UNIT I

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
PN junction diode, Zener diode, BJT, MOSFET, UJT –structure, operation and V-I
characteristics, diffusion and transition capacitance - Rectifiers – Half Wave and
Full Wave Rectifier, Zener as regulator

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

INTRODUCTION
An electronic device is essentially a device in which electrons flow through a
vacuum or gas or semiconductor. An atom is composed of charged particles
namely electrons and protons. The nucleus consists of a number of neutral particles
called neutrons and a number of positively charged called protons. The electron
spirals towards the nucleus and when an electron jumps from higher orbits to lower
orbits, the radiation of energy takes place. The electrons in the innermost shells are
very strongly attached to the atom and have the minimum energy. Hence, these
electrons cannot be easily separated.

ENERGY-BAND THEORY
An electron revolving around the nucleus of an atom has potential energy, boller
centrifugal energy, magnetic energy and rotational energy. These energies
determine the total energy or energy level of an electron, measured as electron volt.

An electron volt can be defined as the amount of energy required to move an

electron through a potential of one volt i.e., the amount of energy gained or lost
when an electron falls through or moves against the potential difference of one
volt.

1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 Joules

Each shell has an energy level. An electron in the outermost orbit is loosely bound
to the nucleus and has higher energy. Similarly, the electron revolving in the inner
shell very close to the nucleus is very tightly bound and has only a small amount of
energy. Thus, it cannot be easily isolated from an individual atom.
Hence, the valence electrons in the outermost shell can be easily extracted from the
atom. These isolated electrons involve in chemical reactions and bond the atoms
together.

Covalent Bond

The valence electrons form a bond with the valence electrons of an adjacent atom.
This bond is called covalent bond.

Energy Band

The valence electrons having highest energy level form the covalent bonds. The
energy levels of the corresponding valence electrons merge into each other due to
the coupling between valence electron. This creates an energy band i.e., closely
spaced energy levels.

Energy-Gap

The difference between the energy levels of any orbits is called as energy gap.

In practice, only two bands of energy levels are considered. They are valence band
and conduction band.

Valence Band

The valence electrons combine together to form the covalent bonds. The energy
band formed due to merging of energy levels related with the free electrons is
called valence band.

Conduction Band

When energy is applied to the valence electrons in the covalent bond, these valence
electrons escape from the bond and the electrons become free to conduct. The
energy band due to merging of energy levels associated with the free electrons is
called conduction band.

Forbidden Energy Gap

The energy gap between the conduction band and the valence band is called
forbidden energy gap.

ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM

The graphical representation of the energy bands in a solid is called energy band
diagram.

The materials are classified into three types depending on the energy band
diagram.

Insulator

In insulator, the forbidden energy gap is very large between the conduction band
and the valence band. Hence large electric field is required to remove the electrons
from valence band to conduction band. Practically, it is impossible for an electron
to jump from valence band to conduction band. The number of free electrons in the
insulator is very small in the order of 107 electrons/m3. The forbidden energy gap
is very large about 7 eV. For example, in diamond, the energy gap is 6 eV. Fig. 1.1
shows the energy band diagram of an insulator.

In general, Insulator has

i. Full valence band

ii. Empty conduction band

iii. Large energy gap

iv. Negative temperature co-efficient i.e when temperature is increased some

valence band electrons acquire energy and moves to the conduction band.

Properties

i. Conductivity is poor

ii. Rigid, crystalline nature

iii. High melting and boiling temperature

iv. Unidirectional

Conductors

A conductor is a material that easily conduct or pas the current. In conductor, the
valence band and conduction band, overlap together. Example: copper, silver, gold,
Aluminium.

The atoms of the above material consists of only one valence electron which is
loosely bound to the atom.

These valence electrons can be easily broken away from their atom and become
free electrons ready for conduction, and enter into the conduction band.

Thus the valence and conduction bands overlap with each other and there is no
forbidden energy gap.

Fig.1.2 shows the energy band diagram of conductor.

Properties

i. Good Conductivity

ii. Rigid, crystalline nature

iii. Low melting and boiling temperature

iv. Non-directional

Semiconductor

Semiconductor is a material whose electrical properties lies in between that of

insulators and conductors.

They have partially filled conduction band and valence band with narrow energy
between the two bands, Ex. Silicon, Germanium, Gallium Arsenide etc.

At OK there are no electrons in the conduction band and the valence band is
completely filled. Thus it behaves as an insulator.

When the temperature is increased, some of the electrons in the valence band enter
into the conduction band. Thus it behaves as conductor.

The electrical conductivity of the semiconductor lies in the range of 10-3 to 10-6
per ohm per cm.

Fig.1.3 shows the energy band diagram of semiconductors.

Properties

i. Conductivity can be increased by doping.

ii. Low melting and boiling temperature.

iii. Rigid, crystalline nature.

iv. Directional.
Semiconductors are classified into two types

Some valence electrons may acquire sufficient energy to enter the conduction band to
form free electrons such electrons constitute current when electric field is applied.

SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors are classified as
i. Intrinsic Semiconductors

ii. Extrinsic Semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductor

A semiconductor in its purest form is called intrinsic semiconductor.

i. Some valence electrons may acquire sufficient energy to enter the conduction
band to form free electrons such electrons constitute current when electric field is
applied.

ii. The missing electron creates a vacant space which is known as hole. Thus, even
at room temperature electron-hole pairs are created.

iii. When electric field is applied, the current flows due to free electrons and holes.

Extrinsic Semiconductor

To increase the amount of current flow in semiconductor, a small amount of

impurity is added to the intrinsic semiconductor such type of semiconductor is
called extrinsic semiconductors.

i. The process of adding impurity to intrinsic semiconductor is known as doping.

The added impurity is called dopant.

ii. The amount of doping is such that 1 to 2 impurity atoms are added to 106
intrinsic atoms.

iii. There are two types of impurity atoms

a. Pentavalent atom

b. Trivalent atom

iv. The pentavalent atom donates one free electron to an intrinsic material. So this
type of impurity is called donor impurity.

Example: Phosphorous, Arsenic, Antimony

v. The trivalent atom has only three valence electrons, it creates more holes and
accepts an electron. So, this impurity is called acceptor impurity.

Example: Boron, Gallium, Indium

N-Type Semiconductor
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity such as Arsenic, Antimony is added
to the pure semiconductor, then it is called N-type semiconductor.

Germanium has four valence electron and Antimony has five valence electron.
Each Antimony atom forms a covalent bond with surrounding four Germanium
atoms.

The fifth valence electron of Antimony atom is loosely bound to the Antimony
atom.

i. If electric field is applied, then it can be easily excited from the valence band to
the conduction band.

ii. Thus pentavalent impurities donate one electron for conduction. So it is called
donor impurity.

iii. After losing one electron, the donor atom becomes positively charged ion and it
cannot conduct.

iv. Thus, adding pentavalent impurity increases the number of electrons in the
conduction band and hence the conductivity increases.

v. In N-type material, the numbers of electrons are more than that of holes.
Therefore, the electrons are called majority carriers and the holes are called
minority carriers. The conduction is mainly due to electrons.
P-Type Semiconductor
When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to pure semiconductor, it is
called P-type semiconductor.

i. The trivalent impurity such Boron has three valence electrons. These electrons
form three covalent bonds with the surrounding Germanium atom.

ii. The one remaining covalent bond cannot be formed because Boron has only
three valence electrons and Germanium has four valence electrons.

iii. This creates a hole in the place of incomplete covalent bond.

iv. Thus large number of holes is present in the valence band due to doping.

v.Trivalent impurity is also called acceptor atom because it accepts free electrons
in the place of holes.
vi. When each boron atom donate a hole for conduction, it becomes negatively
charged ion.

vii. The number of holes is greater than that of free electrons in P-type material.

viii. The conduction is mainly due to holes. Hence holes are called majority
carriers and electrons are called minority carriers.

In a piece of semiconductor, one half is doped by P-type impurity and the other half is
doped by N-type impurity. Thus PN junction is formed.

PN DIODE
i. In a piece of semiconductor, one half is doped by P-type impurity and the other
half is doped by N-type impurity. Thus PN junction is formed.
ii. This formation of PN junction is called diode as it has two electrodes one for P
region called as Anode and the other for N region called as Cathode.

N-Type Material

The majority charge carriers are electrons and has higher concentration of free
electrons than holes as shown in Fig.1.7 (a).

The majority charge carriers are holes and P type material has higher concentration
of holes than electrons, as shown in Fig. 1.7 (b).

Diffusion
The tendency of the free electrons to diffuse from the n-side to p-side and holes
from p- region to n-region is called diffusion.

Diffusion is the process by which charge carrier moves from high concentration
region to low concentration region.

Depletion Region

The free electrons diffuse from 'n' side to 'p' side region and recombine with the
holes in P region. Thus negative charged immobile ions are formed near the
junction.

Also, the holes diffuse from P-region to n-region and recombine with the electrons
in n-region and leaves positively charged immobile ions near the junction of n-
side.
This process continues over certain time duration. After certain extent, the net
negative charge on P-side prevents further diffusion of electrons into P-side.
Similarly, the net positive charge on N-side repels holes crossing from P-side to N-
side. These immobile positive and negative ions form a region called as depletion
region.

Depletion region is defined as the region over which all the free charge carriers are
depleted. This region is also known as space charge region since there are no free
charge carriers available for conduction. In equilibrium condition, the depletion
region gets widened upto a point where no further electrons or holes can cross the
junction. The physical distance from one side to other side of the depletion region
is called width of the depletion region.

Barrier Potential

The electric filed is developed across the depletion region due to the potential
difference between P and N regions. This potential acts as barrier for further
conduction between the junction. This potential is called as barrier potential or
diffusion potential or contact potential or cut in voltage.

i. It depends on doping levels and temperature

ii. The value of contact potential is 0.3 V for Germanium and 0.72V for Silicon at
25° C.

The barrier potential depends on

i. The type of semiconductors

ii. Concentration of donor impurity on n- side

iii. Concentration of acceptor impurity on p - side

iv. Intrinsic concentration of semiconductors

v. Temperature ‫܀‬
OPERATION OF A PN JUNCTION DIODE
Biasing

Applying any external voltage to electronic device is called biasing. Biasing refers
to provide minimum external voltage and current to activate the device.

There are two types of biasing for PN junction.

Forward Bias

The positive terminal of the battery is connected to P-type semiconductor and

negative terminal is connected to n-type semiconductor material.

Reverse Bias

The positive terminal of the battery is connected to n - type semiconductor and the
negative terminal is connected to P-type semiconductor material.

In unbiased PN junction, there is no flow of current, when forward bias is applied to the
PN junction, the applied forward voltage creates an electric field opposite to the
potential barrier.

