NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANISATION

RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY ORGANISATION

AC/323(AVT-094)TP/68

www.rta.nato.int

RTO TECHNICAL REPORT

TR-AVT-094

Best Practices for the Mitigation and Control of Foreign Object Damage-Induced High Cycle Fatigue in Gas Turbine Engine Compression System Airfoils
(Meilleures pratiques pour lattnuation et le contrle de la fatigue mgacyclique rsultant des dgts causs par des corps trangers dans les turbomoteurs)

Work performed by the RTO Applied Vehicle Technology Panel (AVT) Task Group-094.

Published June 2005

Official Information

No Public Release

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANISATION

RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY ORGANISATION

AC/323(AVT-094)TP/68

www.rta.nato.int

RTO TECHNICAL REPORT

TR-AVT-094

Best Practices for the Mitigation and Control of Foreign Object Damage-Induced High Cycle Fatigue in Gas Turbine Engine Compression System Airfoils
(Meilleures pratiques pour lattnuation et le contrle de la fatigue mgacyclique rsultant des dgts causs par des corps trangers dans les turbomoteurs)

Work performed by the RTO Applied Vehicle Technology Panel (AVT) Task Group-094.

Official Information

No Public Release

The Research and Technology Organisation (RTO) of NATO

RTO is the single focus in NATO for Defence Research and Technology activities. Its mission is to conduct and promote co-operative research and information exchange. The objective is to support the development and effective use of national defence research and technology and to meet the military needs of the Alliance, to maintain a technological lead, and to provide advice to NATO and national decision makers. The RTO performs its mission with the support of an extensive network of national experts. It also ensures effective co-ordination with other NATO bodies involved in R&T activities. RTO reports both to the Military Committee of NATO and to the Conference of National Armament Directors. It comprises a Research and Technology Board (RTB) as the highest level of national representation and the Research and Technology Agency (RTA), a dedicated staff with its headquarters in Neuilly, near Paris, France. In order to facilitate contacts with the military users and other NATO activities, a small part of the RTA staff is located in NATO Headquarters in Brussels. The Brussels staff also co-ordinates RTOs co-operation with nations in Middle and Eastern Europe, to which RTO attaches particular importance especially as working together in the field of research is one of the more promising areas of co-operation. The total spectrum of R&T activities is covered by the following 7 bodies:

AVT HFM IST SAS SCI SET

Applied Vehicle Technology Panel Human Factors and Medicine Panel Information Systems Technology Panel Studies, Analysis and Simulation Panel Systems Concepts and Integration Panel Sensors and Electronics Technology Panel

NMSG NATO Modelling and Simulation Group

These bodies are made up of national representatives as well as generally recognised world class scientists. They also provide a communication link to military users and other NATO bodies. RTOs scientific and technological work is carried out by Technical Teams, created for specific activities and with a specific duration. Such Technical Teams can organise workshops, symposia, field trials, lecture series and training courses. An important function of these Technical Teams is to ensure the continuity of the expert networks. RTO builds upon earlier co-operation in defence research and technology as set-up under the Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development (AGARD) and the Defence Research Group (DRG). AGARD and the DRG share common roots in that they were both established at the initiative of Dr Theodore von Krmn, a leading aerospace scientist, who early on recognised the importance of scientific support for the Allied Armed Forces. RTO is capitalising on these common roots in order to provide the Alliance and the NATO nations with a strong scientific and technological basis that will guarantee a solid base for the future. The content of this publication has been reproduced directly from material supplied by RTO or the authors.

Published June 2005 Copyright RTO/NATO 2005 All Rights Reserved ISBN 92-837-1148-3 Single copies of this publication or of a part of it may be made for individual use only. The approval of the RTA Information Management Systems Branch is required for more than one copy to be made or an extract included in another publication. Requests to do so should be sent to the address on the back cover.

ii

RTO-TR-AVT-094

Best Practices for the Mitigation and Control of Foreign Object Damage-Induced High Cycle Fatigue in Gas Turbine Engine Compression System Airfoils
(RTO-TR-AVT-094)

Executive Summary
High Cycle Fatigue (HCF) failures have grown in severity to become a dominant and costly failure mode for gas turbine-based propulsion and power systems. A significant fraction of engine-caused aircraft mishaps are due to HCF but, in addition, a major cost and maintenance penalty is caused by the removal of engines due to foreign object damage (FOD) to the engine compression system airfoils, in order to prevent FOD-induced HCF mishaps. The total HCF impact has therefore been to decrease operational readiness and increase weapon system support costs. The AVT-094 Working Group was chartered to investigate and recommend the best practices for NATO to use in dealing with this FOD-HCF problem. Effective management of the FOD-induced HCF problem requires a detailed and up-to-date understanding of its impact in the real world of the NATO war fighter. This document therefore highlights the important FOD data that needs to be collected, a task that can be greatly aided through use of a NATO-standard template that has been developed, and which is supported by a developed list of common terminology and a pictorial representative damage guide. Data mining then provides a powerful means of focusing on the most important information in order to take pro-active knowledge-based preventive action. However good FOD prevention procedures are, FOD will still occur. Due to this fact, experimental and numerical simulation, which is discussed in detail, can be used to provide an understanding of how aero gas turbine engine blades will behave following FOD, in order to accurately define safe maintenance procedures and design activity. Blade design is traditionally based on materials stress allowances and simple excitation avoidance, but this document presents a simple, robust, design methodology that takes in account the interaction between FOD and HCF on new blade designs to help improve their FOD tolerant robustness. In addition to ensuring that the underlying design of components is FOD-tolerant, supplementary treatment of a components surface can provide a powerful practical method of reducing the effect of potential FOD. Processes including shot peening, laser shock peening and low plasticity burnishing are explained along with their relative advantages. Finally, foreign objects need to be controlled at their source. This report therefore explains some ways in which FOD prevention should be employed through concentration on tool control methods, hardware accountability, housekeeping procedures, personnel training programs and procedures to be used following the loss of tools and other items. The benefit of understanding FOD-induced HCF, and mitigating or controlling its occurrence, will be to improve significantly operational gas turbine engine safety and readiness, and reduce its life cycle costs. It is therefore recommended that NATO member Nations use this document and its recommendations to: 1) Examine their FOD data collection, mining and investigation methods and decide where changes could enhance their existing processes. 2) Review their processes for the experimental and numerical simulation of FOD. 3) Review their design practices for the evaluation of FOD/HCF interaction.
RTO-TR-AVT-094 iii

