義和團
| 义和团 | |
|---|---|
 | |
| 别名 |
|
| 主要首领之一 | 曹福田 |
| 主要首领之二 | 张德成 |
| 活躍期 | 1890年代–1901年9月 |
| 国家 |  中国 |
| 意識形態 | |
| 口号 | “扶清灭洋”[1] |
| 人數 | 50,000人–100,000人 |
| 戰役、戰爭 | 义和团运动 |
| 義和團 | |||||||||||||||
| 繁体字 | 義和團 | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 简化字 | 义和团 | ||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||
| 义民会 | |||||||||||||||
| 繁体字 | 義民會 | ||||||||||||||
| 简化字 | 义民会 | ||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||
| 梅花拳 | |||||||||||||||
| 汉语 | 梅花拳 | ||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||
| 义和拳 | |||||||||||||||
| 繁体字 | 義和拳 | ||||||||||||||
| 简化字 | 义和拳 | ||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||
义和团，又称“义和拳”、“义民会”、“梅花拳”等，是一个兴起于中国北部的秘密结社[2][3]。该组织曾于1899年至1901年期间于清朝各地发起义和团运动[4]。
义和团起初由当时中国北方各地的独立村庄组织形成，由于是秘密结社因此许多成员的身份不得而知，故而难以精确估计参与者的总数，但可能多达数十万人。义和团在运动初期主要攻击清廷[5]，但很快便转而呼吁“扶清灭洋”，在支持清政府的同时抵制外国势力[6][7]。
自1900年夏起，义和团成员开始大规模破坏当时在华外国人所拥有的财产，如铁路和电报等现代设施，同时成批抓捕并杀害基督教传教士与中国基督徒[8]。此后义和团开始拥护慈禧太后，并在之后参与抵抗由此引发的联军入侵，而后者近乎完全毁灭了义和团并最终结束了该运动，但其部分成员事后继续参与了中国各地的其他秘密团体活动[9][10]。
名称
[编辑]在英语世界里，义和团因其成员大多练习中国武术（当时被称为“中国拳击”，即“Chinese boxing”）而被通称为“拳民”（Boxers）[11][12]。尽管该组织及其前身自19世纪80年代中期起便已普遍存在于民间，但其首次被外界称为“义民会”是在1899年清朝为解决山东和直隶两省的动乱而提交的一份报告中[13]。这一称呼在后续的报告中被证明是一个错误，其实际名称应为“义和团”[14]。
义和团曾于1898年期间被称为“梅花拳”，但该名称于在1899年以后几乎不再使用[15]。
起源
[编辑]清朝年间的一些秘密结社组织，如大刀会和白莲教等，往往具有重大的力量与影响力。这些组织经常通过其武装成员，利用当时中国许多地区缺乏秩序以及腐败猖獗等现象来对广大偏远甚至中心地区施加控制并传播影响[16]。
Yi-he boxing, as it was later practised by the Fists of Harmony and Justice, long predated the movement. In 1779, the Qing government already investigated rumours according to which a man named Yang practised this martial arts style in Guan County, Shandong, though state authorities were unable to confirm this at the time.[17]
Though the Boxer movement would originate in Shandong and Hebei intent on lessening governmental influence throughout China by means of violence, the group would quickly include its directive to attempt to eliminate all foreign influence also, which was considered at the time to have already penetrated the imperial government. The group at this time was deeply associated with other secret societies in their efforts to eliminate Christians, as can be seen in the 4 July 1896 with attacks on German missionaries in the regions of Western Shandong that later were controlled by the Boxers.[15]
The movement first began in these areas in the mid-1880s as various group with similar aims, led by local influences such as Zhang Decheng in Hebei, and Zhu Hongdeng in Shandong, both leading small but devoted groups directly under their personal control. These small groups served as local enforcers of the Boxers' efforts to control the populace, to curtail the influence of both the Qing government and that of foreigners, particularly Christians.