FORWARD BIASED PN JUNCTION

In unbiased PN junction, there is no flow of current, when forward bias is applied
to the PN junction, the applied forward voltage creates an electric field opposite to
the potential barrier.

i. Thus the potential barrier is reduced at the junction. As the potential barrier is
very small (0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge), a small forward voltage is sufficient to
eliminate the barrier potential.

ii. The applied positive potential repels the holes in P-type region towards the
junction. The electrons in the n-type region are also repelled towards the junction
due to the negative voltage applied in n-region.
iii. When the applied potential is more than the internal barrier potential, the
depletion region completely disappears and the junction resistance becomes zero.

iv. The junction provides a low resistance path and thus current flows in the circuit.
This current is called forward current.

v. When the forward voltage is increased, the large number of majority charge
carriers can cross the junction. These large number of majority charge carriers
constitute the forward current.

The current in P - region is due to the movement of holes which are majority
carriers. This is called hole current.

The current in the n-regions is due to the movement of free electrons which are
majority carriers. This is called electron current. The overall forward current is due
to the majority charge carriers.

These majority carriers can travel around the closed circuit and large amount of
current flows from negative to positive of the battery.

The direction of conventional current is from positive to negative of the battery

which is opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.
The voltage drop across a p- n junction diode in forward biased condition is made
up of

(i) drop due to barrier potential

(ii) drop due to internal resistance

REVERSE BIASED P-N JUNCTION

The P-region is connected to negative terminal of the battery and n -region is
connected to positive terminal of the battery.

When p-n junction is reverse biased, the negative terminal attracts the holes in p -
region and the positive terminal attracts the free electrons in n - region away from
the junction.

The electrons and holes move away from the junction and the width of depletion
region increases.

The charge carriers are unable to cross the junction.

Thus there are more positive ions in the n- region and more negative ions in the p-
region.

When the depletion region widens, the barrier potential across the junction also
increases.
The applied reverse voltage creates an electric field which is in same direction of
potential barrier and thus the barrier width is increased.

This increased potential barrier prevents the flow of charge carriers across the
junction.

When PN junction is reverse biased, it has high resistance path and no current
flows in the circuit.

After certain extent, the junction breakdown occurs. Then a small amount of
current flows through it due to minority charge carriers i.e., the electrons on p-side
and holes on n- -side constitute current in reverse biased condition. So, the reverse
current is always very small. The reverse current remains constant even if the
reverse voltage is increased upto a certain limit. Hence, it is called Reverse
saturation current. The magnitude of reverse saturation current depends on junction
temperature.

PN DIODE SYMBOL
V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF PN DIODE

Fig.1.12 shows the circuit for V-I characteristics of PN junction diode.

V-I characteristics is used for studying the response of p - n junction.

It is defined as the graph of voltage applied across the p-n junction and the current
flowing through the p-n junction.

As shown in Fig.1.13, the applied voltage is V and the voltage across the diode is
Vf.
The current flowing in the circuit is the forward current If. The graph of forward
current If, against the forward voltage Vf across the diode is called forward
characteristics of a diode.

As voltage is applied, the current flow is very small upto the cut-in voltage VC or
threshold voltage VTh. or knee voltage.

When the applied voltage exceeds the threshold voltage the width of the depletion
region is further reduced and the forward current rises exponentially as shown in
Fig.1.13. If the forward voltage is increased beyond a certain value, extremely
large amount of current is produced which may destroy the diode due to
overheating.

The point after which the current starts increasing exponentially is called Knee of
the curve.

Reverse Bias
The Fig. 1.14 shows the reverse biased p- n diode. The reverse voltage across the
diode is VR and the current flowing through the diode is reverse current IR. The
reverse current is mainly due to minority charge carriers. The graph of reverse
current IR versus reverse voltage V R is called reverse characteristics of a diode.

During reverse bias, all the majority carriers are attracted by the battery i.e., holes
from P-type move towards negative terminal of battery and electrons from n-type
move towards positive terminal of battery. Thus only immobile ions near the
junction form a strong depletion region which offers very high resistance for
majority carriers.

Hence only very small current flows in the circuit. The polarity of reverse voltage
applied is opposite to that of forward voltage. So, the reverse saturation current is
opposite to the forward current and its value is negative.

i. When reverse voltage is increased, reverse current increases initially upto certain
voltage. After some extent, the current remains constant although reverse voltage is
increased. This current is called reverse saturation current Io the point at which
breakdown occurs and reverse saturation current increases rapidly is called knee of
the reverse characteristics.
An ideal diode should offer zero resistance in forward bias and infinite resistance in the
reverse bias Diode behaves as a perfect conductor in forward biased condition and act
as insulator in reverse biased condition.

STATIC AND DYNAMIC RESISTANCE OF A DIODE

An ideal diode should offer zero resistance in forward bias and infinite resistance
in the reverse bias Diode behaves as a perfect conductor in forward biased
condition and act as insulator in reverse biased condition. In practical situations
diode will not behave as ideal diode and thus offers minimum amount of resistance
in forward bias.

Forward Resistance
The resistance offered by the p-n junction diode in forward biased condition is
called forward resistance. There are two types of forward resistance.

i. Static resistance or dc resistance (RF)

ii. Dynamic resistance or ac resistance (rF)

Static Forward Resistance RF

It is defined as the ratio of the voltage to the current when p - n junction is used in
de circuit and forward de voltage is applied.

In the Fig.1.16 shown, at point X, the static forward resistance R F is defined as the
ratio of de voltage applied across the p - n junction to the dc current flowing
through the p - n junction.

RF = forward dc voltage / forward dc current = OA / OB

The dc resistance will be low when the diode current is high.

Dynamic Forward Resistance (rF)

The resistance offered by the p - n junction under ac conditions is called dynamic

resistance. It is defined as the reciprocal of the slope of the volt-ampere
characteristics.

The change in applied voltage from point A to C in Fig. 1.16 is denoted as ∆ V.

The change is forward current from point B to D is represented as ∆ I.
The dynamic resistance varies inversely with current. At room temperature ac
resistance of a diode is the sum of ohmic resistance and junction resistance.

Reverse Resistance
It is the resistance offered by the PN junction diode under reverse bias condition..
It is very large compared to the forward resistance, in the order of MΩ.

Static Reverse Resistance (Rf)

It is the reverse resistance under dc applied voltage. It is defined as the ratio of

applied reverse voltage to the reverse saturation current I o.

Dynamic Reverse Resistance (rr)

It is defined as the ratio of incremental change in the reverse voltage applied to the
corresponding change in the reverse current. It is found under ac conditions.

V-I EQUATION OF A DIODE

The mathematical representation of V-I characteristics of diode is called V-I

characteristic equation or diode current equation.

The diode current is represented as

Where

I = diode current, Amperes

Io = reverse saturation current, Amperes

V = Applied voltage, Volts

VT = voltage equivalent of temperature, Volts

η = emission co-efficient, η = 1 for Germanium and η = 2 for Silicon diode

The emission coefficient or ideality factor n represents the recombination

occurring in the depletion region.

The voltage equivalent of temperature indicates the dependence of diode current on

temperature.

VT = KT Volts

K - Boltzmann's constant = 8.62 x 10-5 e V/K

T - Temperature, K

At room temperature 27°C, T = 273 + 27 = 300 K

VT = KT

= 8.62 x 10-5 x 300

= 26 mV T
When voltage applied is zero ie., V = 0

ie., no current flows through the diode.

When forward bias is applied, current increases exponentially and

During reverse bias, voltage applied is negative and thus

neglecting exponential term

The negative sign indicates the current flows in opposite direction to that of
forward current.

SOLVED PROBLEMS

Problem 1.1

The reverse saturation current of a silicon PN junction diode is 10 μA. Calculate

the diode current for the forward-bias voltage of 0.6 V at 25 °C. (AU/ECE –
MAY 2007)

Solution:

Given:
Problem 1.2

The diode current is 0.6 mA when the applied voltage is 400 mV and 20 mA.

When the applied voltage is 500 mV. Determine η.

Assume (AU/ECE - May 2008)

Solution:

Given:
Diode current I = 0.6 mA

Voltage V = 400 mV

Given:

I = 20 mA when V = 500 mV

Substitute in (1)

Dividing (3) by (2)

Taking l n on both sides

Problem 1.3

The voltage across a silicon diode at room temperature of 300 °K is 0.71 V when
2.5 mA current flows through it. If the voltage increases to 0.88 V, What is the
value of diode current?

Solution:

Given:

V = 0.71 V

T = 300 K

I = 2.5 mA
When V = 0.8 V,

Problem 1.4

A Germanium diode has a saturation current of 10 μA at 300° K. Find the

saturation current at 400°K. (AU/EEE - May 2008)
Given:

T1 = 300° K = 27° C

T2 = 400° K = 127° C

Iol = 10 ΜΑ

Solution:

During reverse bias, when the reverse voltage is less than breakdown voltage, the diode
current is also very small due to minority carriers and almost constant at Io. When the
reverse voltage is increased beyond certain limit, the diode current will be maximum.

BREAKDOWN IN DIODES
During reverse bias, when the reverse voltage is less than breakdown voltage, the
diode current is also very small due to minority carriers and almost constant at I o.
When the reverse voltage is increased beyond certain limit, the diode current will
be maximum. The point at which the current increases rapidly is called breakdown
and the corresponding voltage is called reverse breakdown voltage.

There are two types of breakdown mechanisms in PN diode. They are

i. Avalanche Breakdown

ii. Zener Breakdown

Avalanche Breakdown
The reverse bias causes a small reverse current to flow in the device. This occurs
due to the movement of minority charge carriers i.e., electrons from P-type and
holes from N - type, since majority carriers move away from the junction.

When the reverse bias is increased, the minority carriers acquire more energy and
this kinetic energy is sufficient to break the covalent bonds of the crystal structure.
Thus more valence electrons are released from the crystal structure. If the applied
voltage is increased, then velocity is also increased.

As kinetic energy is directly proportional to square of velocity (K.E = 1/2 m V 2),

the kinetic energy of electron also increases.

If this electron collides with an electron in a covalent bond, then the collision
provides enough energy to the valence electron to break its covalent bond. This
process is called as impact ionization.

Hence, electron-hole pairs are created. These electron hole pairs in turn participate
in collision and generate new electron-hole pairs.

This process is called as Avalanche multiplication or Carrier multiplication. It is a

cumulative process and large number of electron - hole pairs are created. The
reverse current increases rapidly and the junction is said to be in breakdown
region.

The avalanche breakdown occurs only in lightly doped diodes, where the depletion
region is very wide and the electric field is very low.

Zener Breakdown

Zener breakdown occurs mainly in heavily doped diodes, where the depletion
region is very small. When the diode is reverse biased, the electric field across the
depletion region is very large..

Electric field is defined as the ratio of voltage measured to the distance. As the
depletion region is narrow, the electric field is very high (: electric field is
inversely proportional to distance).

