Chapter 1

Introduction to
Research Methods

1 June 24, 2025

 Chapter Outline
1) Meaning of research

2) Types of research

3) Scientific Method of research

4) Objectives of research

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Oct-16/2016
 What is the difference between
common sense and science?
What are the steps that people
should follow in scientific
methods of knowing?
What are the strengths of
scientific method?
 What are the limitations of
scientific method of knowing?
3 June 24, 2025
 Scientific research follows
logical steps, which include:
defining the problem making
tentative explanations
gathering information
testing the validity of the
hypothesis
making conclusions as to
whether the hypothesis can
4 be accepted or rejected June 24, 2025
 Scientific methods:
find general rules
collect objective evidences
make testable statements
adopt a skeptical attitude
about all claims
are creative
are productive.

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 Limitations of Scientific
Method
 The scientific method cannot
answer all questions
 Application of the scientific
method can never capture the
full richness of the individual and
the environment
 The measurement devices always
have some degree of error.

6 June 24, 2025

 Meaning of Research
Research in common parlance refers to a
search for knowledge
 Research is simply the process of thoroughly
studying and analysing the situational factors
surrounding a problem in order to seek out
solutions to it

The process of problem solving

 It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study,

observation, Comparison and experiment

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 Meaning of research cont…
 Research=Re+ Search,
 Re= anew, over again
 Search=to test and to probe
 Together, Research=a carefully, systematic study
and investigation in some flied of knowledge
 Basically, research a scientific and systematic
search for pertinent information on a specific
topic
 It is an art of scientific investigation
 Is a careful investigation or inquiry specially
through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge
 It is a voyage of discovery

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 Meaning of research cont…
• The strict definition of scientific
research is performing a methodical
study in order to prove a hypothesis
or answer a specific question.
• Finding a definitive answer is the
central goal of any experimental
process.
• Research must be systematic and
follow a series of steps and a rigid
standard protocol.
9 June 24, 2025
 Meaning of research cont…
• Research is:
 Systematic - so ordered, planned and
disciplined;
 Controlled - the researcher can have
confidence in his/her research
outcomes;
 Empirical - putting beliefs, ideas, or
assumptions to a test; and
 Critical - many truths are tentative
and are subject to change as a result
of subsequent research.
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 Characteristics of Scientific
Research
 is directed toward the solution of a problem
 is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence
 demands accurate observation and description
 involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources
or using existing data for a new purpose
 is characterized by carefully designed procedures, always
applying rigorous analysis.
 requires expertise
 is characterized by patient and unhurried activity
 is carefully recorded and reported
 emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or
theories that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences

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 Goal of Scientific Research
Describing phenomena
Explaining phenomena
Predicting phenomena
Controlling phenomena
 Comparing phenomena

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 Classification of Research

1. Based on the Goal of Research

2. Based on the Specific Objectives
of Research
3. Based on Approaches of
Research
4. Research based on Designs
5. Research by Type of Data
6. Research by Fields of Study
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 Types of Research
1. Basic / pure Research / Fundamental Research:
 Developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are
intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may
not have practical application at the present time or in the
future.

 The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in

order to add to the existing body of research methods.

 Mainly concerned with generalizations and with the

formulation of a theory
 Attempts to expand the limits of knowledge.
 Not directly involved in the solution to a pragmatic problem.

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 Basic Research Example
Research concerning some natural
phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics
concerning human behavior carried on with a
view to make generalizations about human
behavior

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 Applied Research/Action Research

 A current problem facing to the manager in the work

setting and demanding a timely solution is called applied
research.

 Aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem

facing a society or an industrial/business organization

 Conducted when a decision must be made about a

specific real-life problem

 This is an applied research which involves the

researcher diagnosing a local problem and finding
solution to it in a local setting

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 Applied Research Examples
Research to identify social, economic or
political

marketing research
 Should McDonald’s add Italian pasta
dinners to its menu?

Should Procter & Gamble add a high-priced

home teeth bleaching kit to its product
line?

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 Descriptive Research:
Includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different
kinds including correlational & comparative methods

The purpose of descriptive research is description of the

state of affairs as it exists at present

 Ex post facto research- the researcher has no control

over the variables
In description, the researcher attempts to find answers to
the questions “what,” “who,” and “where?”

Examples:
 If a researcher collects data about women’s participation
in politics and reports their level of participation based
on the data collected, then we can say that females’
participation in politics has been described.

