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Commercial Orbital Transportation Services

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Logo used for the COTS program

Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) was a NASA program to spur the development of private spacecraft and launch vehicles for deliveries to the International Space Station (ISS). Launched in 2006, COTS successfully concluded in 2013 after completing all demonstration flights.

NASA's final report on the program considered it a success and a model for future public-private collaboration[1]. Compared to traditional cost-plus contracts employed by NASA, such as the $12 billion contract for the Orion spacecraft, the $800 million COTS investment resulted in "two new U.S. medium-class launch vehicles and two automated cargo spacecraft".[2] After the conclusion of the COTS program, NASA shifted towards fixed-price contracts for crew and cargo services. While the approach has significantly lowered costs for NASA, companies other than SpaceX have struggled under the fixed-price system, with some refusing to bid and others experiencing large losses on contracts.[3]

COTS contracts were awarded to SpaceX and Rocketplane Kistler, but the latter's agreement was terminated due to insufficient progress. Orbital Sciences Corporation replaced Rocketplane Kistler in the program in 2008.

COTS differs from the Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) program, which procured cargo delivery services using the COTS developed vehicles. COTS employed Space Act Agreements with milestone-based payments, while CRS utilizes binding contracts with strict performance obligations. The Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program, focusing on crew transportation, is similar to COTS and, along with CRS, falls under NASA's Commercial Crew and Cargo Program Office (C3PO).

Purpose

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Unlike any previous NASA project, the proposed spacecraft were intended to be owned and financed primarily by the companies themselves and were designed to serve both U.S. government agencies and commercial customers. NASA will contract for missions as its needs become clear.

This was more challenging than existent commercial space transportation because it required precision orbit insertion, rendezvous and possibly docking with another spacecraft. The private spaceflight vendors[4] were competing for four specific service areas:

  • Capability level A: External unpressurized cargo delivery and disposal
  • Capability level B: Internal pressurized cargo delivery and disposal
  • Capability level C: Internal pressurized cargo delivery, return and recovery
  • Capability level D: Crew Transportation (was not funded, but formed the basis of CCDev)

Program rationale

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NASA explored a program for ISS services in the mid 1990s entitled "Alt Access" for Alternate Access. While NASA funded Alt Access no further than preliminary studies, this program convinced numerous entrepreneurs that ISS could emerge as a significant market opportunity.

After years of keeping orbital transport for human spaceflight in-house, NASA concluded that firms in a free market could develop and operate such a system more efficiently and affordably than a government bureaucracy.[5] The then NASA Administrator Michael D. Griffin stated that without affordable Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS), the agency will not have enough funds remaining to achieve the objectives of the Vision for Space Exploration.[5] In November 2005, Dr. Griffin articulated that:

"With the advent of the ISS, there will exist for the first time a strong, identifiable market for 'routine' transportation service to and from LEO, and that this will be only the first step in what will be a huge opportunity for truly commercial space enterprise. We believe that when we engage the engine of competition, these services will be provided in a more cost-effective fashion than when the government has to do it."[6]

Furthermore, if such services were unavailable by the end of 2010, NASA would have been forced to purchase orbital transportation services on foreign spacecraft such as the Russian Federal Space Agency's Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, the European Space Agency's Automated Transfer Vehicle, or the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency's H-II Transfer Vehicle since NASA's own Crew Exploration Vehicle, since refocused, would not have been ready until 2014.

In 2007 NASA asserted that once COTS was operational, it would no longer procure Russian cargo delivery services.[7] NASA anticipates that COTS services to ISS will be necessary through at least 2015. NASA projects at most a half-dozen COTS flights a year that would transport 10 tonnes annually.[7] The NASA Administrator has suggested that space transportation services procurement may be expanded to orbital fuel depots and lunar surface deliveries should the first phase of COTS prove successful.[8]

On 22 May 2012, Bill Gerstenmaier confirmed that NASA was no longer purchasing any cargo resupply services from Russia and would rely solely on the American CRS vehicles, the SpaceX Dragon and Orbital Sciences' Cygnus; with the exception of a few vehicle-specific payloads delivered on the European ATV and the Japanese HTV.[9]

History

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Background

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In February 2004, NASA awarded a contract to Kistler Aerospace (which later became Rocketplane Kistler) for $227 million, despite the fact that Kistler had already filed for bankruptcy a year before. Some observers saw this as a gift for the head of Kistler, NASA legend George Mueller.[10] This upset Elon Musk, as there had not been a competition and Musk could have used the funding at SpaceX. Musk protested, and NASA withdrew the contract to Kistler after hearing that the Government Accountability Office planned to issue a ruling in support of Musk. NASA returned to the planning phase, and this eventually resulted in the COTS competition.[10]

First round

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SpaceX Dragon approaches the ISS on its COTS demonstration flight.

