1.

TYPES OF INSULATION USED ON ROTATING MACHINES, THEIR INSULATION LIFE, AND DETERIORATION CAUSES
1.1 Thermoplastic (asphalt-mica).- The useful life of a thermoplastic (asphalt- mica) insulation system is practically ended when the insulation has become brittle enough to develop cracks under the mechanical stresses to which it is subjected. A direct cause of embrittlement is operation at high temperatures; cracking results from mechanical stresses imposed upon conductors having brittle insulation. The mechanical stresses are caused by (a) short-circuit currents, (b) thermal expansion and contraction of the conductors, and (c) vibration. The dielectric strength of insulation is not significantly reduced by brittleness alone; however, electrical breakdown may quickly follow the development of ensuing cracks, especially when moisture and contaminants invade the system through the cracks. Another cause of failure in asphalt-mica windings is the migration of the asphalt compound when the coil operating temperature reaches the flow point of the asphalt. As the compound migrates, the space formerly occupied by the compound becomes a void, subject to localized interior corona deterioration and resultant failure. This type of deterioration is more predominant in the phase terminal end of the winding where the voltages to ground are high enough to produce corona discharges. Evidence of asphalt compound migration would be bulges in coil tape, usually at the lowest point in the coil. It has been known for coils to remain in service, without failure, for years even if all the asphalt compound had migrated. This is not a healthy condition, but the only remedies are reduced load or rewinding the generator. 1.2 Thermosetting (polyester-mica or epoxy-mica).-The useful life of thermosetting (polyester-mica or epoxy-mica) insulation systems has not yet been determined as they have not been in service long enough to determine the eventual effects of aging. To date, the main cause of failure of thermosetting insulation systems has been vibration due to looseness in the slots. Thermosetting insulation systems have proven to be especially prone to developing loose wedges and slot discharge because the "hard" nature of the insulation system does not mold itself to fit the slot as the old asphalt-mica system did. New installation methods, such as the use of spring type wedge fillers, are being used to control the tendency of thermosetting systems to become loose in the slots. It appears that proper installation techniques may solve this problem.

2. MECHANICAL LIMITATIONS
Large and high-voltage hydrogenerators built in accordance with ANSI C50.12- 1965 may be operated up to 115 percent load at rated power factor, frequency, and voltage, with the stator and rotor temperatures in excess of normal for these machines. Although this load level does not define the actual temperature rises, it does define the mechanical limit as the value on the machine at rated power factor and 115 percent kVA. For example, a generator with a rated power factor of 0.9 would actually be operating at 128 percent of the mechanical rating if it was loaded to 115 percent kVA and unity power factor. If it is intended to operate units with rated power factors less than unity at 115 percent kVA and unity power factor, the Denver Office should obtain the manufacturer's concurrence that the machine has this mechanical capability. For other unusual conditions such as short-time overloads, unbalanced load operation, harmonic current loadings, etc., the industry standards do not make any specific provisions. Additionally if persistent vibrations at some fixed frequency during operation should occur due to hydraulic forces, the resonant frequencies of rotating parts and associated components should be investigated because usually no allowance has been made for this condition in the original design. Each such case should again be discussed with the manufacturer to establish safe limits.

3. DAMAGE CAUSED BY EXPANSION OF COPPER

Temperature rise places stricter limits on loads than consideration of total temperature alone. Copper windings have a greater coefficient of expansion than the stator steel, and in addition, are usually at a higher temperature. Under widely fluctuating temperatures, portions of the coils move in the steel slots with which they are in contact and abrasion and cracking of the insulation may result. This movement is greater for machines with long slots than short slots, and increases with the temperature rise. Since the temperature rise varies approximately as the square of the load, it can be seen that a machine which must be overloaded should have its load maintained as constant as possible. This may be accomplished by holding constant load on the overloaded machine as much as possible, and carrying the fluctuating portion of the system load on other machines which are not overloaded. The rate of load increase on cold machines should be limited to not more than 10 percent of rated load per minute except in emergencies when it is essential to pick up load promptly, or when authorized otherwise by the Facilities Engineering Branch, Code D-5210, Denver Office. This restriction does not apply to decreasing load, nor to varying load on a warmed-up generator. Hydroelectric generators used for peaking power generation are sometimes loaded at the gate opening speed when peaking power is required on short notice. An example of the damage (tape separation) done to asphalt-mica insulated coils by excessive coil expansion and contraction is shown in figure 1.