4) Review their aero-engine manufacture and overhaul techniques for the application of FOD/HCF resistant surface treatments. 5) Examine FOD prevention methods used throughout their industry and government organizations to pick the best. 6) Adopt the Task Groups definitions for describing blade damage as a NATO standard. 7) Periodically review the definitions, techniques and processes discussed in this report to include application of advancements in relevant technologies, and update documentation as required. 8) Set up a NATO FOD forum at which NATO nations can share FOD statistics and information and solve in-service problems jointly; representatives should be taken from flight safety organisations or other offices with the responsibility for in-service FOD Prevention.

iv

RTO-TR-AVT-094

Meilleures pratiques pour lattnuation et le contrle de la fatigue mgacyclique rsultant des dgts causs par des corps trangers dans les turbomoteurs
(RTO-TR-AVT-094)

Synthse
De plus en plus importantes et coteuses, les pannes dues la fatigue mgacyclique (HCF) constituent dsormais le principal mode de dfaillance des turbines gaz et gnratrices. Une partie non ngligeable des accidents occasionns par les moteurs davion est imputable la HCF, mais il faut galement tenir compte de limpact majeur sur les cots et la maintenance de la dpose des moteurs, suite aux dgts causs par un corps tranger (FOD) au niveau des aubes du compresseur, dans le but de prvenir des accidents HCF occasionns par les corps trangers. Globalement, donc, la HCF a eu pour effet de rduire la disponibilit oprationnelle et daugmenter les cots de soutien des systmes darmes. Le groupe de travail avait pour mandat dexaminer ce problme FOD/HCF et de faire des recommandations sur les meilleures pratiques adopter pour le rsoudre. La gestion efficace du problme FOD/HCF requiert des connaissances approfondies et actualises de son impact sur lenvironnement concret du combattant de lOTAN. Ce document attire donc lattention sur les donnes FOD importantes qui doivent tre collectes. Cette tche pourra tre considrablement facilite par la mise en uvre dun modle OTAN normalis qui a t mis au point et qui est accompagn dune liste dtaille de terminologie commune, ainsi que dun guide illustr reprsentatif des dgts. Par ailleurs, lexploration de donnes reprsente un outil puissant, permettant de cerner les informations les plus importantes en vue de prendre des actions prventives bases sur la connaissance. Mais, quelque excellentes que soient les procdures de prvention FOD, des dgts continueront dtre occasionns. Pour parer ce problme, la simulation exprimentale numrique, qui est prsente ici dans le dtail, peut tre exploite pour reprsenter le comportement des aubes des turbines gaz suite un incident FOD, afin de dfinir avec prcision les procdures de maintenance sans risques, ainsi que le processus de conception. Jusqu prsent, la conception des aubes a t tributaire des limites de contrainte des matriaux, ainsi que de lvitement de lexcitation, mais ce document prsente une nouvelle mthodologie la fois simple et toffe de conception daubes de turbines gaz, qui tient compte des interactions entre FOD et HCF et augmente la robustesse des aubes. Le traitement supplmentaire de la surface dun composant garantit sa tolrance conceptuelle vis--vis des FOD. Il peut galement constituer une mthode pratique performante pour lattnuation des effets des FOD. Les diffrents procds, notamment le grenaillage, le nettoyage laser et le polissage faible plasticit, sont expliqus, ainsi que leurs avantages respectifs. Pour conclure, il a t constat que les corps trangers devaient tre contrls leur source. Ainsi, ce rapport prsente les diffrentes mthodes de prvention des FOD, y compris les mthodes de contrle des outils, la responsabilit matrielle, les procdures internes, les programmes de formation personnaliss et les procdures suivre en cas de pertes doutils et dautres objets. La comprhension du phnomne de FOD rsultant de la HCF, ainsi que son attnuation et son contrle, permettront damliorer sensiblement la scurit et la disponibilit oprationnelles des turbomoteurs et de rduire les cots globaux de possession. Par consquent, le groupe de travail recommande aux pays membres de lOTAN de tirer parti de ce document, ainsi que des recommandations quil contient pour : 1) Examiner leurs mthodes de collecte, dexploration et de dpouillement des donnes, et dfinir les changements susceptibles damliorer les processus existants.

RTO-TR-AVT-094

2) Faire le point sur leurs processus de simulation FOD numriques et exprimentaux. 3) Examiner leurs pratiques en matire de conception pour lvaluation des interactions FOD/HCF. 4) Revoir leurs techniques de rvision des moteurs daronefs en vue de lapplication de traitements de surface rsistant aux FOD/HCF. 5) Examiner les mthodes de prvention des FOD mises en uvre par leurs industriels et leurs organisations gouvernementales afin den dgager la meilleure. 6) Adopter les dfinitions du groupe de travail relatives aux dgts occasionns aux aubes, en tant que norme OTAN. 7) Faire le point, de faon priodique, sur les dfinitions, techniques et processus prsents dans ce rapport, y compris la mise en application davances dans les diffrentes technologies pertinentes, et la mise jour de la documentation selon les besoins. 8) Crer un forum OTAN dans le domaine des FOD, o les pays membres pourraient mettre en commun les informations et les statistiques FOD, afin de rsoudre conjointement les diffrents problmes rencontrs dans la pratique.

vi

RTO-TR-AVT-094

Table of Contents
Page Executive Summary Synthse List of Figures/Tables Foreword Task Group Members Report Contributors iii v xiii xviii xix xxiii

Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction and Description of the FOD HCF Problem 1.2 HCF-FOD Interaction 1.3 FOD Prevention 1.4 HCF-FOD Design Considerations 1.5 Chapter Summaries 1.6 Annex Summaries References