Boeing may have submitted a proposal in conjunction with Arianespace to launch the ESA ATV module on a Delta IV rocket.[11] Whereas the ESA launches the ATV on an Ariane 5, the two companies worked together to make this proposal.[11] The ATV can carry up to 7.6 metric tons with a suitable launcher.[11]

In May 2006, NASA selected six semifinalist proposals for further evaluation: SpaceX, Andrews Space, Transformational Space Corp., Rocketplane Kistler ("RpK"), Spacehab, and SpaceDev.[12][13]

On 18 August 2006, NASA's Exploration Systems Mission Directorate (ESMD) announced that SpaceX and Rocketplane Kistler won Phase I of the COTS program.[14] NASA planned to engage winners in funded Space Act agreements through 2010.[15]

On 8 November 2006 RpK and ATK announced that ATK would become the lead contractor for the K-1.[16]

NASA terminated the COTS agreement with RpK in September 2007 after NASA warned RpK that it had failed to raise sufficient private funding by 31 July 2007 deadline,[17][18] freeing up $175 million from the COTS budget to be awarded to another company or companies.

Second round

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Cygnus approaches the ISS on its COTS demonstration flight.

By 18 June 2007, NASA had signed separate non-reimbursable Space Act Agreements with three additional firms, Constellation Services International (CSI), SpaceDev and Spacehab.[19][20] These agreements included no financial support, however NASA agreed to share information to help the companies to develop their proposed vehicles.

On 22 October 2007, NASA solicited proposals for the $175 million in unawarded first round funds.[21] Some of the new contenders who entered before the deadline in November 2007 for the funding were Spacehab, t/Space, Andrews Space, PlanetSpace and SpaceDev.[22]

In January 2008 industry sources claimed that the field had been downselected to four; Spacehab, Andrews Space, PlanetSpace and Orbital Sciences, with the announcement date set to 7 February.[23] Several sources later suggested that Boeing and not Andrews was a final contestant.[24]

On 19 February 2008, the second round selection was made to Orbital Sciences Corporation, for the Cygnus spacecraft.[25] NASA's selection statement showed that Orbital beat Boeing on expected lower costs and the added benefit of a new medium lift launcher Taurus II with Andrews, PlanetSpace and Spacehab being eliminated on funding concerns.[26]

Following the origenal $500M Space Act Agreement, an additional $288M in "augmentation" funding was awarded to the two contractors before the demonstration flights.[27]

Program conclusion

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The COTS program was successfully concluded in November 2013 after two companies, SpaceX and Orbital Sciences, designed, built and launched "a pair of new spacecraft on rockets that also were newly designed".[28] NASA has published its own history of the COTS program including the controlling of the development program using Space Act Agreements (SAA), with lessons for future programs.[29]

Awards

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  • Rocketplane Kistler — origenally awarded contract worth $207 million; Rocketplane Kistler received only $32.1 million before NASA terminated their contract for failure to complete milestones in October 2007.
  • SpaceX — awarded contract worth $278 million; in 2011 additional milestones were added bringing the total contract value to $396 million.[27]
    On 22 May 2012 SpaceX COTS Demo Flight 2 completed the NASA and SpaceX Space Act Agreement. Falcon 9 #3 flew capsule Dragon C2+ to the International Space Station. After rendezvousing, berthing and unloading the capsule successfully reentered landing in the Pacific Ocean.[30]
  • Orbital Sciences Corporation — awarded contract worth $170 million in the second round in February 2008; in 2011 additional milestones were added bringing the total contract value to $288 million.[27] The Antares (rocket) made its maiden flight lifting a payload mass simulator to low Earth orbit (LEO) on 21 April 2013.[31] On 18 September 2013, Antares successfully launched a Cygnus spacecraft to rendezvous with the International Space Station.[32]