4. LIMITING TEMPERATURES FOR INSULATION

The safe operating temperature of rotating machine windings is limited by the heat which the insulating material will stand without abnormal deterioration. This varies with different classes of insulating materials as shown in table 1. The hottest spot temperatures shown in the table have very little, if any, margin of safety for continuous operation. The IEEE Standard No. 492 indicates that the life of class B insulation is halved with each 10 C that the hottest spot temperature is above the limiting temperatures given in table 1 and a number of manufacturers believe that 8 C is a more realistic value. A curve of insulation life is shown in figure 2 for class B insulation. This curve is based on an assumed life of 30 years when operating continuously at the temperature shown. lnsulation life is affected by many other factors, such as cyclical loading duty, cleanliness, and rate of loading, so general conclusions on effect of temperature on insulation life are difficult to make. Table 1. - Limiting temperatures for insulating materials. (Note that these data apply to INSULATING MATERIALS and not to apparatus in which they are used.)

Limiting Insulation temperature Celcius Insulation class and description of material

By RTD or Hottest resistance spot

Class 0 - Consisting of cotton, silk, paper, and similar materials when neither impregnated nor immersed in an insulating liquid dielectric

85

90 105

Class A - Consisting of (1) cotton, silk, paper, and similar organic materials 100 when either impregnated or immersed in a liquid dielectric; (2) molded and laminated materials with cellulose filler, phenolic resins, and other resins of similar properties; (3) films and sheets of cellulose acetate and other cellulose derivatives of similar properties; and 4 varnishes (enamel) as applied to conductors.

Class B - Consisting of mica, asbestos, fiberglass, Dacron glass, and similar 120 inorganic materials in built-up form with organic or inorganic binding substances. A small proportion of class A materials may be used for structural purposes only. Fiberglass or asbestos magnet wire insulations are included in this temperature class. These may include supplemental organic materials such as polyvinyl acetal or polyamide films. Class F - Consisting of mica, asbestos, fiberglass, Dacron glass, and similar 140 inorganic materials, or combinations of these materials, suitably bonded with organic (varnishes or resins) or synthetic inorganic thermosetting resins of two types: epoxy mica and polyester mica A very small proportion of cotton, silk, paper, and similar organic materials may be used for structural purposes only. Class H - Consisting of (1) mica, asbestos, fiberglass, and similar inorganic 160 materials in built-up form with binding substances composed of silicone compounds, or materials with equivalent properties; (2) silicone compounds in rubbery or resinous forms, or materials with equivalent properties. A minute proportion of class A materials may be used only where essential for structural purposes during manufacture. Class C - Consisting entirely of mica, porcelain, glass quartz, and similar inorganic materials. Not Determined

130

155

180

Not Determined

CURVE BASED ON ASSUMED INSULATION LIFE OF 30 YEARS FOR CONTINUOUS OPERATION AT 100 C FOR CLASS B INSULATION, WHICH SHOWS LIFE TO BE EXPECTED IF OPERATED AT OTHER TEMPERATURES Figure 2. - Life of Generator Insulation

