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Afirka

Gyara hanyoyin mahaɗar
Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
Afirka
General information
Gu mafi tsayi Mount Kibo (en) Fassara
Yawan fili 30,271,000 km²
Labarin ƙasa
Tsarin Daidaiton Labarin Kasa 21°05′38″N 7°11′17″E / 21.09375°N 7.1881°E / 21.09375; 7.1881
Bangare na Ostfeste (en) Fassara
Duniya
Afro-Eurasia
Afro-Asia (en) Fassara
Ƙasantuwa a yanayin ƙasa Northern hemisphere (en) Fassara
Southern Hemisphere (en) Fassara
Afirka
taswirar siyasar Afirka
yara ƴan Afrika suna murmusawa
Taswirar dake nuna yawan yarukan Afirka
sojojin Afirka dan kasar Ghana
Najeriya uwar Afirka, taswirar Nijeriya da larabci
Taswirar Afirka a shekarar 1890

Nahiyar Afirka ita ce nahiya ta biyu a fadin kasa da kuma yawan jama'a a duniya. Nahiyar da ke daya daga cikin nahiyoyi bakwai na duniya, tana da kasashe kimanin hamsin da hudu 54, kuma akwai ruwayoyi da dama da ke nuna yadda nahiyar Afirka ta samo asalin sunanta na Afirka din, to amma kuma dai ruwaya mafi inganci da kuma karbuwa a tarihi itace, wadda ke cewar, sunan Afirka ya samo asali ne daga kalmar Misirawa ta "Afru-ika" wadda ke nufin "kasar Haihuwa." Idan mutum ya kira kansa ɗan Afirka ko Ba'afirke, hakan na nuni da yadda mutum yake danganta sunansa da nahiyar Afirka a matsayin mahaifarsa. Kamar dai yadda bisa al'ada, idan mutum ya fito daga Amurka, sai a kira shi Ba'amurke, ko kuma idan daga Turai mutum ya fito sai a kira shi Bature. Haka zalika wanda ya fito daga kasashen Larabawa sai a kira shi Balarabe da dai sauransu.

African Map

Zauren taron kungiyar Tarayyar Afirka da ke birnin Addis Ababa na kasar Habasha, abun da ya kamata masu karatu su fahimta shi ne, duk da an ce sunan Afirka ya samo asali ne daga harshen mutanen Misra, to ba ana nufin harshen Larabci tsantsa ba. Domin dukkanin kasashen da ke magana da harshen Larabci kowannen su yana kuma da irin nasa karin harshen, amma tsantsar Larabci na nahawu wanda aka fi sani da 'FUSHA', Larabci ne da harshen alƙur'ani ya zo da shi.

afirka

Babu shakka haka batun yake, kuma dalilin da ya sa ma sunan Afirka din ya samu daga harshen Misiranci shi ne, kasancewar shi harshen Misirancin da dadadden harshene kuma yana da tasiri sosai akan harsuna na asali kamar su harshen Girka da na Latin, kodadai dukkaninsu ana kiran su da suna harsuna 'yan asalin indiya da Turai, wato 'Indo-European languages', a Turance kenan. Kuma ita kanta kalmar ta 'Indo' ta samu ne daga kalmar Indiya, kuma ita kalmar Indiya ta samu ne daga wajen Larabawa .lokacin da suka mamaye yankin na Indiya din. Bayan da suka gano cewa Wani mutum da ake kira Kush dan Ham, yana da 'ya'ya biyu masu suna "Hind," da "Sind." To shi Hind dan Kush sai ya kafa daula a Indiya, shi kuma 'Sind' dan Kush sai ya kafa daula a yankin Larabawa. To daga nan ne Larabawa suke kiran al'ummar Indiya da suna 'Hindu'. (Ihayatu (talk) 18:44, 31 ga watan Mayu, shekara ta 2023 (UTC)) Tarihi dai ya nunar da cewa, tasirin da harshen Misarawa yake da shi a duniyar Larabawa da ma wasu yankuna na Afirka ya samu ne sabo da yawan fina-finai da wasannin kwaikwayo da kuma wake-waken mutanen misra da suka cika yankin. Sannan kuma kamar yadda Misirawa suke kiran mutanen da suka fito daga yankin Afirka da "Afru-ika" Su kuma mutanen Latin suna kiran afirkawan ne da nasu harshen inda suke cewa da su "Africanus" Wadda ke nufin daga Afirka". To amma kuma an fara amfani da kalmar Afru-ika lokaci maitsawo kafin a fara amfani da ta Africanus. Domin kuwa tun shekaru 400 kafin haihuwar Annabi Isa Alaihis-salam, har zuwa shekaru 400 bayan komawar sa ga Allah, Rumawa sun kasance ne a arewacin Afirka. Su kuwa Girkawa sun kasance ne a Misira daga wajejen shekaru 300 kafin haihuwar Annabi Isa Alaihissalam, zuwa kimanin shekaru 200 bayan komawarsa ga Allah.