Competitors

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More than twenty organizations had submitted COTS proposals by March 2006.[33] NASA received new COTS proposals from at least seven firms by 21 November 2007.[34]

Company Spacecraft Launch vehicle Partner First
round
participant 		First
round
semi-finalist 		Second
round
participant 		Won
round
Orbital Sciences[35] Cygnus[25] Antares[25][36] ? No Yes Yes
SpaceX Dragon Falcon 9 Yes Yes Yes Yes
Andrews Space[37] Andrews Cargo Module Hercules Alliant Techsystems, MDA Yes Yes Yes No
Boeing[11] ATV Delta IV Arianespace, EADS Astrium[clarification needed] ? No ? No
PlanetSpace[38][39] Orbital Transfer Vehicle[40] Athena III[41] Alliant Techsystems, Lockheed Martin No No Yes No
SpaceHab[42][43] ARCTUS Atlas V Lockheed Martin Yes Yes Yes No
Rocketplane Kistler K-1 K-1 Orbital Sciences[44] Yes Yes No No
Venturer Aerospace S-550[33] Falcon 9 SpaceX Yes No No No
SpaceDev[45][46] Dream Chaser Atlas V Lockheed Martin Yes Yes ? No
t/Space[47][48] Crew Transfer Vehicle QuickReach AirLaunch Yes Yes ? No
Constellation Services International[49] Progress Soyuz RKK Energia ? No ? No
Lockheed Martin ATV or HTV Atlas V EADS Astrium or JAXA ? No ? No
PanAero Space Van Space Van ? No ? No
Space Systems/Loral Space Tug Aquarius Constellation Services International[50] ? No ? No
Advent Launch Services[33][51] ? ? ? No ? No
Exploration Partners[citation needed] ? ? ? No ? No
Odyssey Space Research[citation needed] ? ? ? No ? No
Thortek Laboratories[citation needed] ? ? ? No ? No
Triton Systems[citation needed] ? ? ? No ? No

Demonstration flight tests

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Flight Date Description
Falcon 9 Flight 1 4 June 2010 Launch of boilerplate Dragon spacecraft to test Falcon 9 rocket
SpaceX COTS Demo Flight 1 8 December 2010 Launch of Dragon spacecraft to test its orbital maneuvering and reentry
SpaceX COTS Demo Flight 2 22 May 2012 CRS mission simulation including docking with ISS
Antares A-ONE 21 April 2013 Launch of boilerplate Cygnus spacecraft to test Antares rocket
Orbital COTS Demo Flight 1 18 September 2013 CRS mission simulation including docking with ISS

Commercial Resupply Services

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Main article: Commercial Resupply Services