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 Causal Research/Explanatory
Research:

In explanation, the researcher is interested in

exploring the reasons or the causes of the
occurrence of certain behavior or event.
It involves understanding the cause – and – effect
relationship between phenomena.
Attempts will be made to answer the question of
“why?”

E.g. Why do females fail to actively participate in

politics?
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 Quantitative Research: is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount
It is applicable in phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity
Helps to quantify the variations
E.g. correlation, regressions, time series
analysis, etc.

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 Qualitative Research:
Is concerned with qualitative phenomena. E.g.
What make people lazy?
E.g. Motivational Research : It is important
in behavioral science
This type of research aims at discovering the
underlying motives and desires of human
beings, using in-depth interviews

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 Conceptual Research: is related to some
abstract ideas/theory.
 It is generally used by philosophers to develop new
concept and interpret existing ones.
Empirical Research: Relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for
system and theory
 It is data based research
 It can be also called experimental research
 In this research it is necessary to get fact firsthand at
their source, to prove/disprove the hypothesis
 Depend up on experience or observation of
phenomena or events
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 Defining Research Problem
some difficulty which a researcher
experiences in the context of either a
theoretical or practical situation and wants
to obtain a solution for the same

 Defining a research problem is a pre-

requisite for any study

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 Objective/aim of the study
The objectives of a research delineate
the ends or aim which the inquirer
seeks to bring about as a result of
completing the research undertaken.

The objectives of a research project

summarise what is to be achieved by
the study. Objectives should be closely
related to the statement of the
problem.
24 June 24, 2025
 Cont…
Objectives should be
Simple (not complex)
Specific (not vague)
Stated in advance (not after the
research is done)
Stated using “action verbs” that
are specific enough to be
measured.

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 Cont…
Commonly, research objectives are
classified into general objectives
and specific objectives.
The general and specific objectives
are logically connected to each
other
The specific objectives are
commonly considered as smaller
portions of the general objectives.
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 Cont…
General objective
What exactly will be studied?
General statements specifying the
desired outcomes of the proposed
project
o Specific objectives
Specific statements summarizing the
proposed activities and including
description of the outcomes and their
assessment in measurable terms
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 Why research objectives?
The formulation of objectives will
help you to:
 Focus the study (narrowing it down to
essentials)
Avoid the collection of data which are
not strictly necessary for
understanding and solving the problem
you have identified
Organize the study in clearly defined
parts or phases.
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 CHAPTER 2
FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS AND
HYPOTHESES
 the first and foremost step happens to be that of selecting
and properly defining a research problem.
Like a medical doctor, a researcher must examine all the
symptoms (presented to him or observed by him)
concerning a problem before he can diagnose correctly. To
define a problem correctly, a researcher must know: what a
problem is?
Research forms a cycle; it starts with a problem and ends
with a solution to the problem and a possible implication for
future research.
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 WHAT IS RESEARCH
PROBLEM?
A research problem is the situation that
causes the researcher to feel concerned,
confused and ill at ease.
It is the determination of a problem area
within a certain context involving the, who,
what, where, when and the why of the
problem situation.

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 Elements of a research
problem
1. Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation. This answers the question
why‘ why is there an investigation, inquiry to study.

2. The subject matter or topic to be investigated. This answers the question what.

3. The place/local where the research is to be conducted. This answers the question
where? Where the study to be conducted?

4. The period or time of the study during which the data are to be gathered. This
answers the question when.

5. Population/universe from whom the data are to be collected. Answers the

question who or from whom.

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 Formulation of Research Problems
I. Systematic Immersion in the subject Matter through First-hand Observation.

e.g. Pilot survey, preliminary survey, or exploratory study.

II. Study of Relevant Literature on the subject

The researcher must be well equipped to experience some difficulty or challenge to be able to
pose a problem.

III. Discussions with persons having rich practical experience in the field of study.

This is often known as an experience survey, which again is an exercise at exploration.

Administrators', social workers, community leaders, etc. are persons who have a rich practical
experience in different fields of social life.

