Introduction

A. Das Gupta Emeritus Professor AIT, Bangkok

Content
Hydrology, Global Water Distribution, Hydrologic Cycle, and Water Balance Equation.

Hydrology
HYDROLOGY is the science of water that is concerned with the origin, circulation, distribution and properties of water of the earth.
(Hydro Water; Loge - Knowledge)

It is the study of occurrence, character, and movement of water within and between the physical and biological components of the environment The practical application of hydrology is called Applied Hydrology

Hydrology Basic Definition

FOREST HYDROLOGY, RANGE HYDROLOGY, WILDLAND HYDROLOGY is the branch of hydrology which deals with the effects of land management and vegetation on the quantity, quality and timing of water yields, including floods, erosion and sedimentation

ImportantPointstoNote
Adequate basic data are essential to any science, and hydrology is no exception Hydrologic phenomena are complex, interpretation and analysis based on observed data is a must to understand and establish the systematic pattern Most countries have one or more agencies with responsibility for data collection. It is important to know how these data are collected, the limitations on their accuracy, and the proper methods of interpretation and adjustment. Typical hydrologic problems involve estimates of extremes rarely observed in a small data sample, hydrologic characteristics at locations where no data have been collected or estimates of the effects of human actions on the hydrologic characteristics of an area. Each hydrologic problem is unique in that it deals with a distinct set of physical conditions within a specific river basin.

StatesofWater
Energy extracted Energy added

melting = latent heat of fusion

Water vapor

Evaporation = latent heat of vaporization

freezing Solid water melting Liquid Water

StatesofWater
Water can exist in three states solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (water vapor) Water exists in the air in the form of water vapor, clouds, fog, and precipitation

Figure 4.1, p. 121

StatesofWater
Water can exist in three states solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (water vapor) Water exists in the air in the form of water vapor, clouds, fog, and precipitation

StatesofWater

This figure shows what happens to ONE gram (one ml) of water. The orange arrow on the top represents adding heat, from left to right, and the blue arrows represent releasing heat from right to left on the bottom

Howmuchwaterdowehave?
Total volume of water on the planet: 1386 Million cubic kilometer

Water is the signature feature of our 'blue planet' 70% of the Earth's surface is covered in water.

97% of the water on earth is in the oceans

The Earths Water Distribution

Only 3% of the water on earth is freshwater About 69% of the freshwater on earth is permanently frozen in glaciers and at the polar ice caps About 30% of freshwater is groundwater leaving only 0.3% of total water as surface water Only about 0.03% of total water on earth is in the rivers and lakes

majority of water occurs as ocean saltwater (97%) remaining water (2.8%) is accounted for by glaciers and ice sheets, and groundwater only 0.001% occurs in the atmosphere

Hydrologic Cycle & Processes

HydrologicCycle
15 km 1 km Hydrosphere Lithosphere

Water on earth exists : in a space called Hydrosphere (15 km up into the atmosphere) in the crust of the earth (1 km down into the Lithosphere)

Earth

Water circulates in the hydrosphere through the maze of paths constituting the Hydrologic Cycle

What is Hydrosphere ?
The hydrosphere is the liquid water component of the Earth. It includes the oceans, seas, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams. The hydrosphere covers about 70% of the surface of the Earth and is the home for many plants and animals.

Various stores of water in the hydrosphere

What is Lithosphere ?
It is the rigid outermost shell of a rocky planet. The lithosphere contains the crust and upper mantle. The Earth has two types of lithosphere: oceanic and continental. The lithosphere is broken up into tectonic plates. Oceanic lithosphere is typically about 50-100 km thick (but is no thicker than crust beneath the mid-ocean ridges), while continental lithosphere is about 150 km thick.

Water never leaves the Earth. It is constantly being cycled through the atmosphere, ocean, and land. This process, known as the water cycle, is driven by energy from the sun. The water cycle is crucial to the existence of life on our planet.