This very high electric field breaks the covalent bonds and pulls the electrons out
of the valence bands. Hence, new electron hole pairs are created which increases
the reverse current and large amount of reverse current across the junction. This
process is called Zener effect. This leads to breakdown in p- n diode, called Zener
breakdown.

For diodes with reverse breakdown between 5 V & 6 V, both avalanche and Zener
mechanisms occurs if the breakdown voltage is less than 5 V, then Zener
breakdown occurs. The breakdown voltage depends upon the doping level of the
junction. This value determines the practical safe operating voltage called Peak
Inverse Voltage (PIV) of a diode. If the operating voltage is less than PIV rating,
the reverse breakdown condition is prevented.

If temperature is increased, the valence electrons acquire high energy levels and
minimum voltage is sufficient to pull electrons from covalent bonds. Thus for
small voltage, at higher temperature, breakdown occurs.

The breakdown voltage decreases as the temperature increases in Zener

breakdown. So, Zener breakdown exhibits negative temperature co-efficient.

In lightly doped diodes, width of depletion region is large. If temperature is

increased, the vibration of atoms in the crystal increases. The charge carriers have
less opportunity to impart energy between collisions to start carrier multiplication.
So, voltage should be increased to create breakdown in diode. Thus breakdown
voltage increases as the temperature increases. Hence, Avalanche breakdown has
positive temperature co-efficient.
Consider the unbiased PN junction and to know the energy band structure, we have to
analyze the Fermi level of the semiconductor material.

ENERGY BAND STRUCTURE OF OPEN CIRCUITED PN JUNCTION

Consider the unbiased PN junction and to know the energy band structure, we have
to analyze the Fermi level of the semiconductor material. Fermilevel is defined as
the particular energy level where the probability of occupation is 50%. For an n-
type semiconductor, there are more electrons in the conduction band than there are
holes in the valence band. This implies that the probability of finding an electron
near the conduction band is larger than that of finding a hole at the valence band.
So, the Fermilevel is closer to the conduction band in an n-type semiconductor.
For p-type semiconductor, there are more holes in the valence band than the
electrons in the conduction band. Thus probability of finding an electron near
the conduction band is smaller than the probability of finding a hole at the valence
band. Therefore, the Fermilevel is closer to the valence band in a P-type
semiconductor.

When a PN junction is formed, the energy levels of these regions will undergo a
relative shift to make the Fermilevel constant throughout the diode. This
equalization is similar to equalization of levels of water in two containers i.e.,
when two semiconductor materials are joined, the flow of charge carriers occur
until the fermilevels in the two materials are equalized. We know that Fermilevel
EF is closer to the conduction band ECN in n type semiconductor and it is closer to
the valence band EVP in P-type semiconductor as shown in Fig. 1.19.

The Fermilevel EF is constant throughout the region in PN diode.

The conduction band edge ECP in P-type is higher than the conduction band edge
ECN in n-type. The valence band EVP in P material is also higher than the valence
band EVN in n-type material. The shifts in the Fermilevel from the intrinsic
conditions in p -type and n-type material are represented as E1 and E2 respectively.
Thus the total shift in energy level Eo is given by

Eo is the potential energy of the electrons in the PN junction, E o = q Vo, where Vo is

barrier potential

From Fig. 1.19,

Substitute the above equation in (3)
Substitute in equation (4)
When a PN diode is forward biased, the depletion region is very small and large forward
current flows. The holes from p side are injected to N side and electrons from N-side are
injected to P side. Thus current carried by electrons carried by electrons in P-side.

CURRENT COMPONENTS IN P-N DIODE

When a PN diode is forward biased, the depletion region is very small and large
forward current flows. The holes from p side are injected to N side and electrons
from N-side are injected to P side. Thus current carried by electrons carried by
electrons in P-side. Thus current carried by electrons in P- side, Inp is due to
minority carriers and it decreases exponentially with respect to distance measured
from the junction.

Similarly the current due to holes diffusing from p-side to n-side is due to minority
carriers and decreases exponentially with respect to distance measured from
junction. This current is represented as Ipn. Assume the doping concentrations of
two regions are not equal i.e., acceptor concentration (N A) is very greater than
donor concentration (ND). Hence hole diffusion current is also very much higher
than the electron diffusion current.

The distance is denoted by x, then at the junction x = 0, the electrons constituting

current in p-side is Inp (0) and the holes crossing the junction from p-side to n-side
is Ipn(0). Thus, the current at the junction is the total current I flowing through the
circuit and is given as
On p-side the current component is due to holes on p-side which are majority
charge carriers. It is denoted by I pp(x). The total current in p-side is written as

Where Inp(x) = current due to electrons in p-side. Similarly, the electron on n- side,
which are majority carriers, constitute current component Inn(x). Thus the total
current is the sum of current components due to electrons in n-side and holes in n-
side.

Where Ipn(x) - current due to holes in n-side.

Fig.1.20 shows the current components as a function of x. The current I pp decreases

towards the junction and current Inn also decreases towards the junction. I pn and
Inp decreases towards the junction. Ipn and Inp decreases exponentially with respect to
distance from the junction.

RESISTANCE OF PN DIODE
The dynamic resistance is the reciprocal of the slope of V-I characteristics of
diode. This can be written as

We know that, the current is given by

Differentiate with respect to V

We know that

Substitute (2) in (1)

TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF PN DIODE

As mentioned earlier the reverse saturation current Io depends on temperature and
VT is also temperature dependence. Thus the diode current I is also temperature
dependent.

This dependence of Io on temperature T is given by

When temperature is increased, the diode current will also increase. So, the voltage
should be reduced to keep diode current constant.

dV/dT decreases with increase in temperature. Hence the sign is negative.

The reverse saturation current Io increases by 11% per degree rise in temperature
for Germanium and silicon.

Thus the reverse saturation current approximately doubles for every 10°C rise in
temperature.

At temperature T2,
When PN diode is reverse biased, the majority charge carriers move away from the
junction and large immobile carriers are generated near the junction. The width of the
space - charge layer increases with increasing reverse voltage.

TRANSITION OR SPACE CHARGE OR DEPLETION

CAPACITANCE
When PN diode is reverse biased, the majority charge carriers move away from the
junction and large immobile carriers are generated near the junction. The width of
the space - charge layer increases with increasing reverse voltage.

Thus the increase in uncovered charge with applied voltage is considered as a

capacitor. The two parallel layers of oppositely charged immobile ions form the
two plates of capacitor, CT.

Where dQ/dv - change in charge due to change in voltage

The change in voltage dV in a time dt results in current

I = dQ/dt .................(2)

(1) can be written as

CT = transition, space-charge, barrier or depletion capacitance.

CT is derived for two cases

i. Step-graded junction

ii. Linearly graded junction

i. Step Graded Junction

A PN junction is formed from a single intrinsic semiconductor by doping part of it

with acceptor impurities and the remaining with donors.

There is a sudden step change from acceptor ions on one side to donor ions on the
other side. Trivalent Indium is placed against N-type germanium and heated to
high temperature.

Some of the Indium dissolves into the Germanium and N-type Germanium is
changed to P-type at the junction. This step-graded junction is called an alloy or
fusion junction.

Consider a PN diode which is asymmetrically doped at the junction. The net

charge is zero,
Where NA - Acceptor impurity concentration

ND - Donor impurity concentration

Wp & Wn - Depletion region width of P and N region

q - Magnitude of charge of electron or hole

By poisson's equation,

Integrating the above equation twice

Width of depletion layer, W increases with applied reverse voltage

Total charge density of P-type material

Differentiate above equation with respect to V

Differentiate (4) with respect to V

Substitute (6) in (5)

Where

ε - permittivity of the material

A - Cross sectional area of the junction

W - Width of depletion layer

The depletion width W is given by

When no external voltage is applied, width of PN diode is of the order of 0.5

microns. The majority carriers move across the junction and opposite charges are
stored at a distance W apart. This depletion region acts as dielectric between P and
N regions. Thus it acts as a parallel plate capacitor with transition capacitance
CT approximately 20 PF with no external bias. CT ranges from 5 to 200 PF with
applied voltage.

ii. Linearly Graded Junction

The charge density varies linearly with the applied voltage.

Linear graded junction is formed by melting Germanium and its type is changed
during the drawing process by adding first p-type and then n-type impurities. The
charge density becomes absolutely zero at edge distances and W/2 W/2 and varies
linearly with distance.
Where k - proportionality constant

Using Poisson's equation

Where V - potential at a distance 'x' from the junction

Integrating (2)

Substitute (4) in (3)

Substitute (5) in (3)

Integrating (6)

The total potential VJ across the junction from - W/2 to W/2 is given by
The total charge on one side of the layer is

From (7)

Substitute (9) in (8)

The capacitance which exists in a forward biased junction is called diffusion or storage
capacitance
DIFFUIOSN CAPACITANCE
The capacitance which exists in a forward biased junction is called diffusion or
storage capacitance, CD. CD is always larger than transistor capacitance CT.

This capacitance is caused by the injected charge stored near the junction just
outside the transition region.

It is defined as the rate of change of injected charge with applied voltage.

CD = d Q / d V

dQ - change in number of minority carriers outside the depletion region

d V - change in voltage across the diode

Assumption

P side is more heavily doped than N side. Thus current I is carried across the
junction only due to holes moving from P to N side.

The excess minority charge Q existing on N side is given by

Differentiate equation (1) with respect to V

The hole current I is given by Ipn(x) with x = 0

Differentiate Pn(0) with respect to V,

Substitute (2) in (1)

Where, τ - mean life for holes and electron

Diffusion capacitance CD increases exponentially with forward bias. C D value from

10 to 1000 PF. CD is inversely proportional to frequency ie it is high at low
frequency and low at high frequency.

Applications of PN Diode

An ideal PN junction diode has zero resistance in forward bias and infinite
resistance in reverse bias. Due to these characteristics, the diode has number of
applications as follows.
i. Rectifiers in dc power supplies.

ii. Switch in digital logic circuits.

iii. Clipper used in wave shaping circuits in computers, radars, radio and TV
receivers.

iv. Clampers used as de restorer in TV receivers.

v. Detector or demodulation circuits.

The PN diode with different doping levels used in

i. Photo detectors (PIN, APD photodiode).

ii. Zener diode in voltage regulators.

iii. Varactor diode in tuners of radio and TV receivers.

iv. LED in digital displays.

v. LASER in optical communication.

vi. Tunnel diodes as microwave oscillator.

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (ac), which periodically
reverses direction to direct current (dc), which flows in only one direction. This process is
called as rectification.

PN DIODE AS RECTIFIER
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (ac), which
periodically reverses direction to direct current (dc), which flows in only one
direction. This process is called as rectification. Rectifiers are used in power
supplies for radio, television and computer equipment.

A PN diode is a two terminal device which conducts and current flows though it
without any resistance during forward bias condition. When the diode is reverse
biased, the diode will not conduct due to high resistance and no current flows
through the diode i.e., diode is in OFF condition.