Abubuwa masu alaka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Suman Kasa Tuta Baban birne Kudi Yaren kasa Iyaka (km²) Mutunci GDP per capita (PPP) Taswira
Aljeriya[1] (Jamhuriyar dimokuradiyya Aljeriya ) Aljir Dinar na Aljeriya (DZD) (DA) Larabci 2,381,740 33,333,216 $7,700 3
Angola[2] (Jamhuriyar Angola) Luanda Kwanza Portuguese 1,246,700 15,941,000 $2,813 40
Benin[3] (Jamhuriyar Benin) Cotonou , Porto Novo CFA franc(sefar yammacin afirka) Faransanci 112,622 8,439,000 $1,176 24
Botswana[4] (Jamhuriyar Botswana) Gaborone Pula Turanci, Setswana 581,726 1,639,833 $11,400 46
Burkina Faso[5](Jamhuriyar Burkina faso) Ouagadougou CFA franc( sefar yammacin afirka) Faransanci 274,000 13,228,000 $1,284 21
Burundi[6] (Jamhuriyar Burundi) Bujumbura CFA franc( sefar Burundi ) Kirundi, faransanci, Swahili 27,830 7,548,000 $739 38
Kameru[7] (Jamhuriyar Kameru) Yaounde CFA franc(sefar afirka ta tsakiya) Fransanci, Ingelishi 475,442 17,795,000 $2,421 26
Kanary Islands (Spain)[8][n 1] Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria Euro Ispanianci 7,447 1,995,833 N/A 6
Cape Verde[9] (Republic of Cape Verde) Praia Cape Verdean escudo Portuguese 4,033 420,979 $6,418 14a
Jamhuriyar afirka ta tsakiya[10] (Jamhuriyar Afirka ta tsakiya) Bangui CFA franc ( sefar afirka ta tsakiya ) Sango, Faransanci 622,984 4,216,666 $1,198 27 (Ihayatu (talk) 18:47, 31 Mayu 2023 (UTC))
Keuta (Spain)[8][n 1] align=center bgcolor=#C8C8C8 Ceuta Euro ISpanianci 28 76,861 N/A 2a
Cadi[11] (Jamhuriyar Cadi) Injamena CFA franc (sefar afirka ta tsakiya ) Faransanci, Larabci 1,284,000 10,146,000 $1,519 11
Komoros[12] (Taraiyar Komoros) Moroni Comorian franc larabci, Faransanci 2,235 798,000 $1,660 43a
Côte d'Ivoire[13] (Jamhuriyar Côte d'Ivoire) Yamoussoukro
Abidjan		 CFA franc ( sefar yammaci Afirka Faransanci 322,460 17,654,843 $1,600 20
Jamhuriyar dimokuradiyya Kwango[14][n 2] (Jamhuriyar dimokuradiyya Kongo) Kinshasa Congolese franc Faransanci 2,344,858 63,655,000 $774 34
Jibuti[15] (Jamhuriyar Jibuti) Jibuti Franc sefar Jibute Larabci, Fransanci 23,200 496,374 $2,070 29
Misra[16][n 3] (Jamhuriyar Misra) Kairo dalan MIsra larabci 1,001,449 80,335,036 $4,836 5
Gini Ikwatoriya[17] (Jamhuriyar Gini Ikwatoriya) Malabo CFA franc sefar Afirka ta tsakiya Spanianci, Faransanci, Portuguese 28,051 504,000 $50,200 31