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 Problem/Topic
 Identify broad fields of study.
 Dissect the broad area into sub-areas
 Select the sub-areas which you are most interested
within the subject by considering your knowledge, time,
budget…etc
 Raise research questions in questionnaire or interview
guides.
 Formulate research objectives: Research objectives are
drive from research questions. Research objectives and
research questions are the same except the way they
are written.
- Research questions are written in the form
questions.
- Research objectives are written in the form of
affirmative statement by using action-oriented words,
33
such as ―to examine, ―to ascertain‖, ―to measure‖,
June 24, 2025
―to investigate‖ etc.
 CONT…..
 Assess objectives- evaluating the objectives in the light

of the time, budget, technical and professional expertise

about the subject and other related resources.
 Double check- go back and make sure that you have

sufficient interest, time, resource and expertise, if you

are happy, then you jumps to next step.

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RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS AND HYPOTHESIS TESTING
It is the basis for the statement of the objectives of
the study.
It helps in the decision making with regard to the
research design.
Hypothesis formulation is not an end itself.
The researchers must test the hypothesis in
appropriate manner viz, by statistical techniques o
Hypothesis can be formulated in either of the
following two ways:
Null Hypothesis (Ho) States that no effect or relationship
between variables.
Alternative Hypothesis (H1) is the opposite of Ho.

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 Errors IN Research
Hypothesis
Type I error (false-positive) occurs if an
investigator rejects a null hypothesis that is
actually true in the population.
Type II error (false-negative) occurs if the
investigator fails to reject a null hypothesis that
is actually false in the population.
Importance of Hypothesis
 Ensure the entire research methodology is scientific and valid.
 Helps in data analysis and measure the validity and reliability
of the research.
 Helps to assume the probability of research progress and
failure.
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 Criteria for hypothesis
formulation
 hypothesis should be empirically testable
A good hypothesis is in agreement with the
observed facts A single unexplained conflict
between fact and hypothesis is disastrous to the
latter.
A good hypothesis does not conflict with any
law of nature which is known to be true.
A good hypothesis is expert. It is stated in a
scientific and research like language and is not an
ordinary statement.
The hypothesis must be specific.
Hypotheses should be related to available
techniques.
37 June 24, 2025
 CHAPTER 3
Research Proposal
What is Research Proposal?
Research proposal is a written document of research plan.
Research involves a series of actions and therefore it presents all
actions in a systematic and scientific way.
In this way, Research proposal is a blueprint of the study which
simply outlines the steps that researcher will undertake during
the conduct of his/her study.
Proposal is a tentative plan so the researcher has every right to
modify his proposal on the basis of his reading, discussion and
experiences gathered in the process of research.

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 Cont..
A research proposal is a written statement of the research
design that includes a statement explaining the purpose of the
study and a detailed and systematic outline of a particular
research methodology.
The objective in writing a proposal is to describe: What you
will do, why it should be done, how you will do it and what
result will you expect?
Being clear about these things from the beginning will help you
complete your research in a timely fashion. A vague, weak or
fuzzy proposal can lead to a long, painful, and often
unsuccessful research writing exercise.
A clean, well thought-out, proposal forms the backbone for the
research itself. A good research proposal hinges on a good idea.
39 June 24, 2025
 Purpose of a Research Proposal:
To present the problem to be researched and its importance
To discuss the research efforts of others who have worked on
related problems. (If Any)
To set forth the data necessary for solving the problem
To suggest how the data will be gathered, treated and
interpreted
The preparation of a research proposal involves;
What the study is about?
Why is the study made?
What is its scope?
What are the objectives of the study
What are the prepositions to be tested?

40 June 24, 2025

 Cont…..
 What are the major concepts to be defined operationally?
 On the basis of what criteria or measurements, the operational
definitions to be made?
 When or in what place the study will be conducted?
 What is the reference period of the study?
 What is the typology of the design?
 What kinds of data are needed?
 What are the sources of data?
 What is the universe form which the sample has to be drawn?
 What is the sample size?
 What sampling techniques can be used?
 What methods are to be adapted for collecting data?
41 June 24, 2025
 Cont…
 How the data are to be processed?
 What techniques of analysis are to be adapted?
 What is the significance of the study?
 To what target audience the reporting of the findings is meant?
 What is the type of report to be prepared?
 What is the time period required for each stage of research
work?
 What is the limit within which the whole work should be
completed?
 What is the involved?
 These questions should be considered with reference to the
researcher‘s interest, competence, time and other resources,
and the requirements of sponsoring agency, if any.
42 June 24, 2025
 Proposal
Importance to the sponsor
It allows the sponsor to assess the sincerity of your purpose,
the clarity of your design, the extent of your background
material, and your fitness for undertaking the project.
It demonstrates your discipline, organization and logic. A
poorly planned, poorly written, or poorly organized proposal
damages your reputation more than the decision to submit one.
It provides a basis for the sponsor to evaluate the results of a
research project
 It serves as a catalyst for discussion between the researcher
and the managers