Thus an ideal diode acts as a switch either ON or OFF depending on the voltage
applied to the diode, since ideal diode has zero resistance under forward bias and
infinite resistance under reverse bias.

HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER

In half-wave rectifier, either positive or negative half of the ac signal is passed,

while the other half is blocked. It converts an ac voltage into a dc voltage during
one half of the ac cycle only.

PN diode is used for rectification because of its unidirectional property ie conducts

during forward bias and does not conduct during forward bias and does not
conduct during reverse bias. Fig.1.22 shows the circuit diagram of half wave
rectifier. Let Vi be the input voltage to the primary of the transformer, and is given
as

Where

During positive half cycle of the input signal, the diode is forward biased and the
anode of the diode is more positive with respect to cathode. The diode therefore
conducts during positive cycle of the input voltage.

For an ideal diode, the forward voltage drop is zero, thus the applied input voltage
will appear across the load resistance R L.
During negative half cycle of the input signal, the diode is reverse biased i.e., the
anode of the diode is negative with respect to cathode. Thus the diode D does not
conduct due to high impedance. Hence the input voltage does not appear at the
output. Fig.1.23 shows the input and output waveform of half wave rectifier.

Ripple Factor

The ratio of rms value of ac component to the de component in the output is known
as Ripple Factor.
Substitute (2) in (1)

Average voltage across load, Vav = Vdc

The rms voltage at the load resistance is
Substitute (3) & (4) in (5)

i.e., amount of ac present in the output is 121% of the de voltage.

Efficiency
The efficiency η is defined as the ratio of dc output power to ac input power.

The maximum efficiency of a half-wave rectifier is 40.6%.

Peak Inverse Voltage

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) is defined as the maximum reverse voltage a diode can
withstand without destroying the junction. For half wave rectifier, PIV is Vm i.e.,
peak of the negative half cycle.

Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)

This indicates the rating of the transformer. This can be found by the ratio of dc
power delivered to the load to the ac rating of the transformer.
Form factor

It is defined as the ratio of rms value to the average value

Peak Factor

Peak Factor is defined as the ratio of peak value to the rms value.

Peak factor = peak value/rms value

Full wave rectifier converts an ac voltage into pulsating dc voltage during both half
cycles of the applied voltage.
FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER

Full wave rectifier converts an ac voltage into pulsating dc voltage during both half
cycles of the applied voltage.

Here, two diodes are used, one conducts during positive cycle and the other diode
conducts during negative half cycle of the applied voltage.

A multiple winding transformer is used whose secondary winding is split equally

into two halves with a common centre tapped connection (C).

This configuration results in each diode conducting in turn when its anode terminal
is positive with respect to the transformer center point C. This produces output
during both half cycles as shown in Fig.1.25.
The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two diodes connected to a single load
resistance (R) with each diode supplying current to the load in turn. The output
voltage across the resistor R is the phasor sum of the two waveforms.

Ripple Factor

The average voltage across the load resistance is

The rms value of voltage at load resistance
Efficiency

The maximum efficiency of a full wave rectifier is 81.2%

Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)

The average TUF of full wave rectifier is 0.693.

Form Factor

Peak Factor
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

The peak inverse voltage for full-wave rectifier is 2 Vm.

FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

The center tapping is eliminated in the bridge rectifier. In this rectifier, four diodes
are connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the diagonally
opposite ends of the bridge. The other two ends of the bridge are connected to the
load resistance. Fig.1.26 shows the bridge rectifier using four diodes.

During positive half cycle of the input voltage, diodes D 1 and D3 conduct and
diodes D2 and D4 do not conduct. The current is produced due to diodes D 1 and
D3 and this current flows through the load resistance R L.
During negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D 2 and D4 conduct and
diodes D1, and D3 do not conduct. The current flows in the load resistance due to
diodes D2 and D4.

The current flows in the same direction in both positive and negative half cycles of
the input voltage, thus an unidirectional output waveform is obtained.

The maximum efficiency of a bridge rectifier is 81.2% and the ripple factor is 0.48.
The PIV is Vm. Fig. 1.27 shows the output waveform of bridge rectifier.
Table 1.3. Comparison of Rectifiers
In ordinary PN diode, the doping is light. So, the breakdown voltage is high. If the P and
N regions are heavily doped, then breakdown voltage can be reduced.

ZENER DIODE
In ordinary PN diode, the doping is light. So, the breakdown voltage is high. If the
P and N regions are heavily doped, then breakdown voltage can be reduced.

When the reverse voltage reaches the breakdown voltage, the current through the
junction and the power dissipation at the junction will be high. Due to large
amount of current, there is possibility of damaging the diode. Therefore, the diodes
are designed with adequate power dissipation capability to operate in the
breakdown region. The diode designed with such specification is called Zener
diode, which is heavily doped than ordinary diode.

When doping is heavy, the electric field at the junction will be very high even at
low reverse voltage. The electrons in covalent bonds break away from the bonds.
This effect is called as Zener effect.

A diode which exhibits the Zener effect is called Zener diode. Zener diode is a
reverse biased heavily doped diode which operates in the breakdown region. Zener
diodes are designed to operate at voltages ranging from a few volts to several
hundred volts.

Symbol

V-I Characteristics of Diode

When Zener diode is forward biased, the Zener diode operation is similar to that of
ordinary PN diode. Zener diode is specially designed to operate in the reverse /
bias condition.
When the reverse voltage is less than the reverse breakdown voltage, the diode
carries reverse saturation current.

When the reverse voltage is greater than the reverse breakdown voltage, the current
through the diode increases rapidly and the voltage across the diode remains
constant. Usually Zener diode is operated in this reverse breakdown region.

Due to this property, Zener diode is used for providing constant voltage source in
voltage regulators.

When the reverse voltage applied to a Zener diode is increased, initially the current
through it is very small, in the order of few μA or less. This is the reverse leakage
current of the diode, Io
At certain reverse voltage, the current through Zener diode increases rapidly. This
change from a low value to large current is very sharp. This sharp change is
reverse characteristics is called knee of the curve.

At the knee voltage, the breakdown occurs. The reverse bias voltage at which the
breakdown occurs is called Zener breakdown voltage, V z.

The current corresponding to the knee point is called Zener knee current, denoted
as Izmin

As current is increased, the power dissipation also increases (: Pz = Vz Iz). If this

power dissipation increases beyond certain value, the diode may get damaged. The
maximum current at which a Zener diode can operate safely is called Zener
maximum current, Izmax.

Equivalent Circuit of Zener Diode

When the breakdown occurs, Iz increases from Izmin to Izmax and, the voltage across
Zener diode remains constant.

The internal Zener impedance decreases as current increases in the Zener region.
But this impedance is very small. Ideally the Zener diode is indicated by a battery
of voltage Vz which remains fairly constant.

Fig. 1.31 shows the equivalent circuit of Zener diode. In reverse bias, the resistance
is called dynamic resistance of the Zener diode, rz. The ratio of change in Zener
voltage to the change in Zener current is called Zener resistance.
Zener resistance rz range is in the order of few tens of ohms.

There are two types of mechanisms due to which breakdown occurs. They are i. Zener
breakdown ii. Avalanche breakdown

BREAKDOWN MECHANISMS IN ZENER DIODE

There are two types of mechanisms due to which breakdown occurs. They are

i. Zener breakdown

ii. Avalanche breakdown

Avalanche Breakdown

When the reverse bias voltage is increased, the field across the junction also
increases. Thermally generated carriers crossing the junction acquire a large
amount of kinetic energy from this field.

The velocity of these charge carriers increases and these electrons disrupt covalent
bond by colliding with immobile ions and create new electron-hole pairs.

These new charge carriers again acquire sufficient energy from the field and
collide with other immobile ions and generate further electron-hole pairs. This
process continues and results in generation of avalanche of charge carriers within a
short time. This mechanism of carrier generation is called as Avalanche
multiplication.

This process results in flow of large amount of current at the reverse bias. Zener
diodes having Zener Voltage above 6V exhibit avalanche breakdown and the diode
has positive temperature coefficient i.e., the breakdown voltage increases when the
p-n junction temperature is increased. Thus Zener diode has positive temperature
coefficient.

Zener Breakdown

When P and N regions are heavily doped, strong electric field is created which
results in direct rupture of covalent bonds. Hence new electron-hole pairs are
generated and the reverse current begins to increase.

This process occurs at a reverse bias below 6V. Due to heavy doping, the depletion
width becomes very small and the electric field across the depletion region
becomes very high of the order of 10 7 V/m. Thus Zener breakdown occurs.

For lightly doped diodes, the breakdown voltage is high and it is mainly due to
Avalanche multiplication. Thus in Zener diode, breakdown occurs both in lower
and higher breakdown voltages ie both Avalanche and Zener breakdown occurs.
Such diodes are called Zener diodes.

Tepemrature Coefficient of Zener Diode

The percentage change in the Zener voltage V, for every °C rise/fall in temperature
is called Temperature Coefficient (TC) of a Zener diode.

If Vz is less than 6 V, the temperature coefficient is negative. For Zener diode with
Vz greater than 6 V, the temperature coefficient is positive.

When reverse bias is applied, the voltage across the diode remains constant and, the
current through the diode increases.

ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR

When reverse bias is applied, the voltage across the diode remains constant and,
the current through the diode increases.

The voltage across the Zener diode acts as reference voltage and the diode can be
used as a voltage regulator.

In the Fig.1.32 shown, the load resistance should be provided with constant
voltage. Zener diode is reverse biased and if the input voltage is not less than Zener
breakdown voltage (V z) then the voltage across the diode will be constant and thus
the load voltage is also constant.

Applications of Zener Diode

i. Voltage regulators.

ii. Zener limiters to clip the unwanted portion of the voltage waveform.

iii. Over voltage protection.

SOLVED PROBLEMS

Problem 1.5
The forward current of a silicon PN diode is 5 mA at T = 300 K. Determine the
forward resistance of a PN junction diode.

Given:

Solution

Problem 1.6

The voltage across a silicon diode at room temperature is 0.7 V when 2 mA

current flows through it. If the voltage is increased to 0.75 V, calculate the diode
current

Given
Solution
Problem 1.7

A silicon diode has a saturation current of 7.5 μA at room temperature 300 K.

Calculate the saturation current at 400 K.

Given:

I1 = 7.5 x 10-6 A

T1 = 300 K

T2 = 400 K

To find :

I2 = ?

Solution:
Problem 1.8

Determine the germanium PN diode current for the forward bias voltage of 0.22
V at room temperature 25 °C with reverse saturation current of 1 mA.

Given:

V = 0.22 V

T = 25°C = 273 + 25 = 298 K

Io = 1 mA = 1 x 10-3 A

For Germanium diode η = 1

To find :

Diode Current I

Solution:
Problem 1.9

A Germanium diode has a saturation current of 10μA at room temperature (300

K). Find the saturation current at 450 K.