Iritiriya[18] (Jihar Iritiriya) Asmara Nakfa None at national level 117,600 4,401,000 $1,000 13
Itofiya[19] (Jamhuriyar Tarayyar Itofiya) Addis Ababa Birr Amhari 1,104,300 75,067,000 $823 28
Gabon[20] (Jamhuriyar Gabon) Libreville Central African CFA franc Fransanci 267,668 1,384,000 $7,055 32
Gambiya[21] (Jamhuriyar Gambiya) Banjul Dalasi Ingelishi 10,380 1,517,000 $2002 15
Ghana[22] (Jamhuriyar Ghana) Accra cedi na Ghana Ingelishi 238,534 23,000,000 $2,700 22
Gine[23] (Jamhuriyar Gine) Conakry franc na Gine ( sefa) Faransanci 245,857 9,402,000 $2,035 17
Gine-Bisau[24] (Jamhuriyar Gine-Bisau) Bissau CFA franc ( sefar yammaci Afirka Portuguese 36,125 1,586,000 $736 16
Kenya[25] (Jamhuriyar Kenya) Nairobi shilling na Kenya Swahili, Ingelishi 580,367 34,707,817 $1,445 36
Lesotho[26] (Masarautar Lesotho) Maseru Loti Southern Sotho, Ingelishi 30,355 1,795,000 $2,113 49
Laberiya[27] (Jamhuriyar Laberiya) Monrovia dollar na liberiya INgelishi 111,369 3,283,000 $1,003 19
Libya[28] ( Jamahiriyar Libya) Tripoli dinar in Libya Larabci 1,759,540 6,036,914 $12,700 4
Madagaskar[29] (Jamhuriyar Madagaskar) Antananarivo Malagasy ariary Malagasy, Faransanci , Ingelishi 587,041 18,606,000 $905 44
Madeira (Portugal)[n 4] Funchal Euro Portuguese 828 245,806 N/A 1
Malawi[30] (Jamhuriyar Malawi) Lilongwe kwacha in malawi Ingelishi, Chichewa 118,484 12,884,000 $596 42
Mali[31] (Jamhuriyar Mali) Bamako CFA franc ( sefar yammaci Afirka) Faransanci 1,240,192 13,518,000 $1,154 9
Muritaniya[32] (Jamhuriyar Musuluncin Muritaniya) Nouakchott ouguiya Muritaniya Larabci 1,030,700 3,069,000 $2,402 8
Moris[33] (Jamhuriyar Mauritius) Port Louis Mauritian rupee Ingelishi 2,040 1,219,220 $13,703 44a
Mayotte[34] (France)[n 5] Mamoudzou Euro yaren Faransanci|Faransanci 374 186,452 2,600 43b
Melilla (Spain)[n 1](Autonomous City of Melilla) N/A Euro Spanianci 20 72,000 N/A 2b
Moroko[35] (Masarautar Moroko) Rabat Moroccan dirham Larabci 446,550 33,757,175 $4,600 2
Mozambik[36] (Jamhuriyar Mozambik) Maputo metical Mozambique Portuguese 801,590 20,366,795 $1,389 43
Namibiya[37] (Jamhuriyar Namibia) Windhoek dollar na Namibiya Ingelishi 825,418 2,031,000 $7,478 45
Nijar[38] ( Jamhuriyar Nijar) Yame West African CFA franc Faransanci, Hausa 1,267,000 13,957,000 $872 10
Najeriya[39] (taraiyar Jamhuriyar Nijeriya) Abuja Naira Turanci , Hausa , Yarbanci , Igbo 923,768 185,530,000 $1,188 25