HydrologicalCycle

Water in Circulation

HydrologicalCycle

During part of the water cycle, the sun heats up liquid water and changes it to a gas by the process of evaporation. Water that evaporates from Earths oceans, lakes, rivers, and moist soil rises up into the atmosphere.

Evaporation
Evaporation: the conversion of water from a liquid into a gas. Approximately 80% of all evaporation is from the oceans, with the remaining 20% coming from inland water and vegetation

23

Evaporation
Evaporation happens in several ways
Open water evaporation Transpiration from leaves Evaporation from soil and land surface

Factors affecting evaporation

Heat energy to supply latent heat of vaporization: air temperature, net radiation Capacity to transport vapor away from evaporative surface: wind, humidity Water available to supply evaporative moisture: soil water content

Potential evaporation: water supply is not limiting

The process of evaporation from plants is called transpiration. (In other words, its like plants sweating.)

Transpiration
Transpiration: transpiration is the evaporation of water into the atmosphere from the leaves and stems of plants.

Transpiration
The process of water loss from plants through stomata.
(Stomata are small openings found on the underside of leaves that are connected to vascular plant tissues.) passive process that depends on: ~humidity of the atmosphere ~the moisture content of the soil only 1 % of the water transpired used for growth transports nutrients from the soil into the roots and carries them to the various cells of the plant keeps tissues from becoming overheated

Transpiration
Accounts for ~ 10% of the moisture in the atmosphere Depends on:
Temperature Humidity Insolation Precipitation Soil type and saturation Wind Land slope

As water (in the form of gas) rises higher in the atmosphere, it starts to cool and become a liquid again. This process is called condensation. When a large amount of water vapor condenses, it results in the formation of clouds.

Condensation
Condensation: the conversion of water from a gas into a liquid. Condensation is the change of water from its gaseous form (water vapor) into liquid water. Condensation generally occurs in the atmosphere when warm air rises, cools and looses its capacity to hold water vapor. As a result, excess water vapor condenses to form cloud droplets.

Whenthewaterinthecloudsgetstooheavy, thewaterfallsbacktotheearth.Thisiscalled precipitation.

Precipitation
Precipitation: transfer of water from the atmosphere back to earth. There are several forms of precipitation, the most common of which is rain. Other forms of precipitation include; hail, snow, sleet, and freezing rain.

When rain falls on the land, some of the water as it moves infiltrates into the ground and the remaining flows along the surface may be into surface depression, if any and most of the flow run directly into streams or rivers. Water that collects in rivers, streams, and oceans is called runoff.

Runoff
Runoff: runoff is the movement of land water to the oceans, mainly through the avenue of rivers, lakes, and streams. Surface runoff consists of precipitation that neither evaporates, transpires nor penetrates the surface to become groundwater. Excess runoff can lead to flooding

Part of the rainfall that infiltrates through the ground surface percolates down into the storage of groundwater. Groundwater systems are extensive underground and groundwater flows from the areas of recharge to areas of discharge that are surface bodies like streams, rivers or oceans.

Groundwater
Ground Water: groundwater is the water available underground that has infiltrated through the earth's surface and is found in subsurface soil layers.

Hydrologic Water Cycle

In Circulation : 577,000 km3

Quantitativeindicesofdifferentcomponentsoftheglobal hydrologicalcycle (annualvalues)

Land Precipitation (km3) Evaporation (km3) Gain (km3) 119,000 74,200 + 44,800 Ocean 458,000 502,800 - 44, 800 Total 577,000 577,000

Distributionofnetgain (44,800km3)onland
Total runoff of Earths rivers: 42,600 km3/year Direct groundwater runoff: 2,200 km3/year (Principal sources of freshwater to support livelihood and mans economic activities)

WaterBalanceEquations
Need to define a spatial domain to apply the water balance concept

Watershed
WATERSHED, or CATCHMENT, is a topographic area that is drained by a stream, that is, the total land area above some point on a stream or river that drains past that point. The watershed is often used as a planning or management unit. Natural environment unit.