Given:

To Find:

Current I2 at 400 K

Solution:
Problem 1.10

An ideal Germanium diode at a temperature of 125°C has a reverse saturation

current of 30 μA. At a temperature of 127 °C, find the dynamic resistance for a
0.2 V bias in (a) forward direction. (b) reverse direction.

Given:

To Find:

Dynamic resistance in forward and reverse direction

Solution:

(a) Dynamic resistance in forward direction

Differentiate with respect to V

(b) Dynamic resistance in reverse direction

In reverse direction, V = -0.2

Substitute in equation,
Problem 1.11

In an N-type semiconductor, the Fermi-level lies 0.3 eV below the conduction

band at 27°C. If the temperature is increased to 55°C, find the new position of
Fermi level. (AU/ECE - Dec 2007)

Given:

Solution:
The new position of Fermi level lies 0.32 eV below the conduction level.

Problem 1.12

A pn junction diode has a reverse saturation current of 10μA at the room

temperature of 27 °C when the room temperature is increased, the reverse
saturation current is 30 μA, Calculate the new room temperature germanium.

Given:
Problem 1.13

A full wave diode rectifier has Vi = 100 sin ω t, RL = 900 Ω and Rf = 100 Ω

Calculate

(a) Peak load current Im

(b) dc load current Idc

(c) AC load current Irms

(d) dc voltage Vdc

(e) peak instantaneous diode current

(f) PIV of the diode

(g) efficiency

Given:

Vi = 100 sin ω t

Vm = 100 V

RL = 900 Ω

Rf = 100 Ω

Solution:
Problem 1.14

In a full wave rectifier, a signal of 300 V is applied at 50 Hz frequency. Each

diode has an internal resistance of 800 Ω. If the load is 2000 Ω, then calculate
(a) peak value of current in the output

(b) output dc current

(c) efficiency of power transfer

Given:

Vrms = 300 V

f = 50 Hz

Rf = 800 Ω & RL = 2000 Ω

Solution:

(a) Peak value of current in output

(b) Output dc current

(c) Efficiency of power transfer

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) has three layers of semiconductor material. These are
arranged either in npn sequence or in pnp sequence and each of the three layers has a
terminal.

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)

INTRODUCTION
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) has three layers of semiconductor material.
These are arranged either in npn sequence or in pnp sequence and each of the three
layers has a terminal. A small current at the central regional terminal controls the
much larger total current flow through the device. This means that the transistor
can be used for current amplification. It can also perform voltage amplification.

CONSTRUCTION

PNP and NPN Transistors

A bipolar junction transistor is simply a sandwich of one type of semiconductor

material (p-type or n-type) between two layers of the opposite type.

A block representation of a layer of p-type material between two layers of n-type is

shown in Fig. 1.33(a). This is described as an npn transistor. Fig. 1.33(b) shows a
pnp transistor, consisting of a layer of n-type material between two layers of p-
type.

The centre layer is called the base, one of the outer layers is termed the emitter,
and the other outer layer is referred to as the collector.
The emitter, base, and collector are provided with terminals, which are
appropriately labeled E, B and C.

Two pn-junctions exist in each transistor.

i. The collector base junction and

ii. The emitter base junction

Circuit symbols for pnp and npn transistors are shown in Fig. 1.34. The arrow head
on each symbol identifies the transistor either terminal and indicates the
conventional direction of current flow. For an npn transistor, the arrowhead points
from the p-type base to the n-type emitter. For a pnp device the arrowhead points
from the p-type emitter to the n-type base. Thus the arrowhead always points from
p to n.

Two transistors packages are there

i. Low power transistor 1 mA to 20 mA current levels

ii. High power transistor - 100 mA to several amps range.

As the base is lightly doped with P-type material the number of holes in the base region
is very small and hence the number of electrons that combine with holes in the p-type
base region is also very small.

OPERATION ON NPN TRANSISTOR AND PNP TRANSISTOR

NPN Transistor Operation

As shown in Fig.1.35, the forward bias applied to the emitter base junction of an
NPN transistor causes a lot of electrons from the emitter region to crossover to the
base region.

As the base is lightly doped with P-type material the number of holes in the base
region is very small and hence the number of electrons that combine with holes in
the p-type base region is also very small. Hence few electrons combine with holes
to constitute a base current IB. The remaining electrons (more than 95%) crossover
into the collector region to constitute collector current IC. Thus the base and
collector current summed up gives the emitter current i.e., IE = - (IC + IB).

In the external circuit of the NPN bipolar junction transistor, the magnitudes of the
emitter current IE, the base current I, and the collector current Ic are related by I E =
(IC + IB).
PNP Transistor Operation

As shown in Fig.1.36, the forward bias applied to the emitter base junction of PNP
transistor causes a lot of holes from the emitter region to crossover to the base
region as the base is lightly doped with N type material. The number of electrons
in the base region is very small and hence the number of holes combined with
electrons in the N-type base region is also very small. Hence a few holes combined
with electrons to constitute a base current Ig. The remaining holes (more than
95%) cross over into the collector region to constitute a collector current I C. IE = -
(IC + IB).

In the external circuit of the PNP bipolar junction transistor the magnitude of the
emitter current IE, the base current I B and the collector current IC are related by

IE = IC + IB ................(1)
This equation gives the fundamental relationship between the currents in a bipolar
transistor circuit. Also this fundamental equation shows that there are current
amplification factors α and β in common base transistor configuration and common
emitter transistor configuration respectively for the static (dc) currents and for
small changes in the currents.

Large-Signal Current Gain (α)

The large signal current gain of a common base transistor is defined as the ratio of
the negative of the collector-current increment to the emitter-current change from
cutoff (IE = 0) to IE i.e.,

Where ICBO (or ICO) is the reverse saturation current flowing through the reverse
biased collector-base junction, i.e., the collector to base leakage current with
emitter open. As the magnitude of ICBO is negligible when compared to IE, the above
expression can be written as

Since IC and IE are flowing in opposite directions, a is always positive. Typical

value of α ranges from 0.90 to 0.995. Also a is not a constant but varies with I E,
VCB, and temperature.

In the active region of the transistor, the emitter is forward biased and the collector is
reverse biased.

General Transistor Equation

In the active region of the transistor, the emitter is forward biased and the collector
is reverse biased. The generalized expression for collector current I C for collector
junction voltage VC and emitter current IE is given by

If VC is negative and | VC | is very large compared with VT, then the above equation
reduces to

If VC, i.e., VCB, is few volts, IC is independent of VC. Hence the collector current
IC is determined only by the fraction a of the current IB flowing in the emitter.

From equation (5) we have

Since IC and IE are flowing in opposite directions

The large-signal current gain (β) is defined as,

Comparing the equations (7) and (9) we get the relationship between the leakage
currents of transistor common-base (CB) and common-emitter configurations as

From this equations, it is evident that the collector-emitter leakage current (ICEO) in
CE configuration is (I + β) times larger than that in CB configuration. As ICBO is
temperature dependent, ICEO varies by large amount when temperature of the
junction changes.

Expression for Emitter Current

The magnitude of emitter-current is

IE = IC + IB

Substituting equation (7) in the above equation,

We get

Substituting the equation (6) in the (11), we have

DC Current Gain

The dc current gain is defined as the ratio of the collector current I C to the base
current IB. That is

As IC is large compared with ICEO, the large signal current gain (β) and the de
current gain (hFE) are approximately equal.

When a transistor is to be connected in a circuit, one terminal is used as an input

terminal, the other terminal is used as an output terminal and the third terminal is
common to the input and output.
TYPES OF CONFIGURATION

When a transistor is to be connected in a circuit, one terminal is used as an input

terminal, the other terminal is used as an output terminal and the third terminal is
common to the input and output. Depending upon the input, output and common
terminal, a transistor can be connected in three configurations. They are (i)
Common Base (CB) Configuration (ii) Common Emitter (CE) and (iii) Common
Collector (CC) Configuration.

Common Base Configuration

This is also called grounded base configuration. In this configuration, emitter is the
input terminal, collector is the output terminal and base is the common terminal.

The circuit for determining the static characteristics curve of an NPN transistor in
the common base configuration is shown in Fig.1.37.

Input Characteristics

To determine the input characteristics, the collector base voltage V CB is kept

constant at zero volt and the emitter current IE is increased from zero in suitable
equal steps by increasing VEB. This is repreated for higher fixed values of VCB. A
curve is drawn between emitter current IB and emitter-base voltage VEB at constant
collector-base voltage VCB. The input chracteristics thus obtained are shown in
Fig. 1.38.
When VCB is equal to zero and the emitter-base junction is forward biased as shown
in the characteristics. The junction behaves as a forward biased diode so that
emitter current IE increases rapidly with small increase in emitter-base voltage VEB

When VCB is increased keeping VEB constant, the width of the base region will
decrease. This effect results in an increase of IE. Therefore, the curves shift towards
the left as VCB is increased.

Output Characteristics
To determine the output characteristics, the emitter current IE is kept constant at a
suitable value by adjusting the emitter-base voltage VEB. Then VCB is increased in
suitable equal steps and the collector current I C is noted for each value of IE. This is
repeated for different fixed values of IE. Now the curves of IC versus VCB are plotted
for constant values of IE and the output characteristics thus obtained is shown in
Fig. 1.39.

From the characteristics, it is seen that for a constant value of I E, IC is independent

of VCB and the curves are parallel to the axis of V CB. Further, IC flows even when
VCB is equal to zero. As the emitter-base junction is forward biased, the majority

carriers i.e., electrons from the emitter are injected into the base region. Due to the
action of the internal potential barrier at the reverse baised collector-base junction,
they flow to the collector region and give rise to IC even when VCB is equal to zero.

(i) Input Impedance (hib)

It is defined as the ratio of the change in (input) emitter voltage to the change in
(input) emitter current with the (output) collector voltage VCB kept constant.
Therefore,

It is the slope of CB input characteristics IE versus VEB as shown in Fig. 1.38. The
typical value of hit ranges from 20 to 50 Ω.

(ii) Output Admittance (hob)

It is defined as the ratio of the change in (output) collector current to the

corresponding change in the (output) collector voltage with the (input) emitter
current IE kept constant. Therefore,

It is the slope of CB output characteristics IC versus VCB as shown in Fig. 1.39. The
typical value of the parameter is of the order of 0.1 to 10 μhos.

(iii) Forward Current Gain (hfb)

It is detected as a ratio of the change in the (output) collector current to the

corresponding change in the (input) emitter current keeping the (output) collector
voltage VCB constant. Hence,

It is the slope of IC versus IE curve. Its typical value varies from 0.9 to 1.0.

(iv) Reverse Voltage Gain (hrb)

It is defined as the ratio of the change in the (input) emitter voltage and the
corresponding change in (output) collector voltage with constant (input)emitter
current, IE. Hence,

It is the slope of VEB Vs VCB curve. Its typical value is the order of 10 -5 to 10-4.