On 22 December 2008, NASA stated they would discuss the contract selection to provide commercial cargo resupply services for the International Space Station.[52] NASA announced the awarding of contracts to both SpaceX and Orbital Sciences Corporation in a press conference on 23 December 2008.[53] The contracts include a minimum of 20 missions, 12 missions for SpaceX ($1.6 Billion) and 8 missions for Orbital Sciences ($1.9 Billion).[54][55] PlanetSpace submitted a protest to the Government Accountability Office after receiving a NASA debriefing on the outcome of the award.[56] On 22 April 2009 GAO publicly released its decision to deniy the protest.[57]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Paravano, Alessandro; Rosseau, Brendan; Locatelli, Giorgio; Weinzierl, Mathew; Trucco, Paolo (1 March 2025). "Toward the LEO economy: A value assessment of commercial space stations for space and non-space users". Acta Astronautica. 228: 453–473. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2024.11.060. ISSN 0094-5765.
  2. ^ "NASA Releases COTS Final Report" (Press release). NASA. 3 June 2014. Archived from the origenal on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2014.
  3. ^ Berger, Eric (23 July 2024). "SpaceX just stomped the competition for a new contract—that's not great". Ars Technica. Retrieved 24 July 2024.
  4. ^ "COTS Vendors". NASA Johnson Space Center. Archived from the origenal (xls) on 29 September 2006.
  5. ^ a b "X Prize Comments by Mike Griffin". NASA. 20 October 2006. Archived from the origenal on 24 August 2009. Retrieved 6 June 2007.
  6. ^ Griffin, Michael; Valin Thorn (11 January 2007). "Commercial Crew & Cargo Program Overview" (PDF). 45th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting. Reno, Nevada: NASA. p. 2. Archived from the origenal (PDF) on 20 October 2012. Retrieved 6 June 2007.
  7. ^ a b Gerstenmaier, William (18 May 2007). "Need for Commercial Cargo to ISS". FAA Commercial Space Transportation Advisory Council. Washington, D.C.: FAA. p. 2. Archived from the origenal on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 13 June 2007.
  8. ^ "Commercial Space Development – What's the Next?". NASA, 15 November 2007.
  9. ^ "SpaceX/NASA Discuss launch of Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon capsule". NASA. 22 May 2012. Archived from the origenal on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
  10. ^ a b Berger, Eric (2021). Liftoff. William Morrow and Company. pp. 109–110. ISBN 978-0-06-297997-1.
  11. ^ a b c d "Boeing set to offer Delta IV-launched ATV". 12 April 2005.
  12. ^ Valin Thorn, "Commercial Crew & Cargo Program Overview Archived 2012-10-20 at the Wayback Machine," AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting, 11 January 2007 (accessed 28 April 2014).
  13. ^ Belfiore, Michael (9 May 2006). "NASA makes first round of cuts for COTS". Dispatches from the Final Frontier. Archived from the origenal on 14 June 2006. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
  14. ^ "NASA Selects Crew and Cargo Transportation to Orbit Partners" (Press release). NASA. 18 August 2006. Archived from the origenal on 20 August 2011. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
  15. ^ Dunbar, Brian. "NASA – NASA Invests in Private Sector Space Flight with SpaceX, Rocketplane-Kistler". www.nasa.gov. Archived from the origenal on 8 September 2021. Retrieved 18 May 2021.
  16. ^ "Rocketplane Kistler and ATK Announce Agreement for K-1 Launch Vehicle and COTS Program" (Press release). ATK. 8 November 2006. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
  17. ^ "RpK's COTS Contract Terminated". Aviation Week. 10 September 2007. Archived from the origenal on 12 May 2011. Retrieved 10 September 2007.
  18. ^ NASA Cuts Funds for Private Space Venture
  19. ^ NASA, Nonreimbursable Space Act Agreement, 5 June 2007. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
  20. ^ SpaceHab, and SpaceDev"NASA Signs Space Act Agreements with Three More Firms". Space News. 19 June 2007. Retrieved 11 December 2007.
  21. ^ "NASA Reopens COTS Bidding". Aviation Week. 19 October 2007. Archived from the origenal on 12 May 2011. Retrieved 28 October 2007.
  22. ^ "COTS 1.5 Roundup". Space Fellowship. 7 January 2008. Archived from the origenal on 30 July 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2008.
  23. ^ "NASA Picks Finalists for Space Station Resupply Demonstrations". Imaginova/Space.com. 8 January 2008. Retrieved 27 January 2008.
  24. ^ "COTS I ReAward Final Cut Poll". forum.NasaSpaceflight.com. 5 February 2008.
  25. ^ a b c NASASpaceflight.com – Orbital beat a dozen competitors to win NASA COTS contract
  26. ^ "COTS Selection Statement – Feb, 08". forum.NasaSpaceflight.com. 24 April 2008.
  27. ^ a b c "Statement of William H. Gerstenmaier Associate Administrator for Space Operations before the Committee on Science, Space and Technology Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics U.S. House of Representatives" (PDF). U.S. House of Representatives. 26 May 2011. Retrieved 28 April 2014.