5. HOTTEST SPOT ALLOWANCE

Insulation deterioration at a given temperature is approximately proportional to the length of time that the temperature is above the limiting value. The hottest spot temperatures shown in table 1 are not directly measurable values in an actual machines and are, therefore, riot used in machine ratings. The usual methods for measuring winding temperatures are by embedded RTD's (resistance temperature detectors) or by measuring the winding resistance. The latter method is dated and is not used with newer machines; new machines have RTD's to measure the winding temperatures and RTD's are being phased in to replace the old temperature measuring methods as older machines are rewound or uprated. The measurable or "observable" temperature indicated by these devices will be less than the hottest spot temperature by an amount known as "temperature gradient" or "hottest spot allowance." The actual hottest spot allowance varies with machine design, and, therefore, the limiting temperature rise is not the same for all machines. The values of limiting observable temperature are shown in table 1. It should be noted that data in table 1 apply only to the insulating materials themselves and not to the equipment in which they are used. To provide a reasonable service life for insulation in equipment, the rated temperature rise should be used as the machine base allowable temperature.

6. LIMITING TEMPERATURE RISE

The observable temperature rise of each of the various parts of a rotating machine above the temperature of the cooling air should not exceed the values given in table 2 when the machine is operated at rated power factor, voltage, and kVA (hereafter called rated load). For open machines and for parts of enclosed machines which are cooled by open ventilation, such as collector rings, the cooling air temperature is the average temperature of the external air at the entrances to the ventilation opening of the machine. For totally enclosed machines, the cooling air temperature is the average temperature of the air leaving the coolers. In no event should cooling air temperature exceed 40 C. Machines whose observable temperature rise at rated load exceeds values given in table 2 should be considered to have a reduced operational capacity to correspond to a loading value which does not exceed temperature rise values given in the table. Table 2. - Limiting observable temperature rise of indirectly cooled and directly water-cooled salient pole synchronous generators and synchronous generator/motors for hydraulic turbine applications directly cooled machines manufactured after 1982

Item

Machine Part Temperature of cold coolant

Method of temperature determination Detector or thermometer (Note 1)

Water-cooled windings Class B insulation temperatures (C) 45 - 50 (Note 2) 55 - 50 (Note 2) 55 - 50 (Note 2) 85 - 80 (Notes 4

(1) Temperature rise of directly cooled armature windings

(2)

Coolant (Note 3)

(3)

Temperature rise of directly cooled field windings Temperature rise of cores and mechanical parts in contact with or adjacent to insulation

Resistance

(4)

Detector or thermometer

and 5) Temperature rise of collector rings (5) (6) Temperature of miscellaneous parts such as amortisseur windings, rotor surface, brush holders, brushes, etc., may attain such levels as will not injure the machine in any respect. Thermometer 85

Note 1. - The method of coolant temperature measurement shall be optional wfth the manufacturer unless otherwise agreed upon. Only one method of temperature measuremerd shall be required in any particular case. Note 2. - Cold coolant temperatures shall be provided within the range of 45 to 50 C, at the manufacturer's option, so long as compensating adjustments are made in the rise of the respective parts so that the sum of the cold coolant temperature and respective part rise does not exceed 100 C for water coolant. Note 3. - The temperature rise of the coolant at the outlet of the hottest coil shall be considered the observable temperature rise of the directly cooled armature winding. Note 4. - The temperature of the core and mechanical parts in contact with or adjacent to insulating material including that of the winding and of the core laminations shall not exceed the values in the table. The temperature of other metal parts, including structural members and shielding devices in the end region, is not required to be within the limiting temperature, provided that these parts do not appreciably influence the temperature of insulating material either by contact or radiation. These parts may be operated a temperatures which are considered safe for the particular metals used. Note 5. - The values shown for item 4 are limiting regardless of the operating power factor.

Table 2A. - Limiting observable temperature rise of indirectly cooled and directly water-cooled salient pole synchronous generators and synchronous generator/motors for hydraulic turbine applications indirectly cooled machines manufactured before 1982

Temperature rise (C) Item Machine Part Armature windings of machines 1500 kVA and above. Field windings of machines 1500 kVA and above. Method of temperature determination RTD
Class B F Class

(1)

60

80

(2)

Resistance

80

100

Collector rings (3) (4) Cores and mechanical parts in contact with or adjacent to insulation Thermometer Thermometer 65 55 (except motors) 70 (motors) 85 75 (except motors) 90 (motors)

(5)

Miscellaneous parts such as brush holders, brushes, etc.