Common Emitter Configuration

Input Characteristics

To determine the input characteristics the collector to emitter voltage is kept

constant at zero volt and base current is increased from zero in equal steps by
increasing VBE in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.40.

The value of VBE is noted for each settling of IB. This procedure is repeated for
higher fixed values of VCE, and the curves of IB Vs VBE are drawn. The input
characteristics thus obtained are shown in Fig. 1.41.
When VCE = 0, the emitter base junction is forward biased and the junction behaves
as a forward biased diode.

Hence the input characteristics for VCE = 0 is similar to that of a forward biased
diode. When VCE is increased the width of the depletion region at the reverse biased
collector base junction will increase. Hence the effective width of the base will
decrease. This effect causes a decrease in the base current IB. Hence to get the same
value of Ib as that for VCE = 0, VBE should be increased. Therefore, the curve shifts
to the right as VCE increases.

Output Characteristics

To determine the output characteristics, the base current I B is kept constant at a

suitable value by adjusting base-emitter voltage, VBE. The magnitude of collector-
emitter voltage VCE is increased in suitable equal steps from zero and the collector
current IC is noted for each setting VCE. Now the curves of IC versus VCE are plotted
for different constant values of IB. The output characteristics are obtained shown in
Fig. 1.42.
For larger values of VCE, due to Early effect, a very small change in a is reflected in
a very large change in β.

The output characteristics of CE configuration show a larger slope when compared

with CB configuration.

The output characteristics have three regions namely, saturation region, cutoff
region and active region.

The region of curves to the left of the line OA is called the saturation region, and
the line OA is called the saturation line. In this region, both junctions are forward
biased and an increase in the base current does not cause a corresponding large
change in IC. The ratio of VCE(sat) to IC in this region is called saturation resistance.

The region below the curve for IB = 0 is called the cut-off region. In this region,
both junctions are reverse biased. When the operating point for the transistor enters
the cutoff region, the transistor is OFF. Hence the collector current becomes almost

zero and the collector voltage almost equals VCC, the collector supply voltage. The
transistor is virtually an open circuit between collector and emitter.
The central region where the curves are uniform in spacing and slope is called the
active region. In this region, emitter-base junction is forward biased and the
collector base junction is reverse biased. If the transistor is to be used as a linear
amplifier it should be operated in the active region.

Transistor Parameters

The slope of the CE characteristics will give the following four transistor
parameters. Since these parameters have different dimensions, they are commonly
known as common emitter hybrid parameters or h-parameters.

(i) Output Admittance (hoe)

It is defined as the ratio of change in the (output) collector current to the

corresponding change in the (output) collector voltage with the (input) base current
IB kept constant. Therefore
It is the slope of CE output characteristic IC Vs VCE. The typical value of this
parameter is of the order of 0.1 to 10 μ mhos.

(ii) Input Impedance (hie)

It is defined as the ratio of the change in (input) base voltage to the change in
(input) base current with the (output) collector voltage V CE kept constant.

It is the slope of CE input characteristics IB versus VBE, the typical value of

hie ranges from 500 to 2000 Ω.

(iii) Forward Current Gain (hfe)

It is defined as a ratio of the change in the (output) collector current to the

corresponding change in the (input) base current keeping the (output) collector
voltage VCE constant. Hence

It is the slope of IC versus IB curve. Its typical value varies from 20 to 200.

(iv) Reverse Voltage Gain (hre)

It is defined as the ratio of the change in the (input) base voltage and the
corresponding change in (output) collector voltage with constant (input) base
current, IB. Hence,
It is the slope of VBE Versus VCE curve. Its typical value is of the order of 10 -5 to 10-
4
.

Common Collector Configuration

The circuit diagram for determining the static characteristics of an NPN transistor
in the common collector configuration is shown in Fig. 1.43.

Input Characteristics

To determine the input characteristics, VEC is kept at a suitable fixed value. The
base-collector voltage VBC is increased in equal steps and the corresponding
increase in IB is noted. This is repeated for different fixed values of V EC. Plots of
VBC versus IB for different values of VEC shown in Fig. 1.44 are the input
characteristics.

Output Characteristics
The output characteristics shown in Fig. 1.45 are same as those of the common
emitter configuration.

The FET is a device in which the flow of current through the conducting region is
controlled by an electric field, hence the name Field Effect Transistor (FET). As current
conduction is only by majority carriers, FET is said to be a unipolar device.

FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR

The FET is a device in which the flow of current through the conducting region is
controlled by an electric field, hence the name Field Effect Transistor (FET). As
current conduction is only by majority carriers, FET is said to be a unipolar device.
Based on the construction, the FET can be classified into two types - Junction Field
Effect Transistor (JFET) and Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
(MOSFET).

JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (JFET)

JFET is classified into two types, namely

(i) N-channel JFET with electrons as the majority carriers and

(ii) P-channel JFET with holes as the majority carriers.

CONSTRUCTION OF N-CHANNEL JFET

It consists of a N-type bar which is made of silicon ohmic contacts (terminals)

made at the two ends of the bar, are called source and drain.

Source (S)

This terminal is connected to the negative pole of the battery. Electrons which are
the majority carriers in the N-type bar enter the bar through this terminal.

Drain (D)

This terminal is connected to the positive pole of the battery. The majority carriers
leave the bar through this terminal.

Gate (G)

Heavily doped P-type silicon is diffused on both sides of the N-type silicon bar by
which PN junctions are formed. These layers are joined together and called Gate
G.

Channel

The region BC of the N-type bar between the depletion region is called the
channel. Majority carriers move from the source to drain when a potential
difference VDS is applied between the source and drain.
OPERATION OF N-CHANNEL JFET

When VGS = 0 and VDS = 0 when no voltage is applied between drain and source,
and gate and source, the thickness of the depletion regions round the PN junction is
uniform as shown in Fig. 1.46.

Case (i)

When VDS = 0 and VGS is decreased from zero. In this case, the PN junctions are
reverse biased and hence the thickness of the depletion region increase. As V GS is
decreased from zero, the reverse bias voltage across the PN junction is increased
and hence, the thickness of the depletion region in the channel until the two
depletion regions make contact with each other. In this condition, the channel is
said to be cut-off. The value of VGS which is required to cut-off the channel is
called the cut-off voltage VC.

Case (ii)

When VGS = 0 and VDS increased from drain is positive with respect to the source
with VGS = 0.
Now the majority carriers (electrons) flow through the N-channel from source to
drain. Therefore the conventional current ID flows from drain to source. The
magnitude of the current will depend on the following factors.

i. The number of majority carriers (electrons) available in the channel. i.e., the
conductivity of the channel.

ii. The length L of the channel.

iii. The cross-sectional area A of the channel at B.

iv. The magnitude of the applied voltage V DS. Thus the channel acts as a resistor of
resistance R is given by
Where ρ is the resistivity of the channel. Because of the resistance of the channel
and the applied voltage VDS, there is a gradual increase of positive potential along
the channel from source to drain. Thus the reverse voltage across the PN junctions
increases and hence the thickness of the depletion regions also increases.
Therefore, the channel is wedge shaped as shown in Fig. 1.47.

As VDS is increased, the cross-sectional area of the channel will be reduced. At a

certain value VP of VDS, the cross-sectional area at B becomes minimum. At
this voltage, the channel is said to be pinched off and the drain voltage V P is called
the pinch-off voltage.

As a result of the decreasing cross-section of the channel with increase of VDs, the
following results are obtained.

i. As VDS is increased from zero, ID increases along OP, and the rate of increase of
ID with VDS decreases as shown in Fig. 1.48. The region from V DS = 0 V to VDS =
VP is called the ohmic region. In the channel ohmic region the drain to source
resistance VDS/ID is related to the gate voltage VGS in an almost linear manner. This
is useful as a voltage variable resistor (VVR) or voltage dependent resistor (VDR).

ii. When VDS = VP, ID becomes maximum, when VDS is increased beyond VP, the
length of the pinch-off or saturation region increases. Hence there is no further
increase of ID.
iii. At a certain voltage corresponding to the point B, I D suddenly increases. This
effect is due to the Avalanche multiplication of electrons caused by breaking of
covalent bonds of Silicon atoms in the depletion region between the gate and the
drain. The drain voltage at which the breakdown occurs is denoted by B V DGO. The
variation of ID with VDS when VGS = 0 is shown in Fig. 1.48, by the curve OPBC.

Case (iii)

When VGS is negative and VDS is increased.

When the gate is maintained at a negative voltage less than the negative cut-off
voltage, the reverse voltage across the junction is further increased. Hence for a
negative value of V GS the curve of ID versus VDS is similar to that for VGS = 0, but
the values of VP and B VDGO are lower as shown in Fig. 1.48.

From the curves, it is seen that above the pinch-off voltage, at a constant value of
VDS, ID increases with an increase of VGS. Hence a JFET is suitable for use as a
voltage amplifier, similar to a transistor amplifier.

It can be seen from the curve that for voltage V DS = VP, the drain current is not
reduced to zero. If the drain current is reduced to be zero, the ohmic voltage drop
along the channel should also be reduced to zero. Further the reverse biasing to the
gate source PN junction essential for pinching off the channel would also be
absent.

The drain current ID is controlled by the electric field that extends into the channel
due to reverse biased voltage applied to the gate hence, this device has been given
the name Field Effect Transistor.

In a bar of P type semiconductor, the gate is formed due to N-type semiconductor.

The working of the P-channel JFET will be similar to that of N channel JFET with
proper alterations in the biasing circuits, in this case holes will be the current
carriers instead of electrons.

The circuit symbols for N-channel and P-channel JFETs are shown in Fig.1.49. It
should be noted that the direction of the arrow points in the direction of
conventional current which would flow into gate if the PN junction was forward
biased.

CHARACTERISTICS PARAMETERS OF THE JFET

In a JFET, the drain current ID depends upon the drain voltage VDS and the gate
voltage VGS. Any one of these variables may be fixed and the relation between the
other two are determined. These relations are determined by the three parameters
which are defined below.

i. Mutual Conductance (or) Transconductance, gm

It is the slope of the transfer characteristic curves, and is defined by

It is the ratio of a small change in the drain current to the corresponding small
change in the gate voltage at a constant drain voltage. The change in I D and
VGS should be taken on the straight part of the transfer characteristics. It has the
unit of conductance in mho.

ii. Drain resistance, rd

It is the reciprocal of the slope of the drain characteristics and is defined by

It is the ratio of a small change in the drain voltage to the corresponding small
change in the drain current at a constant gate voltage. It has the unit of resistance in
ohms.

The drain resistance at V GS = 0 V, i.e., when the depletion regions of the channel
are absent, is called as drain-source ON resistance, represented as R DS or RDS (ON).
The reciprocal of the rd is called the drain conductance. It is denoted by gd or gos.

iii. Amplification Factor, μ

It is denoted by

It is the ratio of a small change in the drain voltage to the corresponding small
change in the gate voltage at a constant drain current. Here the negative sign shows
that when VGS is increased, VDS must be decreased for ID to remain constant.