43 June 24, 2025

 Importance to the researcher
 A proposal is more beneficial for the beginning researcher to
have a tentative work plan that charts the logical steps to
accomplish the stated objectives.
It allows the researcher to plan and review the project‘s steps.
It enables the researcher to critically think through each stage
of the research process.
After acceptance the research proposal serves as a guide for
the researcher throughout the investigation. Progress can be
monitored and milestones noted.
It forces time and budget estimates.

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 TYPES OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL
 Research proposals can be generally classified into student,
internal and external.
 Student research proposals range between term paper and
senior essay that are least complex to MSc thesis and PhD
dissertation that are most complex.
 The form and content of student research proposal differs For
instance, term papers are meant for teaching students as to how
to do research where as senior essay, thesis or dissertation are
supposed to develop students‘ knowledge on a specialized
field.
 Research proposals are internal if they target an entity or
organization and are prepared by individual or a team of
researchers who are part of the entity or organization.
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 Cont…
 External research proposals are either solicited or unsolicited.

 Solicited research proposals are when the customer asks for a

proposal. For instance, students that look for masters scholarships

abroad are expected to sell themselves by writing best research
proposal according to the specific guidelines in the call for
scholarship.

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 SECTIONS OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL
PROTOCOL
A. The preliminaries
i. Title or cover page
ii. Table of contents
iii. Abstract
B. The body
1. The problem and its Approach
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Statement of the problem
1.3 Objectives of the study
1.4 Signification of the study
1.5 Delimitation of the study

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 Cont…
1.6 Definition of used terms
1.7 Researches Methodology
1.8 Organization of the study
2. Review of the related Literature
C. The supplemental
1. Budget Breakdown
2. Time Schedule
3. Bibliography (Reference

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 Title
Types of Title
1.Indicative Title: This type of title states the subjects of the research
(proposal) rather than the expected out come.
E.g. the role of Agricultural credit on alleviating poverty in low
potential Areas of Ethiopia.
2. Hanging Title: The hanging tile has two parts: a general first part
followed by a more specific second part. It is useful in rewording an
otherwise long clumsy and complicated indicative title.
E.g. Alleviation of poverty in low potential Areas of Ethiopia: The
impact of Agricultural credit.
3. Question Title: Question title is used less than indicative hanging
title. It is, however acceptable where it is possible to use few words
say less than 15 words.
E.g. does Agricultural credit alleviate poverty in a low potential area
of
49 Ethiopia? June 24, 2025
II. Table of contents: The table of contents usually
headed simply CONTENTS (in full capital). List all the
parts except the title page which precedes it. No page
numbers appear on the title page.
III. Abstract: It is summary, which reflects the whole
content of the proposal (most of the time less than 300
words). Abstract should be concise, informative, and
should provide brief information about the whole
problem to investigate.
Abstract of a proposal should contain the following
points:
Title or topic of the research
Statement of the problem and objective
Methodology of Investigation
Expected result (tentative only if a researcher starts
with
50
a formulated hypothesis) June 24, 2025
B. The body

1.1. Introduction should start with a clearly articulated statement to make the
reviewer or sponsor interested in supporting the problem.
The main purpose is to provide the necessary background or context for your

research problem informed reviewers will already be familiar with much of the
background information.
It is also important to state who the target beneficiaries are and how they will

benefit from the proposed projects.

It should highlight how the study will contribute to solving a particular problem or

minimizing its effect.

1.2. Statement of the problem: It followed by a more detailed set of objectives in

this part of your work you have to explain what the problem is all about if you know
the
51 problem. State it clearly. June 24, 2025
 Each word of the problem should be expressive sharp indispensable and

definitive.
 Always state the problem in a complete grammatical sentence.