1-1
1-1 1-5 1-7 1-12 1-12 1-13 1-13

Chapter 2 FOD Data Mining and Investigation

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Introduction Data Collection Establishment of Standard Terminology FOD Reporting Template Part 1 Initial Reporting 2.5.1 Reporting Station/Organization 2.5.2 Aircraft Type, Mark and Serial Number 2.5.3 Engine Type and Mark 2.5.4 Engine Installed Position 2.5.5 Engine Serial Number 2.5.6 Tech Form Serial Number 2.5.7 Local Serial Number 2.6 Part 2 When Damage Found 2.7 Part 3 Action Taken 2.8 Part 4 Operating Factors/Aircraft Movement 2.9 Part 5 Circumstances of Ingestion 2.10 Part 6 Recent Unusual Circumstances 2.10.1 Deployments 2.10.2 Strong Winds 2.10.3 Airfield Snow/Ice

2-1
2-1 2-1 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-5

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vii

2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15

2.10.4 Station Exercises 2.10.5 Heavy Rain 2.10.6 Airfield Works Part 7 FOD Details FOD Investigations Completion of the FOD Investigation Data Mining Non-Engine Investigations

2-5 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-6 2-9 2-9 2-10 2-11 2-13

Appendix 1 Engine FOD Reporting Template Appendix 2 FOD Occurrence Report

Chapter 3 Experimental and Numerical Simulation of FOD

3.1 3.2 Introduction Characterization of Field Experience 3.2.1 FOD Geometry Distributions 3.2.2 Microscopic Features of FOD 3.3 Experimental FOD Simulation 3.3.1 Impact Simulation 3.3.1.1 Notch Machining 3.3.1.2 Shear Chisel, Quasi-Static Impact and Solenoid Gun 3.3.1.3 Light Gas Gun 3.3.2 Damage Level 1 3.3.3 Damage Level 2 3.3.4 Specimen Design 3.4 Numerical FOD Simulation 3.4.1 Detailed Numerical FOD Simulation 3.5 Post-Impact Life Prediction 3.5.1 Crack Initiation 3.5.2 Crack Growth 3.5.2.1 Calculate Normalized Elastic K for Notch Geometry 3.5.2.2 Calculate Elastic Kmax and Kmin 3.5.2.3 Calculate Residual K for Airfoil/Notch Geometry 3.5.2.4 Calculate K and R-ratio with Residual K 3.5.2.5 Compare K and R-ratio to Kth Material Capability 3.5.2.6 Iterate on Stress to Converge on Solution 3.5.3 Worst Case Notch (WCN) 3.5.4 WCN Example 3.6 Conclusion References

3-1
3-1 3-2 3-7 3-9 3-11 3-12 3-12 3-13 3-14 3-16 3-16 3-19 3-24 3-28 3-31 3-31 3-32 3-33 3-33 3-34 3-34 3-34 3-34 3-34 3-35 3-37 3-37

Chapter 4 Method for FOD/HCF Interaction Evaluation

4.1 4.2 Introduction Context 4.2.1 Material 4.2.2 Ingestion Mechanisms

4-1
4-1 4-2 4-2 4-2
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viii

Principle of the Method 4.3.1 Introduction 4.3.1.1 Current Practices 4.3.1.2 Main Assumptions Associated to the Method 4.3.1.3 Limitation of the Method 4.3.1.4 Alternative Approach to Generate the Goodman-style Diagram 4.3.2 Effect of FOD on the Blade Dynamic Behaviour 4.3.2.1 Effect of FOD on the Blade Frequencies 4.3.2.2 Effect of FOD on the Goodman-style Diagram 4.3.2.3 Effect of FOD on HCF Margins 4.3.2.4 Maintenance Books 4.4 Application Case 4.4.1 Presentation of the Studied Case 4.4.2 Effect on Frequencies 4.4.3 Choice of the Blade Areas 4.4.4 Computation of the Parameterised Goodman Curves 4.4.4.1 Limit Goodman Curves for Crack Non-Propagation 4.4.4.2 Limit Goodman Curve for Crack Propagation 4.4.5 Maximum Allowable FOD Size on the Blade for Each Mode 4.4.5.1 In the Case of Criterion 1: Non-Propagation Only 4.4.5.2 2nd Criterion: Non-Propagation HCF/Propagation LCF 4.4.5.3 Important Remark 4.4.6 Maximum FOD Size Allowed on the Airfoil 4.4.7 Effect of c/a Ratio on the Airfoil Centre 4.5 Conclusion and Possible Extensions of the Method References

4.3

4-3 4-3 4-3 4-3 4-8 4-9 4-10 4-10 4-15 4-18 4-19 4-19 4-19 4-21 4-23 4-24 4-24 4-25 4-27 4-27 4-30 4-33 4-33 4-34 4-36 4-37

Chapter 5 FOD/HCF Resistant Surface Treatments

5.1 5.2 Introduction Shot Peening 5.2.1 Description of the Shot Peening Process 5.2.2 Increase in Component Fatigue Resistance due to Shot Peening 5.2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Shot Peening 5.3 Laser Shock Peening 5.3.1 Description of the Laser Shock Peening Process 5.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Laser Shock Peening 5.4 Low Plasticity Burnishing 5.4.1 Description of the Low Plasticity Burnishing Process 5.4.2 Increase in Component Fatigue Resistance due to LPB 5.4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of the LPB Process 5.5 Concluding Remark References

5-1
5-1 5-1 5-1 5-3 5-4 5-5 5-5 5-6 5-6 5-6 5-7 5-10 5-10 5-10

Chapter 6 FOD Prevention

6.1 6.2 Introduction FOD

6-1
6-1 6-1
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6.3

FOD Prevention Program 6.3.1 Control and Accountability of Tools and MSP 6.3.1.1 Tool Control 6.3.1.2 MSP Control 6.3.2 Hardware Accountability, Material Handling and Spare Parts Control 6.3.3 Housekeeping 6.3.4 Aircraft/Rotorcraft Ground Operations 6.3.5 Assembly Operations 6.3.6 Training 6.3.7 Measurement of FOD Prevention 6.3.8 Organizational Commitment 6.3.9 FOD Awareness Point of Contact 6.4 Lost Tool and Items Procedures 6.5 Reporting and Investigations of FOD Events 6.6 FOD Prevention Methods Applied at the Aircraft Design Stage 6.6.1 Engine Intake Position on the Aircraft 6.6.2 Engine Intake Duct Shape 6.6.3 Engine Intake Protection Screen 6.6.4 Compressor Duct Shape References

6-2 6-2 6-2 6-3 6-3 6-4 6-5 6-5 6-6 6-7 6-7 6-7 6-8 6-9 6-9 6-9 6-10 6-11 6-12 6-12

