Chapter 6

Regional Economic Integration &Globalization

Introduction
Regional economic integration refers to agreements between countries in a geographic region to reduce tariff and non-tariff barriers to the free flow of goods, services, and factors of production between each other In theory, regional economic integration benefits all members Over the last two decades, the number of regional trade agreements has been on the rise

Introduction
Question: Is regional economic integration a good thing? While regional trade agreements are designed to promote free trade, there is some concern that the world is moving toward a situation in which a number of regional trade blocks compete against each other If this scenario materializes, the gains from free trade within blocs could be offset by a decline in trade between blocs

Levels of Economic Integration

There are five levels of economic integration 1. Free trade area - all barriers to the trade of goods and services among member countries are removed, but members determine their own trade policies with regard to nonmembers This is the most popular form of integration Examples include the European Free Trade Association (between Norway, Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Switzerland) the North American Free Trade Agreement (between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico)

Levels of Economic Integration

Levels of Economic Integration

2. Customs union - eliminates trade barriers between member countries and adopts a common external trade policy Most countries that enter a customs union desire further integration in the future Examples include the Andean Pact (between Bolivia, Columbia, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Peru)

Levels of Economic Integration

3. Common market - no barriers to trade between member countries, a common external trade policy, and the free movement of the factors of production This type of integration can be difficult to achieve and requires significant harmony among members in fiscal, monetary, and employment policies Examples include MERCOSUR (between Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay) hope to achieve this status

Levels of Economic Integration

4. Economic union - involves the free flow of products and factors of production between members, the adoption of a common external trade policy, and in addition, a common currency, harmonization of the member countries tax rates, and a common monetary and fiscal policy This level of integration involves sacrificing a significant amount of national sovereignty Examples include the European Union (EU)

Levels of Economic Integration

5. Political union - independent states are combined into a single union This requires that a central political apparatus coordinate economic, social, and foreign policy for member states The EU is headed toward at least partial political union, and the United States is an example of even closer political union

The Case for Regional Integration

There are both economic and political arguments supporting regional economic integration Generally, many groups within a country oppose the notion of economic integration

The Economic Case for Integration

Regional economic integration is an attempt to achieve additional gains from the free flow of trade and investment between countries beyond those attainable under international agreements such as the WTO Since it is easier to form an agreement with a few countries than across all nations, there has been a push toward regional economic integration

The Political Case for Integration

Politically, integration is attractive because by linking countries together, making them more dependent on each other, and forming a structure where they regularly have to interact, the likelihood of violent conflict and war will decrease by linking countries together, they have greater clout and are politically much stronger in dealing with other nations

Impediments to Integration
Integration is not easy to achieve or maintain There are two main impediments to integration 1. it can be costly - while a nation as a whole may benefit from a regional free trade agreement, certain groups may lose 2. it can result in a loss of national sovereignty

The Case Against Regional Integration

Regional economic integration only makes sense when the amount of trade it creates exceeds the amount it diverts Trade creation occurs when low cost producers within the free trade area replace high cost domestic producers Trade diversion occurs when higher cost suppliers within the free trade area replace lower cost external suppliers

Regional Economic Integration in Europe

Europe has two trade blocs the European Union with 27 members the European Free Trade Association with 4 members The European Union is expected to become a superpower of the same order as the United States

Evolution of the European Union

The European Union (EU) is the result of the devastation of two world wars on Western Europe and the desire for a lasting peace the desire by the European nations to hold their own on the worlds political and economic stage The forerunner of the EU was the European Coal and Steel Community (formed in 1951) The Treaty of Rome established the European Economic Community in 1957 The name was changed to the EU in 1994

Evolution of the European Union

Member States of the European Union in 2008

Political Structure of the European Union

The four main institutions of the EU are 1. the European Commission - proposes EU legislation, implements it, and monitors compliance 2. the European Council - the ultimate controlling authority within the EU 3. the European Parliament - debates legislation proposed by the commission and forwarded to it by the council 4. the Court of Justice - the supreme appeals court for EU law