DelineationofaWatershed

RiverBasin
RIVER BASIN is a larger land area unit that, although comprised of numerous sub watersheds and tributaries still drains the entire basin past a single point. Land use, management and planning is often diverse and complex. River basins, like the Chao Phraya and the Mae Kong may drain an ocean or inland sea.

ManagementAspect
WATERSHED/RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT is the process of guiding and organizing land and other resource use on a watershed/river basin to provide desired goods and services without affecting adversely soil and water resources and the environment. Management involves multi-dimensional considerations including physical, technical, institutional, socio-economic, and environmental aspects

HydrologicWaterBudget
A water budget is the scientific method for measuring the amount of water entering, stored within, and leaving a watershed, and it is also called a hydrologic budget or a water balance

HydrologicBudgetonaGlobalScale
Hydrologic cycle

Atmospheric Subsystem

Surface Subsystem

Groundwater Subsystem

HydrologicBudgetonaGlobalScale
Hydrologic cycle with global annual average water balance.

Figures are in 103 km3

Average Water Balance in 1978

HydrologicBudgetonaGlobalScale

Average Water Balance in 2005

HydrologicWaterBudget
The hydrologic budget consists of inflows, outflows, and storage as shown in the following equation:

Inflow = Outflow +/- Changes in Storage

Inflows add water to the different parts of the hydrologic system, while outflows remove water. Storage is the retention of water by parts of the system. Because water movement is cyclical, an inflow for one part of the system is an outflow for another.

Precipitation = Evapotranspiration + Total Runoff,

where Total Runoff = Direct Runoff + Base flow (groundwater component of stream flow)

Evaporation (E) Precipitation (P)

Transpiration (T)

Storage (S) Rainfall Excess (R) Subsurface Flow (B)

Schematic of hydrologic balance components for a pond

Infiltration (F)

One of the uses of the consideration of water balance is in the estimation of surface storage. Storing and transferring a sufficient quantity of water has been one of the major problems. What volume of water is stored in a surface reservoir/soil (expanding the concept over a larger area) and how does the volume change over time? What causes the water supply to be depleted or increased? How are the storage and releases managed?

Evaporation (E) Precipitation (P)

Transpiration (T)

Storage (S) Rainfall Excess (R) Subsurface Flow (B)

Infiltration (F)

Based on the conservation of mass: Input output = change in storage P + R + B - F - E - T = S volumes are measured in units m3, L, ac-ft, f3, gal, or in & cm over the watershed area

Waterbalancecomponentsinrootzone
Rain
Transpiration

Evapo-transpiration Irrigation Runoff Root Zone Water Storage

Evaporation

Below Root Zone

Drainage

WaterMassBalance
S = (I + R + U) (D + RO + ET) where, ET: Evapotranspiration R, I: Rain and Irrigation D: Drainage below root zone RO: Runoff S: Change in soil water storage U: Upward capillary flow

Sun Boundary Input (BI)

Precipitation (P)

Evaporation (E)

Solar Energy Transpiration (T) Boundary Output (BO) Area Boundary

Depression Storage Rainfall Excess (R)

Evaporation (E)

Storage (S) Infiltration (F) Subsurface Flow (B) Soil Moisture Storage Subsurface Water Storage Area Boundary Subsurface Flow = interflow + baseflow

Simplified representation of a very dynamic process in a watershed

Equation for the mass balance can be written in this case in the same form as below, Input output = change in storage but can we use this equation (as given in the previous slide) P + R + B - F - E - T = S You need to reconsider all the terms in line with your schematization and delineation of spatial boundary of reference domain P + BI - R - F - E T - BO = S (with boundary in 3rd dimension, that is in vertical direction is the ground surface)

However, by considering the watershed with surface and subsurface including, P + BI - R - B - E T - BO = S note, BI and BO include both surface and subsurface input and output , B includes both interflow, groundwater flow and baseflow S includes changes in surface, soil moisture and GW storage