Chapter 7 Conclusions and Recommendations

7.1 Overall Conclusions 7.1.1 Introduction 7.1.2 FOD Data Mining and Investigation 7.1.2.1 Data Collection 7.1.2.2 Essential Parameters of Data Collection 7.1.2.3 FOD Investigations 7.1.2.4 Data Mining 7.1.2.5 Opportunities 7.1.3 Experimental and Numerical Simulation of FOD 7.1.3.1 Survey and Characterization 7.1.3.2 Experimental Simulation 7.1.3.3 Numerical Simulation 7.1.3.4 Post-Impact Life Prediction 7.1.3.5 Opportunities 7.1.4 Method for FOD/HCF Interaction Evaluation 7.1.4.1 Assumptions 7.1.4.2 Effect of FOD on Blade Mode Frequencies 7.1.4.3 Effect of FOD on the Goodman Diagram 7.1.4.4 Effect of FOD on HCF Margins 7.1.4.5 Uncertainties 7.1.4.6 Opportunities 7.1.5 FOD/HCF Resistant Surface Treatments 7.1.5.1 Shot Peening 7.1.5.2 Laser Shock Peening

7-1
7-1 7-1 7-1 7-1 7-1 7-2 7-2 7-2 7-2 7-2 7-3 7-3 7-4 7-4 7-4 7-5 7-5 7-6 7-6 7-6 7-7 7-7 7-7 7-7
RTO-TR-AVT-094

7.2

7.1.5.3 Low Plasticity Burnishing 7.1.5.4 Opportunities 7.1.6 FOD Prevention 7.1.6.1 FOD Prevention Program 7.1.6.2 Lost Tool and Items Procedures 7.1.6.3 Reporting and Investigations of FOD Events 7.1.6.4 FOD Prevention Methods Applied at the Aircraft Design Stage 7.1.6.5 Opportunities Overall Recommendations 7.2.1 Recommendations Related to AVT-094 TOR 7.2.2 Complementary Recommendations

7-8 7-8 7-8 7-8 7-9 7-9 7-9 7-9 7-9 7-9 7-10

Annex A FOD Terminology and Acronyms

General Acronyms & Abbreviations FOD Terminology References

A-1
A-1 A-3 A-7

Annex B Air, Land, Sea and Space FOD Issues

B.1 Effects of Sand and Dust on Small Gas Turbine Engines B.1.1 Background B.1.2 Problems B.1.3 Engine Protection Systems B.1.3.1 Inlet Particle Separators (IPS) B.1.3.2 Erosion-Resistant Coatings B.1.4 Conclusion FOD Avoidance in Industrial Gas Turbines Sea-Related FOD Issues Space-Related FOD Issues Space Debris

B-1
B-1 B-1 B-2 B-3 B-3 B-5 B-6 B-7 B-7 B-8 B-9

B.2 B.3 B.4 B.5

Annex C Engine Blade Damage Definitions Annex D Soft-Body FOD Issues

D.1 Bird Strikes D.2 Bird Strike Prevention D.3 Management of the Environment D.4 Bird Dispersal D.5 Educating the Aircrew D.6 Bird Strike Reporting D.7 Examples of Bird Hazard Bulletin References

C-1 D-1
D-1 D-1 D-1 D-1 D-2 D-2 D-4 D-5

Annex E Additional FOD Reference Materials/Websites

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E-1
xi

Annex F Member Nation Maintenance Personnel Annex G Terms of Reference (TOR)

G.1 G.2 G.3 G.4 G.5 G.6 Origin Objectives Resources Security Classification Level Participation by Partner Nations Liaison

F-1 G-1
G-1 G-1 G-2 G-3 G-3 G-3

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List of Figures/Tables
Page

Chapter 1
Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: Figure 5: Typical Runway Foreign Object Debris Typical Runway Foreign Object Debris, as Picked up by FOD BOSS System Runway Cleaning System US Navy Aircraft Carrier Deck Non-Skid Material Foreign Object Debris Source includes Small Shot Peen used to Clean and Repair Flight Deck US Navy Foreign Object Debris Small Shot Peen used to Clean and Repair Flight Deck US Navy Foreign Object Debris Source Arresting Cable Dragging along Flight Deck during Arrested Landings Kicks up Foreign Object Debris from the Deck Surface UK RAF Harrier Crash due to FOD and HCF Interaction Compressor Blade Tip Damage due to HCF, and Subsequent Domestic Object Damage (DOD) Foreign Object Damaged Fan Blades at Tip with Subsequent HCF Failure Simulated FOD on Fan Blade Leading Edge, Near Root Close-up of Simulated FOD Notch on Fan Blade Leading Edge Runway FOD-Walk to remove Foreign Object Debris FOD BOSS and Typical Runway Foreign Object Debris being Picked Up Blending Borescope for On-Wing Blade FOD Repair Foreign Object Damage to Nacelles and Engine Front Frame Structures due to Impact with Ground Equipment Foreign Object Damaged Propeller from In-Flight Impact with another Aircraft (USN P3 vs Chinese fighter, over Hainan, China)

1-1 1-2 1-3 1-3 1-4

Figure 6: Figure 7: Figure 8: Figure 9: Figure 10: Figure 11: Figure 12: Figure 13: Figure 14: Figure 15:

1-4 1-5 1-6 1-6 1-7 1-8 1-8 1-9 1-10 1-10 1-11

Figures 16a-b: A Chinese 747 Airliner, whose Destination was Paris, had Landed at Frankfurt Germany for an Unscheduled Refuelling Stop

Chapter 2
Figure 1: Figure 2: Real FOD Prevention is Achieved through the Answers to the Above Questions The Need for an Investigation Check List increases as we move towards the Flight Line where the Special Tools and the Expertise of the Personnel become less A Typical FOD Investigation Procedure in the Lab SEM Photo of a Damaged Blade (FOD) 2-6 2-7

Figure 3: Figure 4:

2-7 2-9

Chapter 3
Figure 1: Figure 2: Comparison of Impact Surfaces on Simulated Airfoil Leading Edges from 1 mm Glass Spheres at a Velocity of 300 m/s Percentage of FOD Located along the Span Relative to the Blade Tip 3-1 3-2
xiii