The Single European Act

The Single European Act (1987) committed EC countries to work toward establishment of a single market by 1992 The Act was born out of frustration among EC members that the community was not living up to its promise The Act proposed to remove all frontier controls between EC countries apply the principle of mutual recognition to product standards open procurement to non-national suppliers lift barriers to competition in retail banking and insurance remove all restrictions on foreign exchange transactions between member countries abolish restrictions on cabotage The Act prompted the restructuring of substantial sectors of European Industry

The Establishment of the Euro

The Maastricht Treaty (1991) committed EU members to adopt a single currency, the euro The euro is used by 15 of the 27 member states This has created the euro zone, the second largest currency zone in the world after that of the U.S. dollar Countries that participate have agreed to give up control of their monetary policy So far, Britain, Denmark and Sweden have opted out of the euro zone

The Establishment of the Euro

Question: What are the benefits of the euro? Firms and individuals should save by handling one currency, rather than many Consumers should find it easier to compare prices across Europe Producers should become more efficient as they reduce their production costs in order to maintain their profit margins The highly liquid pan-European capital market should get a strong boost The range of investment options open both to individuals and institutions should increase

The Establishment of the Euro

Question: What are the costs of the euro? Membership in the euro zone implies that nations lose control over the monetary policy The European Central Bank (ECB) was established to manage monetary policy, but some question its ability to act independently The EU is not an optimal currency area (an area where similarities in the underlying structure of economic activities make it feasible to adopt a single currency and use a single exchange rate as an instrument of macro-economic policy) So, countries may react very differently to changes in the euro

The Establishment of the Euro

Since its establishment the euro has had a volatile trading history with the U.S. dollar Initially, the euro was valued at $1.17, then fell in value relative to the dollar, but strengthened to an all-time high of $1.54 in March 2008

Enlargement of the European Union

Many countries, particularly from Eastern Europe, have applied for membership in the EU Ten countries joined in 2004 expanding the EU to 25 states, with population of 450 million people, and a single continental economy with a GDP of 11 trillion In 2007, Bulgaria and Romania joined bringing membership to 27 countries Turkey has also applied for membership

Regional Economic Integration in the Americas

Regional economic integration is on the rise in the Americas The most significant attempt is the North American Free Trade Agreement Other agreements include the Andean Community MERCOSUR There are also attempts to form a Free Trade Area of the Americas

Regional Economic Integration in the Americas

Regional Integration in the Americas

The North American Free Trade Agreement

The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico became law in 1994 NAFTA abolished tariffs on 99 percent of goods traded removed barriers on the cross-border flow of services protects intellectual property rights allows each country to apply its own environmental standards establishes two commissions to impose fines and remove trade privileges when environmental standards or legislation involving health and safety, minimum wages, or child labor are ignored

The North American Free Trade Agreement

Question: What are the benefits of NAFTA? Mexico will benefit from increased jobs as low cost production moves south, and will attain more rapid economic growth as a result The U.S. and Canada will benefit from the access to a large and increasingly prosperous market and from the lower prices for consumers from goods produced in Mexico U.S. and Canadian firms with production sites in Mexico will be more competitive on world markets

The North American Free Trade Agreement

Question: What are the drawbacks of NAFTA? Jobs could be lost and wage levels could decline in the U.S. and Canada Mexican workers could emigrate north Pollution could increase due to Mexico's more lax standards Mexico would lose its sovereignty

The North American Free Trade Agreement

Question: How successful has NAFTA been? Studies of NAFTAs early impact suggest that both advocates and detractors may have been guilty of exaggeration Trade between the three countries has increased by 250 percent The members have become more integrated Productivity has increased in member nations Employment effects have been small Mexico has become more politically stable

The North American Free Trade Agreement

Question: Should NAFTA accept new members? Several other Latin American countries have indicated their desire to eventually join NAFTA Currently both Canada and the U.S. are adopting a wait and see attitude with regard to most countries

The Andean Community

The Andean Pact (formed in 1969) was based on the EU model The agreement had more or less failed by the mid-1980s In the late 1980s, Latin American governments began to adopt free market economic policies In 1990, the Andean Pact was re-launched, and now operates as a customs union In 2003, it signed an agreement with MERCOSUR to restart negotiations towards the creation of a free trade area Current members include Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, and Columbia