During 1898, the previously separate Boxer groups in Shandong and Hebei would fall under much more direct leadership, with the establishment of structure into the group in the form of ranks. This would also involve the renaming of the group into the "Plum Blossom Fists". However, the name-change was not used past 1898, with the name "Fists of Harmony and Justice" used instead.[15]
On 23 May 1898, an investigation was made by the Guangxu Emperor into disturbances in the Shandong-Zhili border region by a supposed "National Righteousness Group", with the possibility of 10,000 Boxer soldiers being under group command in this region. A representative of the monarchy, Zhang Rumei, would be sent along with an army to put down any unrest in the region. The result of the meeting was not negative, with Zhang reporting that there was no trouble in the region, along with more accurate reports on the group's smaller numbers.
The movement was primarily composed of peasants, to which were added idle youth, ruined artisans, and laid-off workers.[18] Some Boxer recruits were disbanded imperial soldiers and local militiamen.[19]
冲突
[编辑]In March 1898, the Boxers started to agitate the population in the streets with the slogan "Uphold the Qing, destroy foreigners!". Their main leader was Cao Futian.[11] Other leaders in Zhili Province were Liu Chengxiang, and Zhang Decheng.
After a battle with the Imperial troops in October 1899, the Boxers focused mainly on missionaries and Christian activities, as they were considered "tainting the purity of the Chinese culture". The Qing government was divided towards how to react to the Boxer's activities. The conservative element of the court was in favour of them. Prince Duan, a fervent supporter of their cause, arranged a meeting between Cao and Empress Dowager Ci Xi.[20] At the meeting, the crown prince even wore a Boxer uniform to show support.[21]
At the beginning of June 1900, about 450 men of the Eight-Nation Alliance arrived in Beijing to protect the foreign legations under siege by the Boxers and Imperial Army, in what was the Siege of the International Legations. The Boxers were at their peak, now supported by some elements of the Imperial Army. They changed their slogan to "Support the Qing, destroy foreigners!".[22]
The Boxers multiplied their murderous actions against foreigners and Chinese Christians. In Beijing, the Boxers were officially placed under command of members of the Court, such as Prince Duan. During the Rebellion, the Boxers, fighting troops of the Eight-Nation Alliance with close combat weapons or even their own hands, were decimated. After the conflict, The Empress Dowager Ci Xi ordered the repression of the remaining Boxers, in an attempt to calm the foreign nations.[23]
流行文化
[编辑]The Boxer Rebellion is depicted in the film 55 Days at Peking, by Nicholas Ray (1963).
The Boxers are portrayed in Boxers and Saints, a comic series by Gene Luen Yang. The main character of Boxers, Lee Bao, becomes a leader of the Boxer Rebellion.
The Boxer Rebellion is graphically depicted in the Shaw Brothers production of Boxer Rebellion, a 1976 film directed by Chang Cheh. This film was distributed in the United States as The Bloody Avengers by World Northal Corporation in 1980. The Boxers are also featured in the films Legendary Weapons of China (1981) and Shanghai Knights (2003). The Red Lanterns, an all-female group affiliated to the Boxers, are depicted in the film Once Upon a Time in China IV (1993). The Netflix series The Brothers Sun (2024) uses their name and parts of their ideology in its plot for a major protagonist group.
参见
[编辑]
书目
[编辑]- Bickers, Robert A.; R. G. Tiedemann (eds.) (2007). The Boxers, China, and the World. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-5394-1.
- Buck, David D. (1987). "Recent Studies of the Boxer Movement", Chinese Studies in History 20. Introduction to a special issue of the journal devoted to translations of recent research on the Boxers in the People's Republic.
- Cohen, Paul A. History in Three Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience, and Myth
Revised. Columbia University Press. 1997. ISBN 9780231106511. - Elliott, Jane E. Some Did It for Civilisation, Some Did It for Their Country: A Revised View of the Boxer War. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press. 2002. ISBN 962-201-973-0.
- Esherick, Joseph W. The Origins of the Boxer Uprising. U of California Press. 1987. ISBN 0-520-06459-3.