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Figure 3: Figure 4: Figure 5: Figure 6: Figure 7: Figure 8: Figure 9: Figure 11: Figure 12: Figure 13: Figure 14: Figure 15: Figure 16: Figure 17: Figure 18: Figure 19: Figure 20: Figure 21: Figure 22: Figure 23: Figure 24: Figure 25: Figure 26: Figure 27: Figure 28: Figure 29: Figure 30: Figure 31: Figure 32: Figure 33: Figure 34: Figure 35: Figure 36: Figure 37: Figure 38: Figure 39: Figure 40:
xiv

Histogram and Cumulative Distribution Function for FOD Depth Examples of Severely Damaged Blades 0.059-inch Dent with No Cracking in Leading Edge of 2 Stage Fan Blade 0.028-inch Tear in 2 Stage Fan Blade Two Notches in Leading Edge of 2 Stage Fan Blade 0.090-inch Deep Notch in Leading Edge of 2 Stage Blade FOD Impact Site on Pegasus Fan Blade Distribution of Service-induced FOD from Two Different Surveys Distribution of FOD Notch Root Radii Histogram and Cumulative Distribution Function for FOD Notch kt Micrograph Showing FOD Site with Non-Propagating Crack Illustration of Typical FOD Impact Angles in Modern Gas Turbine Engines Path of Projectile and Viewing Angles Micrograph of a Machined Notch in a Simulated Airfoil Solenoid Gun Indentation Set Up Indentation from Solenoid Gun Typical Light Gas Gun Level 1 Repeat Shots Level 3 Repeat Shots Level 2 Front Surface Simulated FOD Using Light Gas Gun Impact Shear Band Pattern beneath Impact Crater Edge of Ballistic Damage on Plate Typical Fan Blade Normalized Stress Distribution across Typical Fan Blade Stress Distribution across Section A-A Diagram of Simulated Leading Edge Specimen Comparison of Calculated Blade and Specimen Stresses Overview of Diamond Cross-Section Tension (DCT) Specimen Representative Mesh for Sharp Edged Specimen Impact Mesh Geometries used in Mesh Refinement Study Comparison of Various Mesh Refinements to Experimental Damage Comparison of Residual Stress Fields for Different Impact Angles Shear Crack Running Ahead of Projectile, Damage Intensity Contours Application of Equivalent Stress Parameter to Data with Different Stress Ratios Equivalent Stress for a Given Notch Depth on Ballistically Impacted Winged Specimens Kitagawa-Takahashi Diagram
nd nd nd nd

3-3 3-4 3-4 3-5 3-5 3-6 3-6 3-7 3-8 3-8 3-9 3-9 3-10 3-11 3-12 3-13 3-14 3-15 3-16 3-16 3-17 3-18 3-18 3-19 3-20 3-21 3-21 3-22 3-22 3-23 3-25 3-26 3-27 3-28 3-30 3-31 3-32 3-33
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Figures 10a-d: Damage to RB199 Fan Blades

Figure 41: Figure 42: Table 1: Table 2:

Worst Case Notch Model Predicting Crack Initiation, Growth and Arrest Prediction of Experimental vs. Predicted Threshold Stress using the WCN Model Level 1 Summary of Shots Level 2 Summary of Shots

3-35 3-35 3-16 3-17

Chapter 4
Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: Figure 5: Figure 6: Figure 7: Figure 8: Figure 9: Figure 10: Figure 11: Figure 12: Figure 13: Figure 14: Figure 15: Figure 16: Figure 17: Figure 18: Figure 19: Figure 20: Figure 21: Figure 22: Figure 23: Figure 24: Figure 25: Figure 26: Figure 27: Figure 28: Figure 29: Figure 30: Figure 31: Figure 32: Paris-type Law Way to take into account Dynamic Cycles Goodman-style Diagram for Non-Propagation Non-Propagation Criteria as a Function of the Load Ratio Evolution of the First Criterion to the Second Criterion Example of a Goodman-style Diagram Effect of the FOD Size on the Frequency Shift Campbell Diagram of a Military HP Compressor Blade Mesh Modification to Model the Local Loss of Stiffness Mistuned Forced Response of an Industrial Bladed Disk Amplification as a Function of Mistuning Standard Deviation Example of Zone Choice: LE Airfoil Centre TE Example of Crack Shape (2D Approaches) Determination of the Limit Coupled Steady/Dynamic Stresses Plot a Goodman-style Diagram Curve for One Given Damage Type and Size Parameterised Goodman-style Diagram in Function of the Damage Size Evaluation of the Maximum Allowable FOD Size for One Element of the FEM View of the Studied HP Compressor Blade Static Stresses Repartition on the Blade Dynamic Stresses Repartition on the Blade for Mode 1F Dynamic Stresses Repartition on the Blade for Mode 1T Dynamic Stresses Repartition on the Blade for Mode 2S1 FOD in the Dynamically Most Loaded Area for Mode 1F FOD in the Dynamically Most Loaded Area for Mode 1T FOD in the Dynamically Most Loaded Area for Mode 2S1 Areas of the Blade and Associated Damage Parameterised Goodman Curves (Non-Propagation) Leading and Trailing Edge Parameterised Goodman Curves (Non-Propagation) Airfoil Centre Parameterised Goodman Curves (Propagation) Leading/Trailing Edge Parameterised Goodman Curves (Propagation) Airfoil Centre Maximum Allowable FOD Size on the Suction Side for Mode 1F Maximum Allowable FOD Size on the Suction Side for Mode 1T 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-7 4-8 4-9 4-11 4-12 4-13 4-14 4-15 4-15 4-16 4-17 4-17 4-18 4-18 4-19 4-20 4-20 4-20 4-21 4-22 4-22 4-23 4-23 4-24 4-25 4-26 4-26 4-27 4-28

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Figure 33: Figure 34: Figure 35: Figure 36: Figure 37: Figure 38: Figure 39: Figure 40: Figure 41: Figure 42: Figure 43: Figure 44: Figure 45:

Maximum Allowable FOD Size on the Suction Side for Mode 2S1 Maximum Allowable FOD Size on the Pressure Side for Mode 1F Maximum Allowable FOD Size on the Pressure Side for Mode 1T Maximum Allowable FOD Size on the Pressure Side for Mode 2S1 Maximum Allowable FOD Size on the Suction Side for Mode 1F Maximum Allowable FOD Size on the Suction Side for Mode 1T Maximum Allowable FOD Size on the Suction Side for Mode 2S1 Maximum Allowable FOD Size on the Pressure Side for Mode 1F Maximum Allowable FOD Size on the Pressure Side for Mode 1T Maximum Allowable FOD Size on the Pressure Side for Mode 2S1 Maximum Allowable FOD on the Airfoil Maximum Allowable FOD Size (Parameter c) on the Airfoil Maximum Allowable FOD Size c/a=10 for Type B Damage (Airfoil Centre)

4-28 4-29 4-29 4-30 4-30 4-31 4-31 4-32 4-32 4-33 4-34 4-35 4-36

Chapter 5
Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: Figure 5: Figure 6: Figure 7: Figure 8: Figure 9: Figure 10: Figure 11: Figure 12: Residual Stresses Generated by Shot Peening in a Nickel Plate Residual Stress Profile after Shot Peening The Effect of Shot Peening on the Endurance Limit of 7075 Alloy, after Peyre Improvement in Fatigue Properties of Notched and Shot Peened Specimens made out of 7075 Aluminium Alloy Schematic Representation of Laser Shock Peening Process Representative Residual Stress Profile for Ti-6Al-4V showing the Depth of Beneficial Compressive Residual Surface Stress created by LSP Low Plasticity Burnishing Process Comparison of Residual Stresses Created by Shot Peening, LSP and LPB for IN718 Material Effect of Shot Peening and LPB on Fatigue for Ti-6Al-4V Residual Stress Distribution for Deep Rolled (DR) and Laser Shock Peened Ti-6Al-4V Specimens Stress-Life Plots for Untreated and Deep Rolled Ti-6Al-4V Specimens at Two Temperatures Comparison of Fatigue Lives for Deep Rolled and Laser Shock Peened Specimens in Two Temperatures and for Two Stress Levels 5-2 5-3 5-3 5-4 5-5 5-6 5-7 5-7 5-8 5-9 5-9 5-10

Chapter 6
Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: Figure 5: Figure 6: Top-Mounted Engine Intakes on A-10 Aircraft F-16, Showing Engine Intake in Front of Nose Wheel Chinook Helicopter with IPSs Ovalized Intake on Boeing 737 Aircraft Example of a Protection Screen on the A109 Helicopter Permanent Protection Screen on Kamov Ka-52 6-9 6-10 6-10 6-11 6-11 6-11

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Figure 7: Figure 8:

Removable Screens used on Su-27 Aircraft Duct Shape to Reduce a Danger of FOD

6-12 6-12

Annex B
Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: Figure 5: Figure 6: Figure 7: Figure 8: Figure 9: Figure 10: Figure 11: Figure 12: Figure 13: Figure 14: Figure 15: Helicopter in Sand/Dust Environment Tank in Sand/Dust Environment Eroded Centrifugal and Axial Compressors Vortex Tube Separator Vortex Tube Pack T700 Vaned Separator T800 Vaneless Separator Results of US Navy Sand Ingestion Test on T64 Engine Industrial Gas Turbine Engine Turbine Engine Powered Ship Applications Water-Induced FOD on Rocket Combustion Chamber Injector Flux (per year) of Debris and Meteorites per Diameter for a 940 km Altitude Repartition of Objects around the Earth Example of Impact on the Solar Panel of Hubble Telescope Picture of LDEF (Long Duration Exposure Facility) B-1 B-2 B-2 B-3 B-3 B-4 B-4 B-6 B-7 B-8 B-8 B-9 B-10 B-11 B-12

Annex C
Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: Figure 5: Figure 6: Figure 7: Figure 8: Figure 9: Figure 10: Figure 11: Figure 12: Example of a Burred Blade Example of a Chipped Blade Example of a Cracked Blade Example of Curled Blades Example of a Dented Blade Example of Blades with Deposits Example of a Distorted Blade Example of a Gouged Blade Example of a Nicked Blade Example of a Blade with a Piece Out Example of a Pitted Blade Example of a Torn Blade C-1 C-1 C-2 C-2 C-3 C-3 C-4 C-4 C-5 C-5 C-6 C-6

Annex D
Figure 1: Bird Hazard Bulletin D-4

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Foreword
Fatigue is a type of failure that occurs in components subjected to repeated loading. Fatigue failure can occur through crack initiation and growth, void coalescence or a combination of the two. High Cycle Fatigue (HCF) refers generally to those failures that occur due to lower levels of cyclic loading at typically higher frequency. HCF has been identified as a major maintenance problem in fielded gas turbine engines and a primary concern for future engines. Low Cycle Fatigue (LCF) refers to fatigue failures that occur due to relatively high levels of loading. Depending on the material and component, HCF typically begins at between 105 and 107 cycles. HCF failures can result from vibration, forced response, unsteady aerodynamic loads, or other fluctuating loads. Gas turbine engine rotor blades and stator vanes are subject to all of these types of loads and are particularly vulnerable to HCF failures. HCF failures have grown in severity to become a dominant and costly failure mode for gas turbine-based propulsion and power systems. A significant fraction of enginecaused aircraft mishaps are due to HCF, but a cost and maintenance penalty is caused by the removal of engines due to foreign object damage (FOD) to the engine compression system airfoils, to prevent FODinduced HCF mishaps. FOD-induced HCF has caused a significant increase in the financial burden of NATO military forces due to loss of aircraft and large increases in maintenance and logistics workload for all types of gas turbine engine-powered vehicles and systems that operate on land, sea, space or air. The total HCF impact has been to decrease operational readiness and increase weapon system support costs. HCF is not unique to military products. The HCF problem affects products for the civil market, and HCF technologies are being widely researched by a number of universities, companies and nations for application to a broad spectrum of propulsion and power generation systems, and this effort needs to be assessed and evaluated. HCF failures in military applications are generally the most difficult to understand and prevent. In the air, the military pilot is free to employ unrestricted flight tactics throughout the aircrafts certified flight envelope. Many such tactics give rise to distorted engine inlet flow and pressure pulses that can cause component HCF failures. Further compounding the air HCF problem, but also encompassing land, sea, and space operational HCF problems, are operators constant throttle motion that gives rise to repeated high mechanical stress and vibration. The HCF problem is made worse by the ever-present risk of FOD to system components, which limits their structural integrity, and in turn, lessens the designs resistance to HCF. The benefit in understanding FOD-induced HCF, and mitigating or controlling its occurrence, will be to significantly improve the operational safety, readiness, and life cycle cost of the air-, sea-, space- and ground-based gas turbine engines of NATO nations. As stated in the Terms of Reference (TOR, ref. Annex G), the purpose of this report is to provide a common understanding for the mitigation and control of FOD-induced HCF in gas turbine engine compression system airfoils, including providing advice to NATO nations on how best to focus their efforts to monitor and mitigate these problems. Although the current task is related to compressor airfoils, it should be noted that HCF is not exclusive to these components. HCF in other engine components introduces additional issues (e.g., forced response, mistuning, lack of adequate damping, operating temperature, oxidation, corrosion, coating integrity, single crystal orientation, etc.) which have not been covered in this document.