Note volumes are measured in units m3, L, ac-ft, f3, gal, or in & cm
over the watershed area

Whattodoaboutunits?
Rainfall is expressed in mm, in Stream flow is expressed in cubic feet/cubic meter per second/minute Evapotranspiration is expressed in mm, in Soil water storage? How can we make a mass balance with different units? Conversion

WaterDepth
We have to use the same units; thus we have to remove the area from our calculation We need to convert volume into unit depth; thus whats water depth: Water depth (d) = Volume of water (V) / Surface of the field (A)

Conversion

1 acre-foot = 1317.25 m3

Problem 1
Suppose there is a reservoir, filled with water, with a length of 5 m, a width of 10 m and a depth of 2 m. All the water from the reservoir is spread over a field of 1 hectare. Calculate the water depth (which is the thickness of the water layer) on the field.

Answer 1
Surface of the field = 10 000 m2 Volume of water = 100 m3 Formula: d = v/a =100 / 10,000 = 0.01 m = 10 mm

Problem 2
A water layer 1 mm thick is spread over a field of 1 ha. Calculate the volume of the water (in m3),

Answer 2
Given Surface of the field = 10 000 m2 Water depth = 1 mm =1/1 000 = 0.001 m Formula: Volume (m) = surface of the field (m) x water depth (m) Answer V = 10 000 m2 x 0.001 m V = 10 m3 or 10 000 liters

Problem 3
Over a two-month period of time, a catchment is expected to receive 254 mm of rain with an expected evapotranspiration estimated at 95 mm and that lost to groundwater storage of 20 mm. There is no other significant storage in the watershed. What is the expected rainfall excess to a reservoir storage area if the catchment area is 65 km2? Express your answer in cubic meter and liter. Also determine how many people can be serviced by this water if the per person per day water use rate is 160 liters.

Problem 4
Estimate the amount of depression storage (inches and cubic feet) in a 6 acre parking lot using the following rainfall and discharge data. The discharge data were measured at the only inlet in the parking lot. Rainfall = 0.88 in, Rainfall excess = 5 cfs average for one hour. Also list assumptions for the other variables of the hydrologic cycle.

Global Water
Location % of total 97 3.0 2.06 0.90 0.03 Oceans (salt water) Fresh water Icecaps and glaciers Groundwater Lakes, rivers, soil, atmosphere

Components of hydrologic cycle

Precipitation - rain, snow, fog, interception Runoff - surface, subsurface Storage Evaporation - soil, plants, water surface

WhatpercentoftheEarthstotal volumeofwaterisstoredinthe atmosphere?

0.001% Water vapor Clouds

(water vapor condensed on particulate)

What two processes change liquid water into vapor that can ascend into the atmosphere?

Evaporation 90% Transpiration 10% What percent of the water in

the atmosphere comes from evaporation?

Evaporation
The process by which liquid water is transformed into a gaseous state Evaporation into a gas ceases when the gas reaches saturation
The molecules that escape the condensed stage have above-average energies. Those left behind have below-average energies Manifested by a decrease in the temperature of the condensed phase.

Evaporation

Energy breaks bonds that hold molecules together Net evaporation occurs when the rate of evaporation exceeds the rate of condensation Removes heat from the environment: Net Cooling
Primary mechanism for surface-to-atmosphere water transport

Evaporationv.Precipitation

About equal on a global scale Evaporation more prevalent over the oceans than precipitation Over land, precipitation exceeds evaporation Most water evaporated from the oceans falls back into the ocean as precipitation 10% of water evaporated from the ocean is transported over land and falls as precipitation Once evaporated, a water molecule spends ~ 10 days airborne

Precipitation

The vapor that accumulates or freezes on condensation nuclei is acted on by gravity and falls to Earths surface.
rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow, or hail primary connection in the water cycle that provides for the delivery of atmospheric water to the Earth