May attain such temperature as will not injure the machine in any respect.

Table 2B. - Limiting observable temperature rise of indirectly cooled and directly water-cooled salient pole synchronous generators and synchronous generator/motors for hydraulic turbine applications indirectly cooled machines manufactured after 1982 Temperature rise (C) Item Machine Part Method of temperature determination
Class B F Class

(1)

Armature winding (a) 7000 V and less Embedded detector. (b) over 7000 V to 15 000 V, inclusive. Embedded detector. (c) over 15 000 V. Embedded detector. Field winding.

80 75 70 80 85 Not to exceed the value for the associated adjacent insulation.

100 90 85 100 85 Not to exceed the value for the associated adjacent insulation.

(2) Collector rings. (3) (4) Cores and mechanical parts in contact with or adjacent to insulation

Resistance. Thermometer. Thermometer or detector.

(5)

Miscellaneous parts (such as amortisseur windings, brush holders, brushes, etc.) may attain such temperatures as will not injure the machine in any respect.

Embedded detectors are located within the slot of the machine and can be either resistance elements or thermocouples.

 The temperature rise limits listed are for insulation system with thermosetting materials. For thermoplastic materials, the temperature rise limit shall be 70 C. When core temperatures are measured at the outside diameter of the core, the limiting temperature rise shall be 5 C less than the associated armature winding insulation limiting temperature rise.

7. OPERATION OF MACHINES UNDER WARRANTY

New, newly uprated, or newly rewound machines operating under the manufacturer's warranty should not be loaded above values specified by the Facilities Engineering Branch, Code D-5210, Denver Office. If the results of acceptance tests or the observation of station instruments should show that a machine will exceed the temperature rise limitations of the specifications, the machine should not be operated above these limitations until the contractor has had the opportunity to make the necessary corrections to the equipment. This is necessary to avoid nullifying contractual warranties on the equipment as well as to permit a period of close observation of performance of the new equipment to evaluate the desirability of allowing increased loading. After acceptance of the machine and analysis of heat runs, the Denver Office will prepare and issue capability curves for subsequent operational use (par. 20).

8. OPERATION UP TO RATED CAPACITY

Hydroelectric generators fall into the following five categories: a. Old machines that have not been rewound or uprated. b. Old machines that have been rewound. c. Old machines that have been uprated. d. New machines (post-1982). e. Machines under warranty (new, recently rewound or uprated, etc.). Unless special instructions for a particular machine state otherwise, machines in categories a. and b. above having class B or F insulation may be operated to 115 percent of the original determined rated load of the machine (or 115 percent of reduced operational capacity as discussed in paragraph 9) even though observable temperature rise values in table 2 are exceeded. ln no event shall loading exceed 115 percent of rated load except in unusual cases as discussed in paragraph 9, or unless the Denver Office has approved higher loads. Machines in categories c., d., and e. should not be operated above rated capacity except as described in paragraph 9, as uprated and new machines may not have overload capabilities. The loading limitations given above are primarily set to guarantee a mechanical safety factor adequately below the endurance limit for the machines and, therefore, the loading limit of a unit should not be raised on the basis of thermal and electrical capabilities alone. Specific recommendations on a machines loading capabilities can be requested from the Facilities Engineering Branch, Code D-5210, Denver Office.

9.SHORT-TIME AND EMERGENCY OVERLOADS

During short-time emergencies, loads of 115 percent of the normal loading limit are permissible at the discretion of the plant superintendent. If it appears necessary to exceed the temperature limits shown in table 2 for more than a few hours, the Facilities Engineering Branch, Code D-5210, Denver Office, should be consulted. In extreme emergencies where lack of generation might cause a system breakup, it may be necessary to overload machines briefly in excess of 115 percent of the loading limit and/or maximum temperature permitted in table 2, but if and when this is done, a sacrifice in insulation life must be expected and the risk of mechanical damage to the machine must be considered. If it is anticipated that the emergency overload must be continued for 1 or more days, temporary supplemental cooling, as discussed in paragraph 13 should be installed