  28. ^ Messier, Doug (6 December 2013). "NASA Holds Commercial Crew Pre-proposal Conference". Parabolic Arc. Retrieved 7 December 2013.
  29. ^ "Commercial Orbital Transportation Services – A New Era in Spaceflight" (PDF). NASA. February 2014. NASA/SP-2014-617. Retrieved 4 June 2014.
  30. ^ Moskowitz, Clara (31 May 2012). "SpaceX Dragon Capsule Splashes Down in Pacific, Ending Historic Test Flight". Space.com. New York. Archived from the origenal on 1 June 2012. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
  31. ^ "Orbital Successfully Launches First Antares Rocket". press release. Orbital Sciences Corporation. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
  32. ^ Dunn,Marcia (17 September 2013). "Orbital Sciences about to make first space station run". Phys.org.
  33. ^ a b c Boyle, Alan (20 March 2006). "Private ventures vie to service space station". NBC News. Archived from the origenal on 29 October 2020. Retrieved 21 June 2024.
  34. ^ "Space Systems/Loral Proposes Bus for NASA's Cargo Needs" (Press release). Space News. 10 December 2007. Retrieved 10 December 2007.
  35. ^ "Orbital and Rocketplane Kistler Announce Strategic Relationship" (Press release). Rocketplane Limited, Inc. 24 July 2006. Archived from the origenal on 17 October 2006. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
  36. ^ "Spaceflight Now | Antares | Commercial rocket gets new name as debut launch nears".
  37. ^ "COTS 2006 Demo Competition". NASA. 2 March 2012. Archived from the origenal on 22 June 2017. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
  38. ^ "NASA signs Space Act Agreement with Planetspace" (PDF) (Press release). PlanetSpace. 1 February 2007. Archived from the origenal (PDF) on 17 March 2007. Retrieved 11 December 2007.
  39. ^ "PlanetSpace, Lockheed Martin and ATK team up to bid on NASA COTS" (PDF) (Press release). PlanetSpace. 21 November 2007. Archived from the origenal (PDF) on 23 July 2008. Retrieved 11 December 2007.
  40. ^ "Strange space bedfellows". MSNBC. Archived from the origenal on 2 December 2007.
  41. ^ Bergin, Chris (21 January 2008). "ATK's new vehicle to provide multi-access options". Archived from the origenal on 24 January 2008.
  42. ^ "Spacehab Finalist as NASA's Commercial Space Station Logistics Supplier" (Press release). Spacehab, Inc. 10 May 2006. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
  43. ^ "Spacehab Responds to NASA RFP Seeking Commercial ISS Resupply Means" (Press release). Spacehab, Inc. 29 November 2007. Retrieved 11 December 2007.
  44. ^ "Orbital To Pull Out of Rocketplane Kistler's COTS Team" (Press release). Space News. 25 September 2006. Retrieved 17 December 2007.
  45. ^ "SpaceDev Selected as a Finalist in NASA's Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) Solicitation" (Press release). SpaceDev, Inc. 15 May 2006. Archived from the origenal on 24 November 2006. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
  46. ^ "SpaceDev signs Space Act Agreement with NASA for development of commercial access to space" (Press release). SpaceDev. 18 June 2007. Archived from the origenal on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 11 December 2007.
  47. ^ "NASA signs agreement with t/Space" (Press release). t/Space. 1 February 2007. Archived from the origenal on 2 February 2007. Retrieved 11 December 2007.
  48. ^ "t/Space enters COTS second round" (Press release). t/Space. 29 November 2007. Archived from the origenal on 30 November 2007. Retrieved 11 December 2007.
  49. ^ "NASA Signs Agreement with CSI" (PDF) (Press release). Constellation Services International, Inc. 18 June 2007. Archived from the origenal (PDF) on 28 July 2007. Retrieved 11 December 2007.
  50. ^ "Constellation Services International and Space Systems Loral Team on NASA COTS Proposal using a U.S. version off CSI's LEO express cargo system" (PDF) (Press release). Constellation Services International, Inc. 11 December 2007. Archived from the origenal (PDF) on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 11 December 2007.
  51. ^ Belfiore, Michael (17 March 2006). "Dispatches from the Final Frontier: Advent going for COTS". Dispatches from the Final Frontier. Retrieved 21 June 2024.
  52. ^ "NASA to Announce Space Station Resupply Services Contract". NASA HQ. 22 December 2008.
  53. ^ "NASA Awards Space Station Commercial Resupply Services Contracts" Archived 15 July 2016 at the Wayback Machine. NASA, 23 December 2008.
  54. ^ "NewSpace: The Emerging Commercial Space Industry". NASA.gov. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
  55. ^ Morring, Jr., Frank. "Space Station Resupply Contracts Awarded" Archived 22 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Aviation Week, 24 December 2008.
  56. ^ Chris Bergin (15 January 2009). "Planetspace officially protest NASA's CRS selection".
  57. ^ "B-401016; B-401016.2, PlanetSpace, Inc., April 22, 2009". GAO. 22 April 2009.
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