 Clarity in statement of the problem is important for the following three

basic reasons:
 It is the foundation for the development of research problems

 It enables the researcher to describe the problem practically to think about

its importance, priority and to point out all the necessary points.
 It provides the researcher with the basis for the discussion with people in

the community, the relevant government agency and/or the potential

funding agency.
52 June 24, 2025
1.3. Objective of the study: is typically very brief usually half a
paper at most.
-It should consist of both the general and specific objectives.
1.4. Significance of the study: In this section, the researcher indicates
the importance of the research and there by convinces the reader.
-enable the researcher answer questions like ―what is the usefulness
of this study?‖ and ―What does this study contribute?
1.5. Delimitation of the study (scope of the study): In this section,
the researcher indicates the boundary of the study.
-The problem should be reduced to a manageable size delimitation is
done to solve to problem using the available financial, labor and time
resources.
-But there should be balance between manageability
and representativeness of the universe being studies.

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1.6. Definition of used Terms: terms must be
defined so that it is possible to know what precisely
the terms used in the body of the research mean.
-Without knowing explicitly what the terms mean
we can‘t evaluate the research.
-There are Nominal and Operational definition of
terms.
 Normal definition: are statements assigned to
a term such as its dictionary meaning.
 Operational Definition: are specifications of
dictionary definition of the term in to observable
and hence measurable characteristics.

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1.7. Research Methodology: the purpose of the
methodology is to show how questions will be answered in the
most rigorous way possible. - The researcher has to choose
which methods to use and justify them.
-The nature of the problem determines the methodology to be
used.
-the researcher should indicate:
The method chosen and the reason
 The sources of data (both primary and secondary) and the
reason
 The data gathering tool chosen and the reason
The sampling techniques chosen and the reason
The sample size chosen and the reason
The statistical tool chosen to analyze data and the reason

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-
1.8. Organization of the study: This section explains what each chapter of the research
report consists of.

2. Review of the related literature

D. The supplemental parts of research proposal

1.Budget breakdown

2.Time Schedule

3.Bibliography (Reference):

APA Style of referencing Books A book is referenced by writing name of the authors, year

of publication in bracket, title of the book (in italics), edition, publisher, and place of
publication respectively.
APA Style of referencing Journal Articles

1.A journal article can be referenced by writing name of the authors, year of publication, title

of article‘ (in single quotation marks), title of the journal (in italics), volume number, issue
number,
56 and page numbers. June 24, 2025
C. APA Style of referencing Magazines and Newspapers
Magazine and newspaper articles can be used to support an

empirical fact. Magazine articles are cited similar to that of journal

articles except that the date of publication should be written.

D. APA Style of referencing Audio-Visual Media

Sometimes, audio-visual media can also be referenced. Audio-visual

references shall include the following: name and function of the

primary contributors (e.g., producer, director), date, title, the medium
in brackets, location or place of production, and name of the
distributor.

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 Chapter 4
RESEARCH DESIGN (PLANNING RESEARCH PROJECT)

Meaning of Research Design

Defining the research problem is the preparation of the design of the

research project – research design

The conceptual structure within which research is conducted

The blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data

( A framework for conducting research project)

It includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the

hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data

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 Cont…..
 It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the

research problem
 It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and

analyzing the data

 It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these

two constraints.

Research design must, at least, contain

 a clear statement of the research problem

 procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information

 the population to be studied

 methods to be used in processing and analyzing data.

59 June 24, 2025
 Research design focused on :
(i) What is the study about?

 (ii) Why is the study being made?

 (iii) Where will the study be carried out?

 (iv) What type of data is required?

 (v) Where can the required data be found?

 (vi) What periods of time will the study include?

 (vii) What techniques of data collection will be used?

 (viii) How will the data be analyzed?

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 Characteristics of A Good Research Design
characterized by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient, and
economical and so on.
A design which minimizes bias about data

A design which maximizes the reliability of the data collected and

analyzed
A design which gives the smallest experimental error

A design which yields maximal information

A design which provides an opportunity for considering many

different aspects of a problem.

61 June 24, 2025
 Need for research design
It reduce inaccuracy
Helps to get maximum efficiency and reliability
Eliminate bias and marginal errors
Minimizes wastage of time
Helpful for collecting research material
Helpful for testing hypothesis
Gives an idea regarding the type of resources
required in terms of money, manpower, time and
efforts.
Provides an overview to other experts
Guides the research in the right direction.

