistry, biomedicine, and biophysics.

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 Biology is important

 As a field of science, biology helps us understand the living world and

the ways its many species (including humans) function, evolve, and
interact.
 Advances in medicine, agriculture, biotechnology, and many other
areas of biology have brought improvements in the quality of life.
 Fields such as: genetics and evolution give insight into the past and
can help shape the future, and research in ecology and conservation
inform how we can protect this planet’s precious biodiversity.

Biological principles

Homeostasis
 The concept of homeostasis: that living things maintain a constant
internal environment.
 It was first suggested in the 19th century by French physiologist
Claude Bernard, who stated that “all the vital mechanisms, varied as
they are have only one object: that of preserving constant the
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 Cell biology
 Cell biology (also cellular biology or cytology) is a branch of biology that
studies the structure, function, and behavior of cells.
 A cell is the smallest unit that is a fundamental unit of life.
 All living organisms are made of cells from just one (unicellular) to many
trillions (multicellular).
 A cell is the basic unit of life that is responsible for the living and functioning
of organisms. Cell biology is the study of structural and functional units of
cells.
 Cell biology encompasses both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and has
many subtopics which may include the study of: cell metabolism,
cell communication, cell cycle, biochemistry, and cell composition.
 The study of cells is performed using several: microscopy techniques,
cell culture, and cell fractionation.
 Cells work is fundamental to all biological sciences while also being essential for
research in biomedical fields such as: cancer, and other diseases. Research in
cell biology is interconnected to other fields such as genetics,
molecular genetics, molecular biology, medical microbiology,
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 Cell Structure
 Ideas about cell structure have changed considerably over the
years. Early biologists saw cells as simple membranous sacs
containing fluid and a few floating particles. Today's biologists
know that cells are infinitely more complex than this.

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  There are many different types, sizes, and shapes of cells in the body.
 A cell consists of three parts: the cell membrane, the nucleus, and,
between the two, the cytoplasm.
 Within the cytoplasm lie intricate arrangements of fine fibers and
hundreds or even thousands of miniscule but distinct structures called
organelles.

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 1. Cell membrane
• Every cell in the body is enclosed by a cell (Plasma) membrane.
• The cell membrane separates the material outside the cell
(extracellular), from the material inside the cell, intracellular.
• It maintains the integrity of a cell and controls passage of materials
into and out of the cell.
• All materials within a cell must have access to the cell membrane (the
cell's boundary) for the needed exchange.
• The cell membrane is a double layer of phospholipid molecules.
Proteins in the cell membrane provide structural support, form
channels for passage of materials, act as receptor sites, function as
carrier molecules, and provide identification markers.

2. Nucleus and Nucleolus

o The nucleus, formed by a nuclear membrane around a fluid
nucleoplasm, is the control center of the cell.
o Threads of chromatin in the nucleus contain deoxyribonucleic acid (
DNA), the genetic material of the cell.
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 o The nucleolus is a dense region of ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the nucleus
and is the site of ribosome formation.
o The nucleus determines how the cell will function, as well as the basic
structure of that cell.
3. Cytoplasm
• Cytoplasmic organelles are "little organs" that are suspended in the
cytoplasm of the cell.
• Each type of organelle has a definite structure and a specific role in the
function of the cell.
• Examples of cytoplasmic organelles are mitochondrion, ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, and lysosomes.

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 Cell types
i. There are two fundamental classifications of cells: prokaryotic and
eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are distinguished from eukaryotic cells by
the absence of a cell nucleus or other membrane-bound organelle.
ii. Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells, making them
the smallest form of life.
iii. Prokaryotic cells include Bacteria and Archaea, and lack an enclosed
cell nucleus.
iv. Eukaryotic cells are found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists. They
range from (10 to 100 μm) in diameter, and their DNA is contained
within a membrane-bound nucleus.
v. Eukaryotes are organisms containing eukaryotic cells. The four
eukaryotic kingdoms are: Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, and Protista.
vi. They both reproduce through binary fission. Bacteria, the most
prominent type, have several different shapes, although most are
spherical or rod-shaped. Bacteria can be classed as either
gram-positive or gram-negative depending on the cell wall
composition.
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 i. Bacterial structural features include a flagellum that helps the
cell to move, ribosomes for the translation of RNA to
protein, and a nucleoid that holds all the genetic material in a
circular structure.
ii. There are many processes that occur in prokaryotic cells that
allow them to survive. In prokaryotes, mRNA synthesis is
initiated at a promoter sequence on the DNA template
comprising two consensus sequences that recruit RNA
polymerase.
iii. The prokaryotic polymerase consists of a core enzyme of four
protein subunits and a protein that assists only with initiation.
iv. For instance, in a process termed conjugation, the fertility
factor allows the bacteria to possess a pilus (a hair-like
appendage found on the surface of many bacteria and archaea.) which

allows it to transmit DNA to another bacteria.