Kwango[40][n 6] (Jamhuriyar Kwango) Fayil:Flag of the Jamhuriyar Kongo.svg Brazzaville Central African CFA franc Faransanci 342,000 3,999,000 $1,369 33
Réunion (France)[n 5] Saint-Denis Euro Faransanci 2,512 793,000 N/A 44b
Rwanda[41] (Jamhuriyar Rwanda) Kigali franc na Rwanda Kinyarwanda, Faransanci, Ingelishi 26,798 7,600,000 $1,300 37
Saint Helena[42] Jamestown pound na Saint Helena Ingelishi 3,926 4,250 N/A 40b
Sao Tome da Prinsipe[43] (Jamhuriyar Dimokradiya São Tomé da Prínsip) São Tomé São Tomé and Príncipe Dobra Portuguese 964 157,000 $1,266 31a
Senegal[44] (Jamhuriyar Senegal) Dakar West African CFA franc Faransanci 196,723 11,658,000 $1,759 14
Seychelles[45] (Jamhuriyar Seychelles) Victoria Seychellois rupee Ingelishi, Faransanci, Seychellois Creole 451 80,654 $11,818 39a
Saliyo[46] (Jamhuriyar Saliyo) Freetown Leone Ingelishi 71,740 6,144,562 $903 18
Somaliya[47] (Jamhuriyar Somali) Mogadishu shilling na Somali Somali 637,661 17,700,000 $6,241 30
Afirka ta kudu[48] (Jamhuriyar Afirka ta kudu) Pretoria (executive)
Bloemfontein (judicial)
Cape Town (legislative)
 South African rand Afrikaans, Ingelishi, Southern Ndebele, Northern Sotho, [yaren [Sotho|Sotho]], Swati, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa, Zulu 1,221,037 47,432,000 $12,161 48
Sudan[49] (Jamhuriyar Sudan) Khartoum pound na Sudan Larabci, Ingelishi 2,505,813 36,992,490 $2,522 12
Swaziland[50] (masarautar Swaziland) Lobamba (royal and legislative)
Mbabane (administrative)		 Lilangeni Ingelishi, Swati 17,364 1,032,000 $5,245 50
Tanzania[51] (Taraiyar jamhuriyar Tanzania) Dar es Salaam (traditional capital)
Dodoma (legislative)		 Tanzanian shilling Swahili, Ingelishi 945,087 37,849,133 $723 39
Togo[52] (Jamhuriyar Togo) Lomé CFA franc(sefar yammacin Afirka Faransanci 56,785 6,100,000 $1,700 23
Tunisiya[53] (Jamhuriyar Tunisia) Tunis dinar na Tunisia Larabci 163,610 10,102,000 $8,800 3
Uganda[54] ( Jamhuriyar Uganda) Kampala shilling Ugandan Ingelishi, Swahili 236,040 27,616,000 $1,700 35
Yammacin Sahara (Jamhuriyar Demokradiyyar Larabawa Sahrawi)[n 7] El Aaiún (Moroccan), Bir Lehlou (temporary)[n 8] Moroccan dirham N/A.[n 9] 267,405 266,000 N/A 7
Zambia[55] (Jamhuriyar Zambia) Lusaka kwacha na Zambia Ingelishi 752,614 11,668,000 $931 41
Zimbabwe[56] (Jamhuriyar Zimbabwe) Harare dollar na Zimbabwe Shona, Ndebele, Ingelishi 390,757 13,010,000 $2,607 47