MERCOSUR
MERCOSUR originated in 1988 as a free trade pact between Brazil and Argentina In 1990, it was expanded to include Paraguay and Uruguay MERCOSUR has been successful at reducing trade barriers between member states However, critics worry that MERCOSUR is diverting trade rather than creating trade, and local firms are investing in industries that are not competitive on a worldwide basis Current members include Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Venezuela

Central American Common Market, CAFTA and CARICOM

Two other trade pacts in the Americas are 1. the Central American Trade Market Current members are Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the Dominican Republic These countries were joined by the U.S. in 2003 to create a free trade agreement, the Central American Free Trade Agreement (2003) 2. CARICOM (1973), a customs union between English-speaking Caribbean countries Six members formed the Caribbean Single Market and Economy (CSME) in 2006 to lower trade barriers and harmonize macro-economic and monetary policy

Free Trade of the Americas

Talks began in 1998 to establish a Free Trade of The Americas (FTAA) by 2005 The FTAA was not established as planned Current support for the agreement by the U.S. and Brazil is limited If the FTAA is established, it would create a free trade area of nearly 800 million people

Regional Economic Integration Elsewhere

There have been various attempts at regional economic integration throughout Asia and Africa The success of these attempts have been limited The most significant efforts are the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation

Association of Southeast Asian Nations

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was formed in 1967 ASEAN currently includes Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia The goal of ASEAN is to foster freer trade between member countries and to achieve some cooperation in their industrial policies In 2003, an ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) between the six original members of ASEAN came into full effect with a goal of reducing import tariffs among the older members Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar have all joined AFTA more recently

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation

Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) was founded in 1990 APEC currently has 21 members including the United States, Japan, and China APEC wants to increase multilateral cooperation in view of the economic rise of the Pacific nations and the growing interdependence within the region

Regional Trade Blocs in Africa

There are nine trade blocs on the African continent However progress toward the establishment of meaningful trade blocs has been slow Many countries believe that they need to protect their industries from unfair foreign competition making it difficult to create free trade areas or customs unions

Implications for Managers

Question: Why is regional economic integration important to international companies? Thanks to regional economic integration, markets that had been protected from foreign competition are increasingly open These developments are particularly significant in the European Union and NAFTA However, regional economic integration is likely to increase competition

Opportunities
Formerly protected markets are now open to exports and direct investment Because of the free movement of goods across borders, the harmonization of product standards, and the simplification of tax regimes, firms can realize potentially enormous cost economies by centralizing production in those locations where the mix of factor costs and skills is optimal

Threats
Lower trade and investment barriers could lead to increased price competition within the EU and NAFTA Increased competition within the EU is forcing EU firms to become more efficient, and stronger global competitors Firms outside the blocs risk being shut out of the single market by the creation of a trade fortress Firms may be limited in their ability to pursue the strategy of their choice in the EU intervenes and imposes conditions on companies proposing mergers and acquisitions

Introduction
In the world economy today, we see a shift away from self-contained national economies with high barriers to cross-border trade and investment a move toward a more integrated global economic system with lower barriers to trade and investment about $3 trillion in foreign exchange transactions taking place everyday over $12 million of goods and some $3 trillion of services being sold across national borders the establishment of international institutions

Introduction
The effects of this trend can be seen in the cars people drive in the food people eat in the jobs where people work in the clothes people wear in many other ways

What Is Globalization?
Question: What is globalization? Globalization refers to the trend towards a more integrated global economic system Two key facets of globalization are: the globalization of markets the globalization of production

The Globalization of Markets

The globalization of markets refers to the merging of historically distinct and separate national markets into one huge global marketplace In many markets today, the tastes and preferences of consumers in different nations are converging upon some global norm Examples of this trend include Coca Cola, Starbucks, Sony PlayStation, and McDonalds hamburgers

The Globalization of Production

The globalization of production refers to the sourcing of goods and services from locations around the globe to take advantage of national differences in the cost and quality of factors of production (labor energy, land, and capital) The goal for companies is to lower their overall cost structure or improve the quality or functionality of their product and gain competitive advantage Examples of companies doing this include Boeing and Vizio