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 Important Concepts Relevant to Research Design
Dependent Variable: If one variable depends
upon or a consequence of the other variable that
variable is called a dependent variable.
Independent variable: is a variable that is
expected to influence the dependent variable
Extraneous variable: Independent variables that
are not related to the purpose of a study, but may
affect the dependent variable are termed as
extraneous variable.
Control: a good research design has to minimize
the influences of extraneous variable. To do so the
researcher uses control as a remedy to minimize
the effects of extraneous variable. In experimental
research control refers to restrain to experimental
63 June 24, 2025
condition.
 Cont…
Confounded relationship: when dependent variable is
not free from the influence of extraneous variable, then
the relationship between dependent and independent
variables is said to be confounded extraneous variable.
Experimental and control groups: In experimental
research when a group it is exposed to usual condition is
called control group, but when a group is exposed to
special condition is called experimental group.
Treatments: the different conditions under which
experimental and control groups are put referred to as
treatment.
Experiment: the process of examining the truth of a
statistical hypothesis, relating to some problem, is
known as an experiment. Examining the usefulness of a
newly developed drug is good example of an
64 June 24, 2025
experiment.
 Types of research design
1. Exploratory research
 Termed as formulative research studies
 Formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the
working hypotheses from an operational point of view
 The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights
Methods
- The survey of concerning literature
- Experience survey
- unstructured interviewing may take place
2. Descriptive research
- Rigid design (design must make enough provision for protection against bias
and must maximize reliability)
- The researcher must be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure
and must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut
definition of ‘population’ he wants to study.
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 Descriptive design must be rigid and not
flexible and must focus attention on the following:
Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is
about and why is it being made?)
 Designing the methods of data collection (what
techniques of gathering data will be adopted?)
 Selecting the sample (how much material will be
needed?)
 Collecting the data (where can the required data be
found and with what time period should the data be
related?)
 Processing and analyzing the data

66 Reporting the findings. June 24, 2025
 3. Hypothesis-testing research studies
(Expermental Research Design)
 Generally known as experimental studies
 The researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between
variables
 Experimental research differs from the other research approaches noted above
through its greater control over the objects of its study.
4. Survey Design
This is a research design in which a group of people or
items is studied by collecting and analyzing sample data
or data from the entire population. If the survey involves
study of a sample from the population, it is referred to as a
Sample Survey. If it involves the study of the entire
population, it is referred to as a Census Survey.
67 June 24, 2025
 Types Of Survey
 A cross-sectional survey collects data at one time. The
researcher can generalize findings from such one-shot studies to
the sampled population only at the time of the survey.
 A longitudinal survey takes place over time with two or more
data collections and has the benefit of measuring change over
time.
Design Strategies
Quantitative Research is predominantly used as a
synonym for any data collection technique (such as
a questionnaire) or data analysis procedure (such as
graphs or statistics) that generates or uses numerical
data.
68 June 24, 2025
 Qualitative Research

is used predominantly as a synonym for any

data collection technique (such as an
interview) or data analysis procedure (such as
categorizing data) that generates or use non-
numerical data
Mixed Methods Approach: is the general term for when both
quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques and
analysis procedures are used in a research design; either at the
same time (parallel) or one after the other (sequential) but does
not combine them

69 June 24, 2025

 Sample design
Sampling is part of the target population,
carefully selected to represent the population.
• Sample design is determine before data are
collected.
Why Sample
Its save time
It reduces cost
More reliable result can obtained
It provides more detailed information
70 More scientific June 24, 2025
 Method of sampling
 Probability sampling every member of the population has a known, nonzero

probability of being selected.

Can be classified n to;

Simple Random Sampling

In which each element of the population has an equal independent chance of

being included in the sample.

• Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily available

• This is done by assigning a number to each unit in the sampling frame.

• A table of random number or lottery system is used to determine which units are

to be selected.

71 June 24, 2025

 Cont…
Advantage:
 It requires a minimum knowledge of population
 It is free from subjectivity
 It provides appropriate data for our purpose
 Least cost ,time
 Better than judgmental sampling
Disadvantage:
Representation of sample can not be insures
It does not use the knowledge about the
population up to date information
Inference is depend on the size of the population

72 June 24, 2025

 Systematic Sampling
It is by taking the Kth element of the
population(N/n)
It is improvement of the simple random sampling
It requires a complete information about the
population
 Advantage:
 More efficient and simple to select a sample
 Sample may be representative and comprehensive
 Observation of the sample may be used for drawing
conclusion
 Disadvantage:
 It is not free from error, subjective
 Knowledge of population is essential
73 June 24, 2025
 It cannot ensure representation
 Stratified Sampling
It is the procedure of dividing the population into relatively homogeneous groups called
strata to reduce bias
The researcher first identifies the relevant strata and their actual representation in the

population
Random sampling is often used to select a sufficient number of subjects/items from

each stratum
If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not

constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is

applied so as to obtain a representative sample
the population is stratified into a number of non-overlapping

subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each

stratum. If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple
random sampling the entire procedure, first stratification and then
74 June 24, 2025
simple random sampling
 Cluster sampling and area
sampling
Cluster sampling involves the random selection of
clusters (groups of population members) rather than
individual population members
When a cluster is selected for the sample, all members of
that cluster are included in the sample
It is usually a more practical random sampling method in
large scale surveys
Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and
then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than
individual elements for inclusion in the sample.

