CHAPTER -2

TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

2.1 The conductivity of a semiconductor is midway between that of a conductor and that of an insulator. Germanium or silicon which are considered to be semiconductor, in pure form actually are insulators. However in the manufacture of these elements for electronic use, impurities are added to them so that they become semiconductors. The fact that the movement of electrons through a conducting material produce a current has been used as the basis for explaining both alternating and direct current. This is called the electron theory. Although the movement of electrons in a semiconducor materials causes a current to pass, a current also results in such materials from the movement of positive charges or holes, through the material. A hole is nothing more than the space left by the electron. Since this space has an attraction for any negatively charged electron, the hole is considered to have a positive charge. 2.3 Holes are considered to be capable of motion around in the covalent bonds. Hole movement is somewhat different from electron movement. Electron in motion out of an orbit of an atom are considered to be free. Holes however make only when electrons leave their positions or orbits. An analogy to hole motion can be drawn from the arrangements of bearing in a tube or cylinder as shown in Fig.2.3. By removing No.1 bearing a hole or space is left which is then filled by the No.2 bearing. The No.3 bearing then moves into the No.2 space. This action continues until all the bearings have moved one space to the left at which time there is a space, left by the No. 7 bearing, at the right end of the tube. Therefore whether this process is looked upon as a motion of the bearings to the left or a motion of the space (absence of a bearing) to the right the end result is the same. This motion is similar to that of a hole in the covalent bond structure of a semiconductor material with the hole movement being governed by the shifting of electrons. In the covalent bonds, the same electrical effect is obtained whether electrons move in one direction (electron current) or holes move in the opposite direction (hole current). This is an important concept and is fundamental to the study of transistors, since both types of current occur in transistors. Usually electrons move through the conduction band and holes move through the valence band.

2.2

2.4(a) Germanium has four electrons in its outermost shell, in which a maximum of 32 electrons is permitted. The germanium atoms will share, valence electrons in a covalent bond. This is shown in Fig.2.4. The, germanium atoms aye shown with their outer electrons only since these electrons are the ones associated with the covalent bonds. The crystalline form of germanium called the crystal lattics structure has the atoms arranged in this manner. The electrons in such an arrangement are in very stable condition and thus are less apt to be associated with conductors. Germanium in a pure form is an insulating material and is called an intrinsic semiconductor.

2.4(b) Silicon is also used in the manufacture of semiconductor devices. Silicon also has four electrons in its outermost shell. The atomic structure of silicon and germanium are shown in the sketch. The crystal lattice structure of silicon is that similar to the Germanium. 2.5 Pure form of germanium is of no use as a semiconductor device. By the addition of impurities however a desired amount. Of conductivity can be obtained. In order to do this, the quality of added impurity must be carefully controlled. The added impurities will create either an excess or a deficiency of electrons depending on the type of impurity added. Of primary importance in semiconductors are these impurities that align themselves in the regular germanium lattice structure despite the fact that they have one valance electron too many or one too few. The first type easily loses its extra electron, and in so doing it increases the conductivity of the material by contributing a free electron. This type of impurity has five valence electrons and is called as pentavalent impurity. Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth and Phosphorous are pentavalent impurities. Since these impurities give up or donate, one electron to the material, they are referred to as donor impurities. The second type of impurity tends to make up its deficiency of one electron by acquiring an. electron from its neighbour. Impurities of this type in the lattice structure have three valence electrons and are, therefore, called trivalent impurities. Examples of trivalent impurities are aluminium, gallium, Indium and boron. Since these impurities accept one electron from the material, these are referred to as acceptor, impurities. Semiconductors produced by adding either acceptor or donor impurities are called extrinsic semiconductors. When a pentavalent impurity such as Arsenic is adde4 to germanium, it will form covalent bonds with the germanium atoms. Fig.2.7 illustrates the presence of an arsenic atom(As) within the germanium lattice structure. Only A of the five electrons of arsenic in the outer ring is used to form covalent bonds leaving one electron relatively free in the crystal structure. Since this semiconductor material conducts by electron movement it is termed a