The Emergence of Global Institutions

Several global institutions have emerged to help manage, regulate, and police the global market place promote the establishment of multinational treaties to govern the global business system

The Emergence of Global Institutions

Notable global institutions include the World Trade Organization (WTO) which is responsible for policing the world trading system and ensuring that nations adhere to the rules established in WTO treaties
In 2008, 151 nations accounting for 97% of world trade were members of the WTO

the International Monetary Fund (IMF) which maintains order in the international monetary system

The Emergence of Global Institutions

the World Bank which promotes economic development the United Nations (UN) which maintains international peace and security, develops friendly relations among nations, cooperates in solving international problems and promotes respect for human rights, and is a center for harmonizing the actions of nations

Drivers of Globalization
Question: What is driving the move toward greater globalization? There are two macro factors underlying the trend toward greater globalization 1. declining trade and investment barriers 2. technological change

Declining Trade and Investment Barriers

International trade occurs when a firm exports goods or services to consumers in another country Foreign direct investment (FDI) occurs when a firm invests resources in business activities outside its home country During the 1920s and 1930s, many nations erected barriers to international trade and FDI to protect domestic industries from foreign competition

Declining Trade and Investment Barriers

After WWII, advanced Western countries began removing trade and investment barriers Under GATT (the forerunner of the WTO), over 100 nations negotiated further decreases in tariffs and made significant progress on a number of non-tariff issues Under the WTO, a mechanism now exists for dispute resolution and the enforcement of trade laws, and there is a push to cut tariffs on industrial goods, services, and agricultural products

Declining Trade and Investment Barriers

Lower trade barriers enable companies to view the world as a single market and establish production activities in optimal locations around the globe This has led to an acceleration in the volume of world trade and investment since the early 1980s

Declining Trade and Investment Barriers

Growth in World Merchandise Trade and Production, 1950 - 2006

The Role of Technological Change

The lowering of trade barriers made globalization of markets and production a theoretical possibility, technological change made it a tangible reality Since World War II, there have been major advances in communication, information processing, and transportation

The Role of Technological Change

The development of the microprocessor has lowered the cost of global communication and therefore the cost of coordinating and controlling a global organization Web-based transactions have grown from virtually zero in 1994 to $250 billion in 2007 in the U.S. alone, and Internet usage is up from fewer than 1 million users in 1990 to 1.3 billion users in 2007 Commercial jet aircraft and super freighters and the introduction of containerization have greatly simplified transshipment from one mode of transport to another

The Role of Technological Change

Question: What are the implications of technological change for the globalization of production? Lower transportation costs make a geographically dispersed production system more economical and allow firms to better respond to international customer demands

The Role of Technological Change

Question: What are the implications of technological change for the globalization of markets? Low cost communications networks have helped create electronic global marketplaces Low cost transportation have enabled firms to create global markets, and have facilitated the movement of people from country to country promoting a convergence of consumer tastes and preferences

The Changing Demographics of the Global Economy

In the 1960s: the U.S. dominated the world economy and the world trade picture the U.S. dominated world FDI U.S. multinationals dominated the international business scene about half the world-- the centrally planned economies of the communist world-- was off limits to Western international business Today, much of this has changed.

The Changing World Output and World Trade Picture

In the early 1960s, the U.S. was the world's dominant industrial power accounting for about 40.3% of world manufacturing output By 2007, the U.S. accounted for only 20.7% Other developed nations experienced a similar decline

The Changing World Output and World Trade Picture

Rapid economic growth is now being experienced by countries such as China, Thailand, and Malaysia Further relative decline in the U.S. share of world output and world exports seems likely Forecasts predict a rapid rise in the share of world output accounted for by developing nations such as China, India, Indonesia, Thailand, and South Korea, and a decline in the share by industrialized countries such as Britain, Japan, and the United States So companies may find both new markets and new competitors in the developing regions of the world