10. LOAD LIMITATIONS OF ASSOCIATED EQUIPMENT

It is important that overloads should not be carried on rotating machines without an investigation of the limitations of associated equipment. Equipment such as cables, buses, reactors, circuit breakers, disconnecting switches, current transformers, and power transformers should be checked. Any one of these may constitute the practical limit in load carrying ability of the unit. On the machine itself, auxiliary equipment such as exciters or rheostats should be checked. The exciter should have sufficient margin while carrying the overload to take care of small fluctuations in load and voltage that may occur with minor system disturbances. In some cases it may be possible to ease the burden on the exciters of the machine being overloaded by transferring reactive kVA to other units of the same system.

11. COOLING WATER

If the mechanical limits of a machine are not exceeded, the overload capacity of air-cooled machines with water cooled air coolers can be increased in some cases by increasing the flow of cooling water so as to not exceed the temperature limits in table 2. This is particularly true where cold cooling water is available. It should be emphasized that in addition to limiting the total temperature, the temperature rise should be held within indicated limits. In a nonoverload condition for class B insulation if the limiting stator temperature rise is 60 C, and the limiting total temperature is 100 C, the difference between the temperature of the stator and the air leaving the cooler should not be more than 60 C even though it may be possible to hold the total stator temperature to less than 100 C by increasing the flow or reducing the temperature of the cooling water.

12. COOLING WATER REGULATION

As stated earlier, winding insulation life (a) is shortened by high temperature, and (b) is subject to mechanical damage by temperature cycling. Unfortunately, these facts place conflicting demands on any cooling system which is designed to lengthen the insulation service life, since, if maximum cooling of insulation, the possibility of mechanical damage due to temperature cycling under varying load is increased; likewise, if temperature cycling is to be minimized, the insulation temperature must be held constant at a relatively high value. Therefore, there are presently in use two methods for controlling cooling water, each of which operates to lengthen insulation service life by controlling one (but not both) of the above conflicting requirements a and b. as follows: a. In cooling systems not provided with automatic regulation of water flow, the cooling water should be adjusted to produce minimum cooling air temperature without exceeding temperature rise limits in table 2 when the machine is carrying the maximum expected load. This flow should be constant for all other loads in order to maintain minimum insolation temperature at all times.

However, winding temperatures should always be held above 10 C. Where cold cooling water is used, it is important to watch for condensation on the piping and cooler surfaces within the generator and see that water is not being carried into the windings, causing rust or corrosion of metal parts. The amount of cooling water may have to be reduced to prevent condensation, or mixed with the warmer discharge water through a bypass connection to raise its temperature. b. On some units, an automatic cooling water flow control system has been installed to reduce the range of temperature from no load to full load. On these units, the cooling water temperature is varied by mixing warm discharge water with fresh cool water as required to minimize temperature variations

13. SUPPLEMENTAL COOLING

For air/water-cooled units, when not limited by the mechanical capability, the capacity may be increased by using colder water, or by increasing the quantity of water circulated through the coolers. Open-type units depend on the surrounding air for the removal of heat. By increasing the circulation of the air, or by cooling the air in some manner, the capacity of open-type machines can be increased, but the temperature rise limitations of table 2 must be kept in mind. Ventilating fans may be used to direct air toward the machine. Advantage should be taken of the windows and doors to admit outside air. In several instances, cooling has been improved by building a duct to bring outdoor air directly into the turbine pit and eliminating the possibility of warm air exhausted from the generator being recirculated into the machine. If artificial cooling of the air is attempted, care should be taken to prevent moisture or dusty air from being drawn into the generator.