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Task Group Members

CHAIRMEN CHAIR Richard J Hill Sr Prog Mgr, Engineering Div Universal Technologies Corp 1270 North Fairfield Rd. Dayton, OH 45432-2600 UNITED STATES Phone: +1 937 426-2808 x286 Fax: +1 937 426-7753 e-mail: dhill@utcdayton.com CO-CHAIR Flt Lt John Franklin PSG-FLPT, L Block RAF Wyton Huntingdon Cambridgeshire, PE28 2EA UNITED KINGDOM Phone: +44 1480 52451 x6393 Fax: +44 1480 446565 e-mail: franklinj136@hqlcr.mod.uk

NATION LEAD MEMBERS BELGIUM Dr Patrick Hendrick Applied Mechanics Dept. Royal Military Academy of Belgium Renaissance Avenue 30 1000 Brussels Phone: +32 2 737 65 56 Fax: +32 2 737 65 47 e-mail: patrick.hendrick@rma.ac.be FRANCE Eric Seinturier SNECMA Moteurs Design Method Department Division Mecanique Batiment 7D Site de Villaroche BP 42 77552 Moissy-Cramayel Cedex Phone: +33 1 60 59 82 44 Fax: +33 1 60 59 80 25 e-mail: eric.seinturier@snecma.fr CANADA Dr Wieslaw Beres Institute for Aerospace Research National Research Council Canada 1500 Montreal Road, Building M-7 Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0R6 Phone: +1 613 993-0033 Fax: +1 613 990-7444 e-mail: wieslaw.beres@nrc.ca GERMANY Dr Joerg Frischbier MTU Aero Engines GmbH Dept. TPMS PO Box 50 06 40 Dachauer Str. 665 80976 Muenchen Phone: +49 89 1489 4758 Fax: +49 89 1489 6261 e-mail: joerg.frischbier@muc.mtu.de

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GREECE Capt Eftychios Kleinakis H.A.F. Centre of Applied Technology Terma Mikras Asias str 165 62 GLYFADA Athens Phone: +30 210 8934122 Fax: +30 210 9621333 e-mail: ekleinakis@hotmail.com, or keta@ath.forthnet.gr UNITED STATES Daniel Thomson ASC/LP 2145 Monahan Way Wright-Patterson AFB OH 45433-7017 Phone: +1 937 255-4056 x3254 Fax: +1 937 255-2660 e-mail: daniel.thomson@wpafb.af.mil

THE NETHERLANDS Gerrit Kool Voorsterweg 31 8316 PR Marknesse P.O. Box 153 8300 AD Emmeloord Phone: +31 527 24 8290/8286 Fax: +31 527 24 8210 e-mail: kool@nlr.nl

MEMBERS UNITED KINGDOM Sqn Ldr Hugh Graham L Block RAF Wyton Huntingdon Cambridgeshire, PE28 2EA Now Retired UNITED KINGDOM Prof George Harrison QinetiQ Ively Road Farnborough Hampshire, GU14 0LX Phone: +44 1252 397286 Fax: +44 1252 397298 e-mail: gfharrison@qinetiq.com UNITED KINGDOM Ian Stewart Rolls-Royce plc PO Box 31 Derby DE24 8BJ Phone: +44 1332 249332 Fax: +44 1332 245672 e-mail: ian.stewart@rolls-royce.com
xx

UNITED STATES Sqn Ldr Richard Wade AFRL/PRTA 1950 Fifth Street, Bldg. 18 Wright-Patterson AFB OH 45433-7251 Phone: +1 937 255-2734 Fax: +1 937 255-0082 e-mail: richard.wade@wpafb.af.mil
RTO-TR-AVT-094

UNITED STATES Dr Jeff Calcaterra AFRL/MLLM 2230 10th Street, Suite 1 Wright-Patterson AFB OH 45433-7817 Phone: +1 937 255-1360 Fax: +1 937 656-4840 e-mail: jeffrey.calcaterra@wpafb.af.mil UNITED STATES Sandra Hoff Deputy Commander Aviation Applied Technology Directorate US Army AMCOM, Building 401 Lee Blvd Fort Eustis, VA 23604-5577 Phone: +1 757 878-3507 Fax: +1 757 878-1323 e-mail: shoff@aatd.eustis.army.mil UNITED STATES John Warren Propulsion Structural Integrity & Life Management (AIR-4.4.7.2) Naval Air Systems Command 22195 Elmer Road (Unit 4) Patuxent River, MD 20670-1534 Phone: +1 301 757-0466 Fax: +1 301 757-0562 e-mail: john.warren@navy.mil

UNITED STATES Charles Gorton Head, Propulsion Technology Office (AIR-4.4T) Naval Air Systems Command 22195 Elmer Road (Unit 4) Patuxent River, MD 20670-1534 Phone: +1 301 757-0450 Fax: +1 301 757-0534 e-mail: charles.gorton@navy.mil UNITED STATES Glen Lazalier AEDC/SVT/TA0 877 Avenue E Arnold AFB TN 37389-5051 Phone: +1 931 454-5367 Fax: +1 931 454-5026 e-mail: glen.lazalier@arnold.af.mil