2.6

2.7

negative carrier type of N- type semiconductor. Pure Germanium may be turned into an N-type semiconductor by doping it with an element containing five electrons in. its outer

(N-TYPE GERMANIUM) ring. The amount of impurity added is ordinarily in the neighbourhood of one atom of impurity material per ten million atoms of germanium. 2.8 Application of an electric fi61d to an N-type semiconductor causes a current conducted by negative (electron) carriers. Fig.2.8 illustrates one N-type semiconductor with an electric field applied. Electric field causes the loosely bound electron to be released from the impurity atom and move toward the positive potential point. The conduction is similar to that in a copper conductor. But, certain difference exist between a semiconductor and the familiar copper conductor. For example, the semiconductor resistance decreases with increasing temperature because more carriers are made available at higher temperatures, while the resistance of copper increases with temperature.

2.9

A Trivalent impurity element can be added to pure germanium to dope the material. In this case the valence electrons of the trivalent element will also enter into covalent bonds with the germanium atoms. However, tile trivalent impurity will borrow a fourth electron from a Germanium atom to complete the covalent bond structure. This removal of an electron from the covalent bonds of the Germanium by the trivalent impurity creates a hole or space.

2.10

In Fig.2.10, the germanium lattice structure is shown with the addition of an indium atom (In). The indium atom takes a hole in the structure. Other, elements which display the same characteristic are gallium and boron. The holes are present only if a trivalent impurity is used. Since such a semiconductor material conducts by the movement of holes which are positively charged, it is termed positive carrier type or P-type semiconductor.

2.11

Application of an electric field to a P-type semiconductor causes a current conducted by positive carriers (holes). In order for the holeto move, an electron from a near by site must shift to the position where the hole originally existed. Hence, the holes illustrated in Fig.2.11move from the positive terminal to negative terminal. Electrons from the negative terminal cancel holes at the vicinity of the terminal while at the positive terminal, electrons are being removed from the covalent bends, thus creating new holes. The new0holes then move towards the negative terminal and are cancelled by more electrons emitted from the negative terminal.

2.12

It should be realised that in either N-type of P-type germanium both electrons and holes are present and can act as current carriers. In N-type germanium, electrons greatly out number the holes and thus are said to be the major current carriers while the holes are referred

to as minor current carriers. On the other hand, P-type germanium contain a greater number of holes than electrons and thus in this material holes are the major current carriers while electrons are considered to be minor current carriers. In an intrinsic semiconductor there is thermal break up of covalent bond producing an electron hole pair i.e. the no of electrons = no. of holes. When pentavalent impurity is added the no. of electrons increases without corresponding increases in holes and when a trivalent impurity is added, the no. of holes increases without a corresponding increases the no. of electrons. However, the product of electron and hole concentration remain the same whether impurity is added or not. Thus, if the hole concentration is TIP and electron is ne Then p X e = n2 where is the no. of electrons = no. of holes in the intrinsic semiconductors. 2.13 Mobility of the charge carriers is defined as the speed at which they drift in, unit electric field. The intrinsic. Conductivity 1 is given by the formula i = e(1+2) where, i is conductivity in semiconductor e is charge of electron (or hole) is intrinsic concentration of carriers per cc. i = nxp where n & p are the concentration of electrons and holes p is mobility of free electron, em/sec. per volt/cm. is mobility of free hole cm/sec per volt/cm.

The mobility of electron and holes in silicon is 1250cm2/V.sec and 480 cm2/V. Whereas in germanium it is 3900 CM2 /V.sec and 1900 cm2/V.sec. This applies to lightly doped silicon and germanium. These values will decrease for higher doping levels. The ratio of / p however remains relatively constant. This ratio , is about 2 to 6 in silicon and 2 in germanium.