(iv) Relationship Among FET parameters

As ID depends on VDS and VGS the functional equation can be expressed as

If the drain voltage is changed by a small amount from V DS to (VDS + ∆ VDS) and the
gate voltage is changed by a small amount from V GS to (VGS + ∆ VGS). Then the
corresponding small change in ID may be obtained by applying Taylor's theorem
with neglecting higher order terms. Thus the small change ∆ ID is given by
Dividing both the sides of this equation by ∆ VGS, we obtain

substituting the values of the partial differential coefficients, we get

Therefore, amplification factor (µ) is the product of drain resistance (r d) and

transconductance (gm).

(v) Power Dissipation, PD

The FET's continuous power dissipation PD is the product of ID and VDS·

Application of FET
1. FET is used as a buffer in measuring instruments receivers since it has high
input impedance and low output impedance.

2. FETs are used in RF amplifiers in FM tuners and communication equipment for

the low noise level.

3. Since the input capacitance is low, FETs are used in cascade amplifiers in
measuring and list equipments.

4. Since the device is voltage controlled, it is used as a voltage variable resistor in

operational amplifiers and tone controls.

MOSFET is the common term for the Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor (IGFET). There
are two basic terms of MOSFET (i) Enhancement MOSFET and (ii) Depletion MOSFET.

METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD EFFECT

TRANSISTOR (MOSFET)
MOSFET is the common term for the Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor
(IGFET). There are two basic terms of MOSFET (i) Enhancement MOSFET and
(ii) Depletion MOSFET.

Principle

By applying a transverse electric field across an insulator, deposited on the

semiconducting material, the thickness and hence the resistance of a conducting
channel of a semiconducting material can be controlled.

In a depletion MOSFET, the controlling electric field reduces the number of

majority carriers available for conduction, whereas in the enhancement MOSFET,
application of electric field causes an increase in the majority carrier density in the
conducting regions of the transistor.

ENHANCEMENT MOSFET

Construction
The construction of an N-channel enhancement MOSFET is shown in Fig. 1,50(a)
and the circuit symbols for an N-channel and a P-channel enhancement MOSFET
are shown in Fig. 1.50 (b) and 1.50(c) respectively. As there is no continuous
channel in an enhancement MOSFET, this condition is represented by the broken
line in the symbols.

Two highly doped N+ regions are diffused in a lightly doped substrate of P-type
silicon substrate. One N+ region is called the source S and the other one is called
the drain D. They are seperated by 1 mil (10-3 inch). A thin insulating layer of
SiO2 is grown over the surface of the structure of SiO 2 is grown over the surface of
the structure and holes are cut into the oxide layer, allowing contact with source
and drain. Then a thin layer of metal aluminium is formed over the layer of SiO2.
This metal layer covers the entire channel region and it forms the gate G.
The metal area of the gate, in conjunction with the insulating oxide layer of
SiO2 and the semiconductor channel forms a parallel plate capacitor. This device is
called the insulated gate FET because of the insulating layer of SiO 2. This layer
gives an extremely high input impedance for the MOSFET.

Operation
If the substrate is grounded and a positive voltage is applied at the gate, the
positive charge on G induces an equal negative charge on the substrate side
between the source and drain regions.

The direction of the electric field is perpendicular to the plates of the capacitor
through the oxide. The negative charge of electrons which are minority carriers in
the P-type substrate forms an inversion layer. As the positive voltage on the gate
increases, the induced negative charge in the semiconductor increase. Hence, the
conductivity increases and current flows from source to drain through the induced
channel. Thus the drain current is enhanced by the positive voltage as shown in
Fig. 1.51.

DEPLETION MOSFET

The construction of an N-channel depletion MOSFET is shown in Fig. 1.52(a)

where an N channel is diffused between the source and drain to the basic structure
of MOSFET.
The circuit symbols for an N-channel and a P-channel depletion MOSFET are
shown in Fig. 1.52 (b) and 1.52 (c) respectively.

With VGS = 0 and the drain D at a positive potential with respect to the source, the
electrons (majority carriers) flow through the channel D to S. If the gate voltage is
made negative, positive charge consisting of holes is induced in the channel
through SiO2 of the gate channel capacitor. The introduction of the positive charge
causes depletion of mobile electrons on the channel.
Thus a depletion region is produced in the channel. The shape of the depletion
region depends on V GS and VDS. Hence the channel will be wedge shaped as shown
in Fig.1.52. When VDS increased, ID increases and it becomes practically constant
at a certain value of VDS, called the Pinch-Off voltage. The drain current ID almost
gets saturated beyond the pinch-off voltage.

Since the current in an FET is due to majority carriers (electrons for an N-type
material) the induced positive charges make the channel less conductive, and
ID drops as VGS is made negative.

The depletion MOSFET may also be operated in an enhancement mode. It is only

necessary to apply a positive gate voltage so that negative charges are induced into
the N-type channel. Hence the conductivity of the channel increases and
ID increases. As the depletion MOSFET can be operated with bipolar input signals
irrespective of doping of the channel, it is also called as dual mode MOSFET. The
volt ampere characteristics are induced in Fig. 1.51.

The curve of ID versus VGS for constant VDS for is called the transfer characteristics
of MOSFET and is shown in Fig. 1.53.
The UJT consists of a bar of lightly doped n-type silicon with a block of P-type material
on one side

UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR (UJT)

UJT CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION

The UJT consists of a bar of lightly doped n-type silicon with a block of P-type
material on one side (Fig. 1.54 (a)). The end terminals of the bar are identified as
base 1 (B1) and base 2 (B2) and the P-type block is named the emitter (E).

Fig.1.54 (b) shows the UJT equivalent circuit. The resistance of the n-type silicon
bar is represented as two resistors гB1 from B1 to point C, and rB2 from B2 to C as
illustrated. The sum of rB1 and rB2 is called RBB. The P type emitter forms a PN -
junction with the n-type silicon bar, and this junction is shown as a diode (D 1) in
the equivalent circuit.
With a voltage VB1B2 applied, the voltage at the junction point C is

Note that V1 is also the voltage at the cathode of the diode in the equivalent circuit

with the emitter terminal open-circuited, the resistor current is

If the terminal is grounded, the PN -junction is reverse biased and there is a small
emitter reverse current (IEO).

Now consider what happens when the emitter voltage (VEB1) is slowly increased
from zero. When VEBI equals V1, the emitter current is zero. Further increase in
VEBI forward-biases the PN-junctions and causes a forward current (IE) to flow from
the p -type emitter into the n-type silicon bar. When this occurs, charge carriers are
injected into the rB1 region. Since the resistance of the semiconductor material is
dependent on doping, the additional charge carriers cause the resistance of the
rB1 region to decrease rapidly. The decrease in resistance reduces the voltage drop
across rB1 and so the pn junction in more heavily forward biased. This in turn
results in a greater emitter current and more charge carriers that further reduce the
resistance of the rB1 region. (The process is termed as regenerative).

The input voltage is pulled down, and the emitter current (IE) is increased to a limit
deetrmined by the VEBI Source resistance. The device remains in this on conditions
until the emitter input is open-circuited or until I is reduced to very low level.

The circuit symbol for a UJT is shown in Fig. 1.54 (c). As always, the arowhead
points in the conventional current direction for a forward-biased junction. In this
case it points from the p-type emitter to n-type bar.

UJT CHARACTERISTICS

A plot of emitter voltage VEBI versus emitter current IE gives the UJT emitter
characteristics. Refer to the UJT terminal voltage and currents shown in Fig. 1.55
(a) and to the equivalent circuit Fig. 1.55 (b) Note that when V B1B2 = 0, IB2 = 0 and
V1 = 0

If VEB1 is now increased from zero, the resultant plot of VEB1 and IE is simply the
characteristics of a forward-biased diode with some series resistance. This is the
characteristics for IB2 = 0 in Fig. 1.55 (b).
When VB1B2 is 20 V, the level of V 1 might be around 15 V1 depending on the
resistance of rB1 and rB2. With VB1B2 = 20 V and VEBI = 0, the emitter junction is
reverse-biased and the emitter reverse current IEO flows as shown at point 1 on the
VB1B2 = 20 V characteristic in Fig. 1.55 (b).

Increasing VEBI until it equals V1 gives IE = 0. A further increase in VEBI biases the
emitter junction, and this gives the peak point on the characteristic. At the peak
point, VEBI is identified as the peak voltage (VP) and Ie is termed the peak current
(IP).

Until the peak point VP, the UJT is said to be operating in the cut off region of its
characteristics. When VEBI arrives at the peak voltage, charge carriers are injected
from the emitter to decrease the resistance of rB1.

The device enters the negative region, rB1 falls rapidly to a saturation resistance (rS),
and VEB1 falls to the valley voltage (VV). IE also increases to the valley current (IV)
at this time increase in IE causes the device to enter the saturation region, where the
sum of Vd and IE X VS.

TWO MARKS QUESTION AND ANSWERS

1. What is meant by valence electron?

The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom is called vallence electron.

2. Define forbidden energy gap.

The space between the valence band and conduction band is energy gap.

3. What are conductors?

Conductors are materials in which valence and conduction band overlap with each
other.

Example: Copper, Silver

4. What do you mean by insulator?

Insulator is a material in which the valence and conduction band are far away from
each other. The energy gap between the valence and conduction band is larger.

Example: Glass, Plastic

5. What is meant by semiconductor?

The material whose electrical property lies between that of conductors and
insulator is called semiconductor.
Example: Silicon, Germanium

6. Define mass-action law.

Under thermal equilibrium the product of free electron concentration and hole
concentration is constant regardless of the individual magnitude

7. Draw the Energy band diagram of conductors, semiconductors and Insulators.

8. Define intrinsic semiconductor.

The semiconductor in its purest form is called intrinsic semiconductor.

9. Define Extrinsic semiconductor.

If certain amount of impurity is added to intrinsic semiconductor then the resulting

semiconductors is called Extrinsic semiconductor.

10. What are the types of Extrinsic semiconductor.

i. P-type semiconductor

ii. N-type semiconductor.

11. What is P-type semiconductor?

The semiconductor which is obtained by adding pentavalent impurity atom to an

intrinsic semiconductor is called as P-type semiconductor.

Ex: Phosphorous, Antimony are pentavalent impurities

12. What is N-type semiconductor?

The semiconductor which is obtained by introducing trivalent impurity atom

(Gallium, Indium) is called N-type semiconductor.

13. Define doping.

The process of adding impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor is called doping. The

impurity is called dopant.

14. What is P-type semiconductor?

In P-type semiconductor, the majority charge carriers are holes and the minority
charge carriers are electrons.