- Preston, Diana. The Boxer Rebellion: The Dramatic Story of China's War on Foreigners That Shook the World in the Summer of 1900. New York: Walker. 2000. ISBN 0-8027-1361-0. British title: Besieged in Peking: The Story of the 1900 Boxer Rising (London: Constable, 1999).
参考文献
[编辑]- ^ Foord, John, The Meaning of the Unrest in China, The New York Times: 23, 25 March 1900 [3 May 2024], （原始内容存档于2024-08-28） （英语）
- ^ 《纽约时报》. 两张照片与义和团运动. 纽约时报中文网. 2018-05-28 [2024-08-15]. （原始内容存档于2024-08-15） （zh-cmn-hans）.
- ^ 清末最神秘的群众运动：义和团，是怎么发展起来的？_清政府. www.sohu.com. [2024-08-15]. （原始内容存档于2024-08-15）.
- ^ 一百年前的此时，义和团运动正在兴起_思想文化. www.historychina.net. [2024-08-15]. （原始内容存档于2024-01-16）.
- ^ 从反清复明到扶清灭洋，“神功护体”的义和团_中国. www.sohu.com. [2024-08-15]. （原始内容存档于2024-08-15）.
- ^ 义和团为什么要“扶清灭洋”？有一个重要理由令人哭笑不得_中国. www.sohu.com. [2024-08-15]. （原始内容存档于2024-08-15）.
- ^ 网易. 义和团本来反清复明，为何突然要扶清灭洋？他们是被慈禧消灭的吗. www.163.com. 2020-09-25 [2024-08-15]. （原始内容存档于2024-08-15）.
- ^ 义和团、基督徒和神：从宗教战争角度看1900年的义和团斗争. 汉语基督教研究网. 2014-11-25 [2024-08-15]. （原始内容存档于2024-08-15）.
- ^ 中国军史：1900年 义和团运动高潮-搜狐新闻. news.sohu.com. [2024-08-15]. （原始内容存档于2024-08-15）.
- ^ 戊戌变法和义和团运动. www.gov.cn. [2024-08-15]. （原始内容存档于2024-08-15）.
- ^ 11.0 11.1 Australian War Memorial. [2 December 2017]. （原始内容存档于18 February 2011）.
- ^ MacKerras, Colin. China in Transformation, 1900–1949. Pearson Longman. 2008. ISBN 9781405840583 （英语）.
- ^ Muramatsu, Yuzi. The "boxers" in 1898–1899, the origin of the "I-Ho-Chuan" (義和拳) uprising, 1900. The Annals of the Hitotsubashi Academy. April 1953, 3 (2): 236–261. JSTOR 43751277.
- ^ Google Ngram Viewer. books.google.com. [18 January 2019].
- ^ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Purcell, Victor. The Boxer Uprising: A Background Study. Cambridge University Press. 3 June 2010. ISBN 9780521148122 （英语）.
- ^ Boxer Rebellion. Encyclopaedia Britannica. [29 February 2020]. （原始内容存档于2023-10-10）.
- ^ Esherick, Joseph W. The origins of the Boxer Uprising. Berkeley, California; Los Angeles; London: University of California Press. 1987: 141 （英语）.
- ^ Le movement des boxers in china (1898-1900). you-feng.com. [2 December 2017]. （原始内容存档于2024-07-21）.
- ^ China, Japan, and the Ryukyu Islands. Encyclopedia Britannica. history-geography. [3 December 2017]. （原始内容存档于2024-10-07） （英语）.
- ^ Chinese monarchs – Zaiyi (26 August 1856 – 24 November 1922) was a Manchu prince and statesman of the late Qing Dynasty. www.nouahsark.com. [2 December 2017]. （原始内容存档于2017-08-31）.
- ^ Lucia. China's Confession: Episode 4. www.chinasoul.org. [2 December 2017]. （原始内容存档于31 August 2017） （英国英语）.
- ^ Significance, Combatants, Definition, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. Boxer Rebellion. [2 December 2017]. （原始内容存档于2023-10-10） （英语）.
- ^ La révolte des Boxeurs, un autre son de cloche. tao-yin.com. [2 December 2017]. （原始内容存档于31 August 2011）.