The Changing World Output and World Trade Picture

The Changing Demographics of World GDP and Trade

The Changing Foreign Direct Investment Picture

The share of world output generated by developing countries has been steadily increasing since the 1960s The stock of foreign direct investment (total cumulative value of foreign investments) generated by rich industrial countries has been on a steady decline There has been a sustained growth in cross-border flows of foreign direct investment The largest recipient of FDI has been China

The Changing Foreign Direct Investment Picture

Percentage Share of Total FDI Stock, 1980 - 2006

The Changing Foreign Direct Investment Picture

FDI Inflows, 1988 - 2007

The Changing Nature of the Multinational Enterprise

A multinational enterprise is any business that has productive activities in two or more countries Since the 1960s, there has been a rise in non-U.S. multinationals there has been a rise in mini-multinationals

The Changing Nature of the Multinational Enterprise

The globalization of the world economy has resulted in a decline in the dominance of U.S. firms in the global marketplace In 1973, 48.5 % of the worlds 260 largest MNEs were U.S. firms By 2006, just 24 of the worlds 100 largest non-financial MNEs were from the U.S., 13 were from France, 12 from Germany, 12 were from Britain, and 9 were from Japan, and 7 of the worlds largest 100 MNEs were from developing economies

The Changing Nature of the Multinational Enterprise

While most international trade and investment is conducted by large MNEs, many small and mediumsize firms are expanding internationally The Internet has made it easier for many smaller companies to build international sales

The Changing World Order

Today, many markets that had been closed to Western firms are open The collapse of communism in Eastern Europe has created a host of export and investment opportunities Economic development in China has created huge opportunities despite continued Communist control Free market reforms and democracy in Latin America have created opportunities for new markets and new sources of materials and production

The Global Economy of the Twenty-First Century

A more integrated global economy presents new opportunities for firms, but it can also result in political and economic disruptions that may throw plans into disarray

The Globalization Debate

Question: Is the shift toward a more integrated and interdependent global economy a good thing?
Many experts believe that globalization is promoting greater prosperity in the global economy, more jobs, and lower prices for goods and services Others feel that globalization is not beneficial

Antiglobalization Protests
Question: What are the concerns of critics of globalization? Anti-globalization protesters now turn up at almost every major meeting of a global institution Protesters fear that globalization is forever changing the world in a negative way

Globalization, Jobs, and Income

Critics of globalization worry that jobs in advanced economies are being lost to low-wage nations Supporters of globalization disagree, claiming that the benefits of free trade outweigh its costs While some jobs may be lost, the economy as a whole is better off Supporters argue that free trade will result in countries specializing in the production of those goods and services that they can produce most efficiently, while importing goods and services that they cannot produce as efficiently, and that in doing so, all countries will gain

Globalization, Labor Policies, and the Environment

Critics of globalization argue that that free trade encourages firms from advanced nations to move manufacturing facilities offshore to less developed countries with lax environmental and labor regulations Supporters of free trade point out that tougher environmental regulation and stricter labor standards go hand in hand with economic progress and that as countries get richer as a result of globalization, they raise their environmental and labor standards Free trade does not lead to more pollution and labor exploitation, it leads to less

Globalization and National Sovereignty

Critics of globalization worry that economic power is shifting away from national governments and toward supranational organizations such as the WTO, the European Union (EU), and the UN Supporters of globalization argue that the power of these organizations is limited to what nation-states collectively agree to grant The organizations must be able to persuade members states to follow certain actions Without the support of members, the organizations have no power

Globalization and the Worlds Poor

Critics of globalization argue that the gap between rich and poor has gotten wider and that the benefits of globalization have not been shared equally Supporters of free trade suggest that the actions of governments have made limited economic improvement in many countries Many of the worlds poorest nations are under totalitarian regimes, suffer from endemic corruption, have few property rights, are involved in war, and are burdened by high debt

Managing in the Global Marketplace

Question: What does the shift toward a global economy mean for managers within an international business? Managing an international business (any firm that engages in international trade or investment) differs from managing a domestic business in four key ways

Managing in the Global Marketplace

1. Countries differences require companies to vary their practices country by country 2. Managers face a greater and more complex range of problems 3. International companies must work within the limits imposed by governmental intervention and the global trading system 4. International transactions require converting funds and being susceptible to exchange rate changes