15. What is N-type semiconductor?

In N-type semiconductor, the majority charge carriers are electrons and the
minority charge carriers are holes.

16. What is donor impurity?

Pentavalent impurity will donate the excess negative charge carriers (electrons)
and hence, n-type or pentavalent impurity is called as donor impurity.

17. Why P-type or trivalent impurity is called acceptor impurity?

P-type impurity creates holes which can accept electron. So, these impurities are
called acceptor impurities.

18. How PN diode is formed?

If a semiconductor is doped with P-type impurity on one half side and N-type
impurity on other half side, then the semiconductor is called PN diode.

19. Define biasing.

Biasing is defined as the application of any external voltage to an electronic

device.
20. What are the types of bias?

i. Forward bias

ii. Reverse bias

21. What is meant by forward bias?

The positive terminal of the battery is connected to P-type semiconductor and

negative terminal is connected to n-type semiconductor.

22. What is meant by reverse bias.

The positive terminal of the battery is connected to n-type and negative terminal is
connected to p-type semiconductor.

23. What is depletion region?

The region around the junction from which the mobile charge carriers (electrons
and holes) are depleted is called depletion region.

It is also called space charge region because this region has electrically bd charged
immobile ions.

24. Draw the V-I characteristics of PN diode.

25. What is barrier potential?

The oppositely charged ions in both sides of PN junction creates an electric

potential across the junction. This is called barrier potential.

26. Define reverse saturation current.

The current due to the minority carriers in reverse bias is called reverse saturation
current.

27. Define forward resistance.

The resistance offered by the p-n junction diode in forward biased condition is
called forward resistance.
28. What are the types of forward resistance?

i. Static or dc resistance

ii. Dynamic or ac resistance

29. Define reverse resistance.

Reverse resistance is defined as the resistance offered by the PN junction diode

under reverse bias condition.

30. Write the diode current equation.

31. What are the breakdown mechanisms in PN diode?

i. Avalanche breakdown

ii Zener breakdown
32. Define Fermilevel.

Fermilevel is defined as that energy level where the probability of occupation of

charged carrier is 50%.

33. Define dynamic resistance.

The dynamic or ac resistance is the reciprocal of the slope V-I characteristics of

diode.

34. Compare avalanche and Zener breakdown.

35. Define diffusion capacitances.

It is defined as the rate of change of injected charge with applied voltage.

36. What are the applications of PN diode?

i. Rectifier

ii. Switch

iii. Clippers

iv. Clampers

v. Detector

37. Define Zener effect.

Due to heavy doping, the electric field at the junction will be very high even at low
reverse voltage. The electrons in covalent bonds break away from the bonds. This
is called as Zener effect.

38. What is Zener diode?

A diode which exhibits Zener effect is called Zener diode.

39. What are the applications of Zener diode?

i. Voltage regulators

ii. Zener limiters

iii. Over-voltage protectors

40. Define rectifier.

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (ac) to direct

current (dc).
41. What are the types of rectifier?

i. Half-wave rectifier

ii. Full-wave rectifier

42. What is half-wave rectifier?

It converts an ac voltage into a dc voltage during one half of the ac cycle only.

43. What is full wave rectifier?

It converts an ac voltage into pulsating dc voltage during both half cycles of the
applied voltage.

44. Define Ripple factor.

The ratio of rms value of ac component to the dc component in the output is known
as ripple factor.

45. Define efficiency.

Efficiency is defined as the ratio of dc output power to ac input power.

46. Draw the input and output characteristics of a transistor in CE configuration

and mark the cutoff, saturation and active regions. (AUC May 2009)
47. State the advantage of Optocoupler. (AUC May 2009)

i. An optocoupler (or an optoelectronic coupler) is basically an interface between

two circuits which operate at different voltage levels. The key advantage of an
optiocoupler is the electrical isolation between the input and output circuits.

ii. They can replace relays and reed relays, giving much faster switching (2005
YEM speeds, no contact bounce, better reliability, and usually better
electrical isolation except for special configurations. However relays have high
current capability, higher output voltage, lower on resistance and offset voltage and
higher off resistance.

iii. They can replace pulse transformers in many floating applications. Opto-
isolators can transmit DC signal components and low frequency AC, whereas pulse
transformers couple only the high frequency components, (800 and a latch is
required to restore the DC information. Pulse transformers have faster rise time
than phototransistor optocouplers.
48. Name the operating modes of a transistor. (AUC Nov 2010)

i. Active region

ii. Cut-off region

iii. Saturation region

Active Region: It is defined in which transistor function is biased in reverse

direction and emitter function in forward direction.

Cutoff Region: The region in which the collector and emitter functions are both
reverse biased.

Saturation Region: The region in which both the collector and emitter functions are
forward biased.

49. Which of the BJT configuration is suitable for impedance matching

applications? Why? (AUC May 2007)

The common emitter configuration produces the highest current and power gain of
all the three bipolar transistor configurations. This is mainl;y because the input
impedance is LOW as it is connected to a forward biased PN-junction, while the
output impedance is HIGH as it is taken from a reverse biased PN- junction.

50. What is meant by thermal run away? (AUC May 2007)

The continuous increase in collector current due to poor-biasing causes the (110
temperature at collector terminal to increase. If no stabilization i.e., done, the
collector leakage current also increases. This further increases the temperature.
This action becomes cumulative and ultimately the transistor turns out. The self-
destruction of an unstabilized transistor is known as thermal runaway.
51. Why is necessary to stabilize the operating point of transistor? (AUC Nov
2005)

In order to keep the transistor operation in Active region, it is necessary to stabilize

the transistor. If not, the transistor may go out of active region. (Saturation or
cutoff region).

52. Derive the relationship between a and B. (AUC Dec 2008)

53. Draw and explain input and output characteristics of a transistor CB

configuration. (AUC May 2005)
54. What is pinch off voltage? (AUC Dec 2011)

It is the voltage at which the channel is pinched off, (i.e.,) all the free charges ls
from the channel get removed.

55. List the comparison between CB,CE,CC amplifiers. (AUC Dec 2007)
56. State the biasing conditions required for the three regions of operations of a
BJT. (AUC May 2004)

Two external voltage sources are used to establish the required bias conditions for
active-mode operation. The voltage VBE causes the p-type base to be higher in
potential than the n-type emitter, thus forward-biasing the emitter- base junction.
The collector-base voltage VCB causes the n-type collector to be higher in potential
than the p type base, thus reverse-biasing the collector-base junction.
57. Give any two differences between E-MOSFET and D-MOSFET. (AUC Dec
2011)

In E-MOSFEThas no conducting channel between two terminal, source terminal

and gateterminal. Whereas in the D-MOSFET has conducting channel between
these two terminal, source and gate.

58. Compare JFET with BJT. (AUC May 2010)

59. Define amplification factor in JFET. (AUC May 2010)

It is the product of drain resistance and transconductance μ = R d x gm

Rd - Drain resistance, gm – Transconductance

60. What are the special features of FET? (AUC Apr 2009)
i. Input impedance is very high. This allows high degree of isolation between the
input and output circuit.

ii. Current carriers are not crossing the junctions hence noise is highly reduced.

iii. It has a negative temperature co-efficient of resistance. This avoids the thermal
runaway.

61. Define: (a) Pinch off voltage and (b) Amplification factor in JFET. (AUC
Apr 2009)

It is the voltage at which the channel is pinched off, (i.e.,) all the free charges from
the channel get removed.

Amplification factor is the product of drain resistance and trans conductance.

Μ = Rd × gm

Rd - Drain resistance, gm – Transconductance

62. Why FET is called unipolar device? (AUC Dec 2004)

The operation of FET depends upon the flow of majority carriers only either

hour or electrons and hence FET is said to be unipolar device.

63. Define Rd gm and μ of JFET. (May 2005)

The change in the drain source voltage due to change in drain current with constant
VGS can be determined using the drain resistance rd
The change in the drain current due to change in gate to source voltage can be
determined using the transconductance factor gm

64. What do you understand by pinch off voltages and cutoff voltages? (AUC
May 2006)

It is the voltage at which the channel is pinched off, (i.e.,) all the free charges from
the channel get removed.

65. List the important features of FET. (AUC Dec 2004)

i. Input impedance is very high. This allows high degree of isolation between the
input and output circuit.

ii. Current carriers are not crossing the junctions hence noise is highly reduced.

iii. It has a negative temperature co-efficient of resistance. This avoids the thermal
runaway.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by donor impurity and acceptor impurity?

2. Draw the energy band diagram for conductors, semiconductors and insulators.

3. Explain in detail about extrinsic and intrinsic semiconductors.

4. Explain the construction and operation of PN diode in forward and reverse bias
conditions.
5. Draw the energy band diagram of a PN diode.

6. Sketch the V-I characteristics of the PN diode.

7. What is diffusion capacitance of a semiconductor diode? Explain.

8. Explain in detail about the current components in a PN diode.

9. Explain about transition and depletion capacitance in detail and derive its
expression.

10. Explain the breakdown mechanisms of a diode.

11. What are the applications of a diode?

12. Explain the construction and working of Zener diode.

13. How does a Zener diode operate as voltage regulator? Explain.

14. What do you mean by rectifier? How it is classified.

15. Explain the static and dynamic resistance of a diode under forward and reverse
bias.

16. Discuss briefly the temperature dependence characteristics of a PN diode.

17. How PN diode acts as rectifier? Explain.

18. Explain half wave rectifier in detail and derive its efficiency.

19. Discuss in detail the operation of full wave rectifier and derive its efficiency.

20. Compare Half wave, Full wave and Bridge rectifiers.

21. What is Zener effect? Explain the V-I characteristics of Zener diode.

22. Derive the PN diode current equation.

23. Draw the circuit for determining the transistor common base characteristics and
explain how the characteristics are measured and draw the graphs. (AUC DEC'11)
24. Explain the switching characteristics of transistor with neat sketch. (AUC
NOV'10)

25. Describe the static input and output characteristics of a CB transistor with
neat circuit diagram. (AUC NOV'10)

26. Draw and explain the input and Output characteristics of a BJT in CE
configuration. (AUC APRIL'09)

27. (i) What are the factors against which an amplifier needs to be stabilized? (ii)
Explain any one method of biasing a single stage BJT amplifier. (AUC MAY'04)

28. Explain the construction and working of enhanced MOSFET and depletion
MOSFET. Draw the characteristics. (AUC DEC'11)

29. Explain how the transconductance of a JFET varies with drain current and gate
voltage characteristics and transfer characteristics. (AUC MAY'10)

30. A JFET has the following parameters IDDS = 32 mA, VGS(off) = -8 Volts, VGS = -
4.5 Volts. Find the values of drain current. (AUC MAY'10)

31. (i) Explain the working of n-channel enhancement type MOSFET. Sketch
its typical characteristics. (AUC MAY'09)

(ii) Explain the application of FET as a voltage variable resistor. (AUC MAY'09)