16. CHANGING VOLTAGE TO REDUCE TEMPERATURE

Some reduction in operating temperature is sometimes possible, particularly on synchronous motors, without reducing the load, by changing the operating voltage. Stator iron losses and temperatures increase with increased applied voltage, and vice versa. Copper losses and temperature are proportional to the square of the stator current. If the stator laminations run cool and the coils comparatively hot, an increase in the stator voltage by changing transformer taps will decrease the copper temperature and increase the iron temperature, without a change in output. The minimum stator winding temperature for any kW load will be obtained at 100 percent power factor.

17. LOAD TEMPERATURE TESTS

For all types of machines, an indication of the amount of overload which can be carried can be determined from the mechanical limits and a series of temperature tests. A prediction can be made from the results of a single temperature run by computing the temperature rise as outlined in paragraph 19. More accurate indications are obtained by making temperature rise test runs at 50, 75, and 100 percent load. However, the best plan is to make a temperature test at the actual overload which the machine is desired to carry. The voltage and power factor should be held constant for all runs so that the internal voltage and core loss will be about the same. The switchboard instruments should be supplemented with accurately calibrated instruments during the overloading of the machine. Each load temperature test should be run with constant load, excitation, cooling water, etc., until the temperature rise above ambient air temperature reaches a constant value, and readings should be taken at 30-minute intervals for several hours after conditions become stabilized. Specific test procedures may be obtained from the Facilities Engineering Branch, Code D-5210, Denver Office. A curve of generator amperes versus stator temperature rise plotted from the test data may be of value for future reference.

18. MEASURING STATOR TEMPERATURE

The temperature of the stator coils should be taken as the highest reading obtained where embedded RTDs are provided for measuring the stator temperature and a temperature check should be made by placing a few thermocouples on the stator iron (core). Where no embedded RTDs are installed, it is desirable to use a number of thermocouples for measuring the stator temperature; the thermocouples should be placed on the hottest parts of the stator steel, well protected from the airstream, and the highest thermocouple readings should be used. The thermocouples may be held against the surface with the use of duct seal. Precautions should be taken if thermocouples are used to measure end turn temperatures as the end turn coils could be charged to nearly the turn-to-ground voltage during machine operation. Specific test procedures may be obtained from the Denver Office.

19. MEASURING FIELD TEMPERATURE

The field temperature for both static or rotating excitation systems shall be determined by the resistance method from field voltage and current readings while the machine is carrying the load for which the data are desired. Specific test procedures may be obtained from the Denver Office. An accurate voltmeter and ammeter should be used. "The field voltage should be measured at the collector rings by pilot brushes. If no pilot brushes are provided, one of the main brushes on each ring can be disconnected and insulated from the brush holder by a layer of paper and used as temporary pilot brushes. The field winding temperature can be found from the following formula: T2 = (R2/R1) (234.5 +Tl) -234.5 where: T2 = temperature (C) corresponding to final resistance R2 T1 = temperature (C) corresponding to initial resistance R1 R2 = field volts/field amperes The field resistance R1 at temperature T1 is usually given on the generator manufacturer's test report. If these data are not available, the resistance should be measured after the machine has been shut down for at least 12 hours with constant ambient temperature and using ambient temperature for T1. The data obtained from the field temperature tests can be used for making up curves as shown in figure 3b for future use in determining field temperature from the readings of field volts and amperes. These curves will be particularly valuable if the field temperature is the limiting factor in overloading the generator. While making the field temperature test, the readings of the accurate voltmeter and ammeter used should be compared with the switchboard voltmeter and ammeter and the latter should be corrected if necessary. It is important that the field voltages be measured at the collector rings. If pilot brushes are not provided, an allowance for brush drop can be made as found from comparison of the voltage measured on the main brushes and temporary pilot brushes. The temperature-resistance curve, figure 3a, is a straight line and can be plotted through any two points of resistance and corresponding temperature, such as R1, T1, and R2, T2 used in the above formula. The curves in figure 3b should be plotted in the range of about 80 to 130 percent of full load field amperes and the corresponding voltage, so as to obtain a broad spread in the temperature scale. Field temperature readings are not considered important unless they are near the

limiting temperature. Each curve in figure 3b is a straight line plotted between two values of voltage and its corresponding current giving the same value of resistance. That is, R = E1/I1 = E2/I2 The value of R is first found from figure 3a for each value of temperature for which a curve is to be made.