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 Structure of Eukaryotic cells
A. Nucleus: The nucleus of the cell functions as the genome and genetic
information storage for the cell, containing all the DNA organized in the form
of chromosomes.
 It is surrounded by a nuclear envelope, which includes: nuclear pores
allowing for the transportation of proteins between the inside and outside of
the nucleu.
 This is also the site for replication of DNA as well as transcription of DNA
to RNA. Afterwards, the RNA is modified and transported out to the cytosol
to be translated to protein.
B. Nucleolus:
 This structure is within the nucleus, usually dense and spherical in shape.
 It is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis, which is needed for ribosomal
assembly.
C. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER):
 This functions to synthesize, store, and secrete proteins to the Golgi apparatus.
 Structurally, the endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes found

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  The membranes are slightly different from cell to cell and a cell's function
determines the size and structure of the ER.
D. Mitochondria:
o Commonly known as the powerhouse of the cell is a double membrane bound
cell organelle.
o This functions for the production of energy or ATP within the cell.
o Afterwards, these products are used within the electron transport chain (ETC) and
oxidative phosphorylation for the final production of ATP.
E. Golgi apparatus:
 This functions to further process, package, and secrete the proteins to their
destination.
 The proteins contain a signal sequence that allows the Golgi apparatus to
recognize and direct it to the correct place.
 Golgi apparatus also produce glycoproteins and glycolipids.
F. Lysosome:
 The lysosome functions to degrade material brought in from the outside of the
cell or old organelles.

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  This contains many acid hydrolases, proteases, nucleases, and lipases, which
break down the various molecules.
G. Autophagy
o It is the process of degradation through lysosomes and engulfs the material,
then, attaches and fuses with the lysosome to allow the material to be degraded.
H. Ribosomes:
• Functions to translate RNA to protein. it serves as a site of protein synthesis.
I. Cytoskeleton:
 Cytoskeleton is a structure that helps to maintain the shape and general
organization of the cytoplasm.
 It anchors organelles within the cells and makes up the structure and stability of
the cell.
 The cytoskeleton is composed of three principal types of protein filaments: actin
filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules, which are held together and
linked to subcellular organelles and the plasma membrane by a variety of
accessory proteins.

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J. Cell membrane:
 The cell membrane can be described as a phospholipid bilayer and is also
consisted of lipids and proteins.
 Because the inside of the bilayer is hydrophobic and in order for molecules to
participate in reactions within the cell, they need to be able to cross this
membrane layer to get into the cell via osmotic pressure, diffusion,
concentration gradients, and membrane channels.
K. Centrioles:
o Function to produce spindle fibers which are used to separate chromosomes
during cell division.

Eukaryotic cells may also be composed of the following molecular

components:
i. Chromatin: This makes up chromosomes and is a mixture of DNA with
various proteins.
ii. Cilia: They help to propel substances and can also be used for sensory
purposes.
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 The Four Main Types of Cells
I. Epithelial Cells. These cells are tightly attached to one another.
II. Nerve Cells. These cells are specialized for communication.
III. Muscle Cells. These cells are specialized for contraction.
IV. Connective Tissue Cells.

The Functions of the Cell Wall

1. Renders mechanical strength.
2. Serve as food reservoir.
3. It maintains the shape of the cell.
4. It regulates the intercellular transport.
5. It regulates the expansion of cells.
6. Provides protection against pathogens.

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 Cell metabolism
 Cell metabolism is necessary for the production of energy for the
cell and therefore its survival and includes many pathways.
 For cellular respiration, once glucose is available, glycolysis occurs
within the cytosol of the cell to produce pyruvate.
 Pyruvate undergoes decarboxylation using the multi-enzyme
complex to form acetyl coA which can readily be used in the
TCA cycle to produce NADH and FADH2.
 These products are involved in the electron transport chain to
ultimately form a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial
membrane.
 This gradient can then drive the production of ATP and H2O during
oxidative phosphorylation.
 Metabolism in plant cells includes photosynthesis which is simply
the exact opposite of respiration as it ultimately produces molecules
of glucose.
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 Techniques
Cell biology research looks at different ways to culture and manipulate cells outside
of a living body to further research in human anatomy and physiology. Due to
advancements in microscopy, techniques and technology have allowed scientists to
hold a better understanding of the structure and function of cells. Many techniques
commonly used to study cell biology are listed below.
1. Cell culture:
 Utilizes rapidly growing cells on media which allows for a large amount of a
specific cell type and an efficient way to study cells.
 Cell culture is one of the major tools used in cellular and molecular biology, the
effects of drugs and toxic compounds on the cells, and mutagenesis and
carcinogenesis.
2. Fluorescence microscopy: are used to label a specific component of the cell.
3. Phase-contrast microscopy: Uses the optical aspect of light to represent the
solid, liquid, and gas-phase changes as brightness differences.
4. Confocal microscopy: Combines fluorescence microscopy with imaging by
focusing light and snap shooting instances to form a 3-D image.
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 5. Transmission electron microscopy: Involves metal staining and the passing
of electrons through the cells, which will be deflected upon interaction with metal.
6. Cytometry: The cells are placed in the machine which uses a beam to scatter
the cells based on different aspects and can therefore separate them based on size
and content.
7. Cell fractionation: This process requires breaking up the cell using high
temperature or sonification followed by centrifugation to separate the parts of the
cell allowing for them to be studied separately.

Pathology
a. The scientific branch that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level
is called cytopathology.
b. Cytopathology is commonly used to investigate diseases involving a wide
range of body sites, often to aid in the diagnosis of cancer but also in the
diagnosis of some infectious diseases and other inflammatory conditions in
contrast to the pathology branch of histopathology, which studies whole
tissues.

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