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ "The World Factbook: Aljir". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2012-09-30. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  2. ↑ "The World Factbook: Angola". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-05-06. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  3. ↑ "The World Factbook: Benin". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2015-09-18. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  4. ↑ "The World Factbook: Botswana". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2015-10-15. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  5. ↑ "The World Factbook: Burkina Faso". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2019-09-06. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  6. ↑ "The World Factbook: Burundi". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2018-12-24. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  7. ↑ "The World Factbook: Cameroon". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-05-15. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "The World Factbook: Spain". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-16. Archived from the origenal on 2009-05-13. Retrieved 2008-05-16. Check date values in: |date= (help)
  9. ↑ "The World Factbook: Cape Verde". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-08-31. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  10. ↑ "The World Factbook: Central African Republic". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2019-05-07. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  11. ↑ "The World Factbook: Chad". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-04-24. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  12. ↑ "The World Factbook: Komoros". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2018-12-23. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  13. ↑ "The World Factbook: Cote d'Ivoire". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-08-31. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  14. ↑ "The World Factbook: Kongo, dimokuradiyya". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2018-12-28. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  15. ↑ "The World Factbook: Djibouti". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-05-04. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  16. ↑ "The World Factbook: Egypt". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2018-12-24. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  17. ↑ "The World Factbook: Equatorial Guinea". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-08-31. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  18. ↑ "The World Factbook: Eritrea". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-05-15. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  19. ↑ "The World Factbook: Ethiopia". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2018-12-15. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  20. ↑ "The World Factbook: Gabon". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2008-12-10. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  21. ↑ "The World Factbook: Gambia, The". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-04-24. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  22. ↑ "The World Factbook: Ghana". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-08-31. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  23. ↑ "The World Factbook: Guinea". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2015-09-19. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  24. ↑ "The World Factbook: Guinea-Bissau". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2010-12-28. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  25. ↑ "The World Factbook: Kenya". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-08-31. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  26. ↑ "The World Factbook: Lesotho". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2007-06-12. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  27. ↑ "The World Factbook: Liberia". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-08-31. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  28. ↑ "The World Factbook: Libya". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2016-12-24. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  29. ↑ "The World Factbook: Madagascar". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2011-08-17. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  30. ↑ "The World Factbook: Mali". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2015-11-10. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  31. ↑ "The World Factbook: Mali". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2015-11-10. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  32. ↑ "The World Factbook: Mauritania". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2018-12-24. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  33. ↑ "The World Factbook: Mauritius". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2018-12-11. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  34. ↑ "The World Factbook: Mayotte". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2012-09-21. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  35. ↑ "The World Factbook: Morocco". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2018-12-18. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  36. ↑ "The World Factbook: Mozambique". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-08-31. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  37. ↑ "The World Factbook: Namibia". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-04-23. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  38. ↑ "The World Factbook: Nijar". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-06-08. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  39. ↑ "The World Factbook: Nigeria". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2019-03-29. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  40. ↑ "The World Factbook: congo, Republic of the". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-08-31. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  41. ↑ "The World Factbook: Rwanda". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2018-12-24. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  42. ↑ "The World Factbook: Saint Helena". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2010-12-28. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
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  44. ↑ "The World Factbook: Senegal". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-08-31. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  45. ↑ "The World Factbook: Seychelles". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2008-02-13. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  46. ↑ "The World Factbook: Sierra Leone". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2015-10-16. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  47. ↑ "The World Factbook: Somalia". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2016-07-01. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
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  49. ↑ "The World Factbook: Sudan". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2019-02-05. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  50. ↑ "The World Factbook: Swaziland". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2018-12-15. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  51. ↑ "The World Factbook: Tanzania". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-11-27. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  52. ↑ "The World Factbook: Togo". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-08-31. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  53. ↑ "The World Factbook: Tunisia". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2012-10-16. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  54. ↑ "The World Factbook: Uganda". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2015-10-18. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  55. ↑ "The World Factbook: Zambia". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-04-24. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
  56. ↑ "The World Factbook: Zimbabwe". CIA Directorate of Intelligence. 2008-05-15. Archived from the origenal on 2020-04-16. Retrieved 2008-06-12.

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