Chapter 2: the Structure of the Atom

A) Matter
1. Matter - Is anything that occupies space and has mass.
- Is made up of tiny and discrete particles.
- There are spaces between these particles.
- These particles may be atoms, molecules or ions.
- Matter exists in three states  solid, liquid and gas
2 Element - Is a substance that consists of only one type of atom
3 Compound - Is a substance that contains two or more elements that are chemically bonded together
- Molecule, Ion
4. Atom - An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can participate in a chemical reaction.
- Metals and some non metals such as carbon and helium exist as atoms.
- Fe, Al, Mg, Au
5. Molecule - Is a group of two or more atoms which are chemically bonded together
- O2, H2 , H2O, CO2
6. Ion - Is a positively-charged or negatively-charged particle.
- Sodium Chloride, NaCl: Na+, Cl-
7. Diffusion - Occur when particles of a substance, move in between the particles of another substance.
- Occur most rapidly in gases, slower in liquids and slowest in solids.

8. The Kinetic Theory of Matter

i. Solid
- a solid has a fixed volume and shape
- a solid cannot be compressed
- the particles are packed closely together in an orderly manner
- there are strong forces between the particles
- the particles can only vibrate and rotate about their fixed positions
ii. Liquid
- a liquid has fixed volume. It does not have a fixed shape but takes the shape of the container
- a liquid cannot be compressed easily
- The particles are packed closely together but not in orderly arrangement
- The particles are held together by strong forces but weaker that the forces in a solid
- The particles can vibrate, rotate and move through the liquid. They collide against each other
iii. Gas
- a gas does not gave a fixed shape or volume
- a gas can be compressed easily
- the particles are very far apart from each other and in a random motion
- there are weak forces between the particles ，the particles can vibrate, rotate and move freely. The rate of

collision is greater that the rate of collision in a liquid

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9 The change in the state of matter

Sublimation: Solid  Gas / Gas  Solid

Melting : Solid  Liquid
Freezing: Liquid  Solid
Evaporation or Boiling: Liquid  Gas
Condensation: Gas  Liquid

1 The kinetic theory of matter

0 i. when a solid is heated,
- the particles in the solid gain kinetic energy and vibrate more vigorously
- the particles vibrate faster as the temperature increases until the energy they gained is able to overcome the
forces that hold them at their fixed positions
- At this point, the solid becomes a liquid. This process is called melting.
- Melting point is the temperature at which a solid changes into a liquid at a particular pressure

- Example: Naphthalene C10H8

- The curve shows the changes in temperature when solid naphthalene melts
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 At point A
- naphthalene exists as solid
- When the solid is heated, heat energy is absorbed. This cause the particles to gain kinetic energy and
vibrate faster
- This is why the temperature increases from point A to point B
At point B
- solid naphthalene begins to melt
- during the melting process, the temperature 0Cof naphthalene does not rise, even though heating continues
- the temperature remains constant because the heat energy absorbed by the particles is used to overcome
the forces between particles
- the solid can turn into liquid
- this constant temperature is the melting point of naphthalene
- at this temperature, both solid and liquid are present
At point C
- all the solid naphthalene has melted
- from point C to D, the particles in liquid naphthalene absorb heat energy and move faster
- the temperature increases from point C to point D
ii. When a liquid is cooled
- the particles in the liquid lose energy and move slower
- As the temperature continues to drop, the particles continue to lose more energy until they do not have
enough energy to move freely
- At this point, the liquid changes into solid. This process is called freezing
- Freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid changes into a solid at a particular pressure.
- Example: Naphthalene

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B) The Atomic Structure
1. John Dalton (1766 – 1844)
- Atom as a small, invisible ball similar to a very tiny ball

2. J.J. Thomson (1856 – 1940)

- He discovered electron
- He described the atom as sphere of positive charge which contains a
few negatively charged particles called electron

3. Ernest Rutherford (1871 – 1937) - He discovered proton, a positive charge in an atom

- The positive charge and most of the mass of the atom are
concentrated in a small, central region called nucleus
- The electrons move in a space that is lager than the space
occupied by the nucleus

-
4. Neils Bohr (18856 – 1962)

- he proposed that the electrons in an atom move in shells

around the nucleus

5. James Chadwick (1891 – 1974)

- He proved the existence of neutrons, the neutral particles in the nucleus.
- Neutrons contribute approximately to half the mass of an atom

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Subatomic particles of an atom

1. Proton - Symbol: P Relative electric charge: +1 Relative mass: 1

2. Neutron - Symbol: N Relative electric charge: 0 Relative mass: 1
3. Electron - Symbol: e Relative electric charge: -1 Relative mass: Approximately 1/1840 ~
0.0005
4. Nucleus - Contain proton and neutron.
- Most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus
- The nucleus has an overall positive charge due to the positively-charged protons in it
5. Proton - The number of proton in its atom
number
6. Nucleon - The total number of protons and neutrons in its atom
number
7. Symbols of Element Symbol Element Symbol Element Symbol Element Symbol
elements Hydrogen H Carbon C Sodium Na Sulphur S
Helium He Nitrogen N Magnesium Mg Chlorine Cl
Lithium Li Oxygen O Aluminium Al Argon Ar
Beryllium Be Fluorine F Silicon Si Potassium K
Boron B Neon Ne Phosphorus P Calcium Ca
8 Standard
representation
-
for an atom
- number of proton = 9, number of neutron = 19 – 9 = 10,
- number of electron = 9
12 20 39 80
6C 10 Ne 19 K 35 Br

Number of
proton
Number of
neuron
Number of
electron

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9. Isotopes
- Isotopes are atoms of the same element (same number of proton) with different number of neutrons.
- Examples: Hrogren-1, Hydrogen-2, Hydrogen-3, Chlorine-35, Chlorine-37
Uses of Isotopes
- Cobalt-60: used in radiotherapy for the treatment of cancer
- Gamma rays of cobalt-60: used to destroy bacteria in food without changing the quality of food
- Carbon-14: estimate the age of fossils and artefacts
- Phosphorous-32: study the metabolism of phosphorus in plants
10 Electron arrangement
- Also know as electronic configuration
- For atoms with the proton numbers of 1 to 20,
- First shell: 2 electrons
- Second shell: 8 electrons
- Third shell: 8 electrons

- Example: Cl  2.8.7

- For atoms with more than 20 electrons, the third shell can
accommodate up to 18 electrons
- Example: Rubidium, Rb  2.8.18.8.1
-
11 Valence electrons
- Valence electrons are electrons found in the outermost occupied shell of an atom
- Example, Cl, 2.8.7. The valence electrons of a chlorine atom are 7.
Important information based on the electron arrangement
Example: Mg: 2.8.2
i. The number of shells in Mg = 3, Mg found in Period 3 in Periodic Table.
ii. The number of valence electrons in Mg = 2. Mg is found in Group 2 in the Periodic Table
iii. The number of electrons in Mg = 12 = Proton Number = 12

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