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 Non-probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling does not involve the
process of random selection, that is, in the case of
non-probability sampling, the probability of
selection of each sampling unit is not known
In applied social research due to constraints such
as time and cost and objectives of the research
study there are circumstances when it is not
feasible to adopt a random process of selection and
in those circumstances usually non-probabilistic
sampling is adopted
Non-probability sampling methods can be classified
into two broad types: accidental and purposive

76 June 24, 2025

 Con…
Most sampling methods are purposive in nature because
researchers usually approach the sampling problem with a
specific plan in mind
o Accidental or Convenience Sampling - sampling units are
selected out of convenience
o Purposive Sampling - is done with a purpose, which means
that selection of sampling units is purposive in nature
 Non-probability samples are generally purposive or theory driven.
Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known
as purposive or non-probability sampling. This sampling
method involves purposive or deliberate selection of
particular units of the universe for constituting a sample,
which represents the universe.
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 Con…
 Convenience sampling When population elements are
selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of
access, it can be called convenience sampling. If a researcher
wishes to secure data from, say, gasoline buyers, he may
select a fixed number of petrol stations and may conduct
interviews at these stations. This would be an example of
convenience sample of gasoline buyers.
 Judgment sampling: Sometimes, Convenience sampling
procedure may give very biased results particularly when the
population is not homogeneous. On the other hand, in
judgment sampling the researcher’s judgment is used for
selecting items that he considers as representative of the
population.
 For example, a judgment sample of college students might be
taken to secure reactions to a new method of teaching.
Judgment sampling is used quite frequently in qualitative
research where the desire happens to be to develop
78 hypotheses rather than to generalize to larger populations.
June 24, 2025
 Con..
Purposive sampling: Purposive sampling, one
of the most common sampling strategies,
groups participants according to preselected
criteria relevant to a particular research question
(for example, HIV-positive women in Capital City).
Sample sizes, which may or may not be fixed
prior to data collection, depend on the resources
and time available, as well as the study’s
objectives. Purposive sample sizes are often
determined on the basis of theoretical saturation
(the point in data collection when new data no
longer bring additional insights to the research
questions).
79 June 24, 2025
 Cont..
Quota sampling: Quota sampling, sometimes
considered a type of purposive sampling, is also
common. In quota sampling, we decide while designing
the study how many people with which characteristics
to include as participants. Characteristics might include
age, place of residence, gender, class, profession,
marital status, use of a particular contraceptive
method, HIV status, etc.
The criteria we choose allow us to focus on people we
think would be most likely to experience, know about,
or have insights into the research topic. Then we go
into the community and – using recruitment strategies
appropriate to the location, culture, and study
population – find people who fit these criteria, until we
80 June 24, 2025
meet the prescribed quotas.
 Cont..
Quota sampling: Quota sampling, sometimes
considered a type of purposive sampling, is also
common. In quota sampling, we decide while
designing the study how many people with which
characteristics to include as participants.
Characteristics might include age, place of residence,
gender, class, profession, marital status, use of a
particular contraceptive method, HIV status, etc.
The criteria we choose allow us to focus on people we
think would be most likely to experience, know about,
or have insights into the research topic. Then we go
into the community and – using recruitment strategies
appropriate to the location, culture, and study
population – find people who fit these criteria, until we
81 meet the prescribed quotas. June 24, 2025
 Cont..
Snowball sampling:
Snowballing – also known as chain referral sampling
– is considered a type of purposive sampling.
is generally used in the case of explorative research
study/design, where researchers do not have much
lead information
It starts by identifying respondents who meet the
criteria for selection/inclusion in the study and can
give lead for another set of respondents/information
to move further in the study
Snowball sampling is especially useful when you are
trying to reach populations that are inaccessible or
difficult to find, for example, in the case of
82 identifying injecting drug users June 24, 2025