Figure 3. Typical field resistance temperature curves.

20. COMPUTING STATOR WINDING TEMPERATURE RISE

At times it is difficult or inconvenient to measure stator winding temperature rise by tests at all desired loadings; therefore, a method of computing temperature rise, TR, from available temperature test data is outlined below: The basic equation to be used is: TR = Cl C2 (kVA)2 This equation has two unknowns, Cl and C2, and test data are required from two heat runs to find these unknown values. By substituting TR l and kVAl in equation for heat run No. 1 and TR 2 and kVA2 for heat run No. 2 and subtracting one equation from the other, C2 can be found. Substituting C2 back into either equation gives a value for Cl . The constant Cl represents stator winding temperature rise for no-load

losses. If it is more convenient, or if data are already available, stator winding temperature rise attained during a no-load, rated voltage heat run may be used for Cl . After Cl and C2 are known, the stator winding temperature rise, TR, for other desired loading conditions may be calculated

21. GENERATOR CAPABILITY CURVES

Capability curves for large rotating machines are required to establish safe operational limits. These curves are required for inclusion in the Standing Operating Procedures (SOP) of the facilities involved. They are prepared upon request to the Facilities Engineering Branch, Code D-5210, Denver Office. 21.1. Overexcited (boosting voltage). A capability curve is defined as a curve which shows the boundaries of the area on the kilowatt-kilovar diagram within which a machine may be operated continuously. Capability curves are furnished for each installation which show kVA capability throughout the expected range of operation and which include the range of permissible operating voltages. One such curve sheet for a generator rated 65 789 kVA, 13 800 volts, and 95 percent power factor is shown in figure 4. The highest operating voltage is limited to 105 percent of rated terminal voltage in order to meet the voltage limitation requirements of the Standards for Synchronous Generators. The capability curves for machines in categories a and b in paragraph 7 not operating under manufacturer's warranty will normally show limitations for 115 percent of nameplate ratings. The limitations for new machines (post 1982) will normally be the nameplate rating. For uprated generators, the kilowatt rating rather than the kVA rating is set at a maximum fixed value which should not be exceeded. The capability curve will be based on a constant kilowatt load. 21.2. Underexcited (bucking voltage). Generator capability when operating underexcited is limited by the permissible armature current and the steady-state stability limit of the machine. A capability curve sheet for underexcited operation is shown in figure 5. The steady-state stability limit is a function of the generator reactances, the external system reactance, and the generator terminal voltage. As the kilovar load is increased at zero-kilowatt load, the generator will eventually become unstable and start to slip poles. The kVA and armature current at this point are above rated values so that continuous operation near this point is out of the question because of armature heating. Most modern generators may be operated continuously at zero field current and rated voltage except for a few machines with special electrical characteristics such that stator heating becomes a problem. Modern, continuously acting voltage regulators are equipped with underexcited reactive ampere limiters which permit machine operation at the underexcited capability determined by thermal limitations without danger of the machine becoming unstable. These limiters respond to underexcited reactive stator current and to terminal voltage. As a part of the regulating function, the limiters automatically hold the underexcited reactive amperes at lower values as the kilowatt load on the machine is increased. The limiter settings are adjustable so that their operating characteristics may be coordinated with the thermal capability curve and the steady state stability curve. The Facilities Engineering Branch, Code D-5210, Denver Office, should be consulted when any operating problems arise concerning underexcited operating capability either under load or strictly as a synchronous condenser. Additional underexcited synchronous condenser capacity is sometimes made available by operating with negative field current under automatic control of the voltage regulators. However, any changes in limiter settings to accommodate this operation must be coordinated with machine thermal limitations and with the settings of the loss of excitation relays.

Figure 4. Generator capability curve (overexcited operation)

Figure 5. Generator capability curve (underexcited operation)