Contents

Acknowledgements v
Introduction 1
The special role of logic in rational inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Why learn an artificial language? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Consequence and proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Instructions about homework exercises (essential!) . . . . . . . . . . 5
To the instructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Web address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

I Propositional Logic 17
1 AtomicSentences 19
1.1 Individual constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2 Predicate symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3 Atomic sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4 General first-order languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5 Function symbols (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.6 The first-order language of set theory (optional) . . . . . . . . 37
1.7 The first-order language of arithmetic (optional) . . . . . . . . 38
1.8 Alternative notation (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2 TheLogic of Atomic Sentences 41
2.1 Valid and sound arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2 Methods of proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3 Formal proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.4 Constructing proofs in Fitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.5 Demonstrating nonconsequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.6 Alternative notation (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3 TheBooleanConnectives 67
3.1 Negation symbol: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2 Conjunction symbol: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.3 Disjunction symbol: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.4 Remarks about the game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
vii
viii / Contents
3.5 Ambiguity and parentheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.6 Equivalent ways of saying things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.7 Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.8 Alternative notation (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4 TheLogic of Boolean Connectives 93
4.1 Tautologies and logical truth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.2 Logical and tautological equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.3 Logical and tautological consequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.4 Tautological consequence in Fitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.5 Pushing negation around (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.6 Conjunctive and disjunctive normal forms (optional) . . . . . . 121
5 Methods of Proof for Boolean Logic 127
5.1 Valid inference steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.2 Proof by cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.3 Indirect proof: proof by contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.4 Arguments with inconsistent premises (optional) . . . . . . . . 140
6 FormalProofs and Boolean Logic 142
6.1 Conjunction rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.2 Disjunction rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.3 Negation rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.4 The proper use of subproofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.5 Strategy and tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.6 Proofs without premises (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
7 Conditionals 176
7.1 Material conditional symbol: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7.2 Biconditional symbol: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.3 Conversational implicature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
7.4 Truth-functional completeness (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

7.5 Alternative notation (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

8 TheLogic of Conditionals 198
8.1 Informal methods of proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
8.2 Formal rules of proof for and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.3 Soundness and completeness (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
8.4 Valid arguments: some review exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Contents
Contents / ix

II Quantifiers 225
9 Introduction to Quantification 227
9.1 Variables and atomic wffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
9.2 The quantifier symbols: , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
9.3 Wffs and sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
9.4 Semantics for the quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
9.5 The four Aristotelian forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
9.6 Translating complex noun phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
9.7 Quantifiers and function symbols (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . 251
9.8 Alternative notation (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
10 The Logic of Quantifiers 257
10.1 Tautologies and quantification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
10.2 First-order validity and consequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
10.3 First-order equivalence and DeMorgans laws . . . . . . . . . . 275
10.4 Other quantifier equivalences (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
10.5 The axiomatic method (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
11 Multiple Quantifiers 289
11.1 Multiple uses of a single quantifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
11.2 Mixed quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
11.3 The step-by-step method of translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
11.4 Paraphrasing English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
11.5 Ambiguity and context sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
11.6 Translations using function symbols (optional) . . . . . . . . . 308
11.7 Prenex form (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
11.8 Some extra translation problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
12 Methods of Proof for Quantifiers 319
12.1 Valid quantifier steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
12.2 The method of existential instantiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
12.3 The method of general conditional proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
12.4 Proofs involving mixed quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
12.5 Axiomatizing shape (optional ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
13 Formal Proofs and Quantifiers 342
13.1 Universal quantifier rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
13.2 Existential quantifier rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
13.3 Strategy and tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
13.4 Soundness and completeness (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Contents
x / Contents

13.5 Some review exercises (optional ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

14 More about Quantification (optional) 364
14.1 Numerical quantification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
14.2 Proving numerical claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
14.3 The, both, and neither . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
14.4 Adding other determiners to fol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
14.5 The logic of generalized quantification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
14.6 Other expressive limitations of first-order logic . . . . . . . . . 397

III Applications and Metatheory 403

15 First-order Set Theory 405
15.1 Naive set theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
15.2 Singletons, the empty set, subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
15.3 Intersection and union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
15.4 Sets of sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
15.5 Modeling relations in set theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
15.6 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

15.7 The powerset of a set (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

15.8 Russells Paradox (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
15.9 Zermelo Frankel set theory zfc (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
16 Mathematical Induction 442
16.1 Inductive definitions and inductive proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
16.2 Inductive definitions in set theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
16.3 Induction on the natural numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
16.4 Axiomatizing the natural numbers (optional) . . . . . . . . . . 456
16.5 Proving programs correct (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
17 Advanced Topics in Propositional Logic 468
17.1 Truth assignments and truth tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
17.2 Completeness for propositional logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
17.3 Horn sentences (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
17.4 Resolution (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
18 Advanced Topics in FOL 495
18.1 First-order structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
18.2 Truth and satisfaction, revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
18.3 Soundness for fol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Contents
Contents / xi

18.4 The completeness of the shape axioms (optional) . . . . . . . . 512

18.5 Skolemization (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
18.6 Unification of terms (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
18.7 Resolution, revisited (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
19 Completeness and Incompleteness 526
19.1 The Completeness Theorem for fol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
19.2 Adding witnessing constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
19.3 The Henkin theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
19.4 The Elimination Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
19.5 The Henkin Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
19.6 The Lowenheim-Skolem Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
19.7 The Compactness Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
19.8 The Godel Incompleteness Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
Summary of Formal Proof Rules 557
Propositional rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
First-order rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
Inference Procedures (Con Rules) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Glossary 562
General Index 573
Exercise Files Index 585