Meteorologicalfactorsaffecting surface(oversoil)runoff
- Type of precipitation - Rainfall intensity - Rainfall amount - Rainfall duration - Distribution of rainfall over the drainage basin - Direction of storm movement - Precipitation that occurred earlier and resulting soil moisture - Meteorological conditions that affect evapotranspiration

Physicalcharacteristicsaffecting surfacerunoff
Land use Vegetation Soil type Drainage area Basin shape Elevation Topography, especially the slope of the land - Drainage network patterns - Ponds, lakes, reservoirs, sinks, etc. in the basin, which prevent or delay runoff from continuing downstream

Humanfactorsaffectingsurface runoff

Urbanization -- more impervious surfaces reduce infiltration and accelerate water motion Removal of vegetation and soil -- surface grading, artificial drainage networks increases volume of runoff and shortens runoff time to streams from rainfall and snowmelt

Mostrunoff

Drains to a creek To a stream To a river To an ocean Rarely runoff drains to a closed lake May be diverted for human uses

GroundwaterbeginsasINFILTRATION

Precipitation falls and infiltrates into the subsurface soil and rock

Can remain in shallow soil layer Might seep into a stream bank May infiltrate deeper, recharging an aquifer May travel long distances May stay in storage as ground water

Factorsaffectinginfiltration

Precipitation (greatest factor) Magnitude, intensity, duration Characteristics (rain, snow) Soil Characteristics Clay absorbs less water at a slower rate than sand Soil Saturation Higher saturation leads to more runoff instead Land Cover Slope of the Land Hills enhance runoff velocity Evapotranspiration Plants use soil moisture to grow and transpire

Infiltrationreplenishedaquifers

Slow process -- ground water moves slowly through the unsaturated zone Recharge Rate determined by precipitation & depth An aquifer in New Mexico, if emptied, would take centuries to refill whereas a shallow aquifer in south Georgia may be replenished almost immediately

SubsurfaceWater

As precipitation infiltrates subsurface soil, it forms zones: Unsaturated -- interstitial spaces cannot be pumped Saturated -- Water completely fills the voids between rocks and soil particles

In Summary..................
The hydrologic cycle is the circulation of water above, on, and through
the Earth via the land, atmosphere, and oceans. The oceans contain more water than all the other reservoirs (groundwater, ice, lakes/rivers) combined. The majority of freshwater is locked up in ice caps. Hydrologic systems can be quantified using the water balance equation. Change in Storage (t) = Input (t) Output (t) Writing a water balance equation requires listing the important process and deciding whether they are primarily inputs, primarily outputs, or both.

The hydrologic residence time and hydrologic time scale

Hydrologic Residence Time in different storages

Water is continually cycled between its various storages. The typical residence times of water in the major storages varied greatly. On average water is renewed in rivers once every 16 days. Water in the atmosphere is completely replaced once every 8 days. Slower rates of replacement occur in large lakes, glaciers, ocean bodies and groundwater. Replacement in these reservoirs can take from hundreds to thousands of years.
Typical residence times of water found in various storages Average Residence Time 20 to 100 years 2 to 6 months 1 to 2 months 100 to 200 years 10,000 years 50 to 100 years 2 to 6 months

Reservoir Glaciers Seasonal Snow Cover Soil Moisture Groundwater: Shallow Groundwater: Deep Lakes Rivers

Hydrologic Time Scale

The different storages and processes can occur at vastly different time scales. Surface processes (e.g. evaporation, precipitation and surface runoff) occur much more rapidly than subsurface processes (e.g. groundwater flow, infiltration, recharge and discharge). Hoursdaysmonthsyearsdecadescenturies-millennia Surface and near-surface processes can be considered much more active processes.

Waterbalancecomponentsofa watershedwith(systemdiagram)

ChallengeforHydrologists

To understand the changes and assess the impacts of socio-economic development