OBSERVERS THE NETHERLANDS Dr Henk Kolkman Senior Materials Engineer National Aerospace Laboratory (NLR) Voorserweg 31, 8316 PR Marknesse P.O. Box 153, 8300 AD Emmeloord Phone: +31 527 24 82 84 Fax: +31 527 24 82 10 e-mail: kolkman@nlr.nl UNITED KINGDOM Sqn Ldr Liz Downey PSG Futures, L Block RAF Wyton Huntingdon Cambridgeshire, PE28 2EA Phone: +44 1480 52451 x8412 Fax: +44 1480 446565 e-mail: downeye431@hqlcr.mod.uk

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UNITED KINGDOM Paul Tranter QinetiQ Ively Road Farnborough Hampshire, GU14 0LX Phone: +44 1252 39 7288 Fax: +44 1252 39 7298 e-mail: phtranter@qinetiq.com UNITED STATES Bob Morris Pratt & Whitney Mail Stop 163/07 400 Main Street East Hartford, CT 06108 Phone: +1 860 565-8653 Fax: +1 860 565-5494 e-mail: robert.morris@pw.utc.com

UNITED STATES Dr Dennis Corbly GE Aircraft Engines Mail Stop A413 1 Neumann Way Cincinnati, OH 45215-6301 Phone: +1 513 243-5832 Fax: +1 513 243-8091 e-mail: dennis.corbly@ae.ge.com UNITED STATES Vince Spanel ASC/ENFP 2530 Loop Drive West Bldg. 560 Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 45433 Phone: +1 937 255-8604 Fax: +1 937 656-4546 e-mail: vincent.spanel@wpafb.af.mil

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Report Contributors
Chair: Richard Hill UTC (USA) Co-Chair: John Franklin PSG, RAF Wyton (UK) Secretary: Charles Gorton NAVAIR (USA) Editor: Richard Wade AFRL, WPAFB (UK) Lead Authors: Chapter 1: Chapter 2: Chapter 3: Chapter 4: Chapter 5: Chapter 6: Chapter 7: Annex A: Annex B: Annex C: Annex D: Annex E: Annex F: Annex G: Specialists: Fernand Alby French Space Agency (FR) Dennis Corbly GE Aircraft Engines (USA) Liz Downey PSG, RAF Wyton (UK) Chris Eady PSG, RAF Wyton (UK) Joerg Frischbier MTU (GE) Hugh Graham PSG, RAF Wyton (UK)
RTO-TR-AVT-094 xxiii

John Warren NAVAIR (USA) John Franklin PSG, RAF Wyton (UK) Jeff Calcaterra AFRL, WPAFB (USA) Eric Seinturier SNECMA (FR) Wieslaw Beres NRC (CA) Wieslaw Beres NRC (CA) Richard Wade AFRL, WPAFB (UK) Charles Gorton NAVAIR (USA) John Warren NAVAIR (USA) John Franklin PSG, RAF Wyton (UK) Wieslaw Beres NRC (CA) John Warren NAVAIR (USA) John Warren NAVAIR (USA) John Warren NAVAIR (USA)

Specialists (contd): George Harrison QinetiQ (UK) Patrick Hendrick RMA (BE) Sandra Hoff US Army AMCOM (USA) Eftychios Kleinakis HAF (GR) Henk Kolkman NLR (NE) Gerrit Kool (NE) Glen Lazalier AEDC (USA) Bob Morris Pratt & Whitney (USA) John Schofield Rolls-Royce (UK) Vince Spanel ASC/ENFP, WPAFB (USA) Ian Stewart Rolls-Royce (UK) Daniel Thomson ASC/LP, WPAFB (USA) Paul Tranter QinetiQ (UK)

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REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE

1. Recipients Reference 2. Originators References 3. Further Reference 4. Security Classification of Document

RTO-TR-AVT-094 AC/323(AVT-094)TP/68
5. Originator

ISBN 92-837-1148-3

UNCLASSIFIED/ UNLIMITED

Research and Technology Organisation North Atlantic Treaty Organisation BP 25, F-92201 Neuilly-sur-Seine Cedex, France Best Practices for the Mitigation and Control of Foreign Object Damage-Induced High Cycle Fatigue in Gas Turbine Engine Compression System Airfoils

6. Title

7. Presented at/Sponsored by

The RTO Applied Vehicle Technology Panel (AVT) Task Group-094.

8. Author(s)/Editor(s) 9. Date

Multiple
10. Authors/Editors Address

June 2005
11. Pages

Multiple
12. Distribution Statement

212 There are no restrictions on the distribution of this document. Information about the availability of this and other RTO unclassified publications is given on the back cover.
Data management Data mining Failure analysis Fatigue (materials) Fatigue life Foreign bodies Foreign Object Damage (FOD) Gas turbine engines Hardening (materials) HCF (High Cycle Fatigue) Jet engine inlets Mathematical prediction Mechanical properties Shot peening Software development Standardization

13. Keywords/Descriptors Aircraft maintenance Blade design Compressor blades Cyclic loads Damage Damage assessment Data acquisition Data bases 14. Abstract

High Cycle Fatigue (HCF) failures are a dominant and costly failure mode for gas turbine-engines. Foreign Object Damage is one of the major contributing factors necessitating preventive engine repair to avoid consecutive HCF mishaps, causing operational readiness decrease and weapon system support costs increase. Best practices for NATO to deal with this FOD-HCF problem were developed as follows: Definition of FOD-HFC Issues; FOD Data Investigation; FOD Experimental and numerical Simulation; Method for FOD/HCF Interaction Evaluation; FOD/HCF Resistant Surface Treatments; and FOD Prevention. This is supplemented by overviews on: FOD Terminology and Acronyms; Air, Land, Sea and Space FOD Issues; Engine Blade Damage Definitions; Soft-Body FOD Issues; Additional FOD Reference Materials/Websites; and Annex F Member Nation Maintenance Personnel. Some highlights are: a NATO-standard template which has been created supported by a developed list of common terminology and a pictorial representative damage guide. Safe maintenance procedures and design activity were defined. Blade design, traditionally based on materials stress allowances and simple excitation avoidance, was improved by a simple and robust design methodology including the interaction between FOD and HCF on new blade designs. Effects of supplementary treatment of a components surface for reducing the effect of potential FOD. Some ways of FOD prevention following maintenance mishaps such as loss of tools or material are discussed. It is recommended that NATO member Nations use this document and its recommendations to analyse and improve their practice. Setting up a NATO FOD forum is recommended.

RTO-TR-AVT-094

RTO-TR-AVT-094

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