FACILITIES INSTRUCTIONS, STANDARDS,

AND TECHNIQUES
Volume 1-4

PERMISSIBLE LOADING OF
GENERATORS AND LARGE MOTORS

Internet Version of This Manual Created

July 2000

The appearance of the Internet Version of This Manual

May Differ From the Original, but the Contents Do Not

FACILITIES ENGINEERING BRANCH

DENVER OFFICE
DENVER, COLORADO

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

BUREAU OF RECLAMATION
REVISED MARCH 1991

Purpose and Scope

This volume is intended to fill the need for practical information concerning the temperature and mechanical
and electrical overload limits of rotating electric equipment such as generators and large motors. Rotating
electrical equipment cannot be overloaded on the same basis as transformers and is not as able to stand
short-time overloads. This is largely because equipment cooled by air does not have the heat transfer ability
which the higher thermal conductivity of insulating oil gives to transformers; also, the windings in rotating
equipment are confined in slots in the steel and are subject to temperature expansion problems. For any
abnormal loading of generators, the electrical, mechanical, and thermal characteristics must be evaluated to
determine the machines limitations. Machines should not be loaded beyond the manufacturer's defined
overload capability unless a complete study of the unit has been made to define safe limits. Additional tests
might have to be conducted to substantiate the possibilities for higher-than-rated loadings.

CONTENTS
Paragraph
1.

Page

Types of insulation used on rotating machines, their insulation life,

and deterioration causes .............................. .....................................................1

1.1 Thermoplastic (asphalt-mica) ...1

1.2 Thermosetting (polyester-mica or epoxy-mica) .....1

2.

Mechanical limitations .......................................................................................1

3.

Damage caused by expansion of copper ...2

4.

Limiting temperatures for insulation ....2

5.

Hottest spot allowance ...3

6.

Limiting temperature rise ..3

7.

Operation of machines under warranty ..3

8.

Operation up to rated capacity ....3

9.

Short-time and emergency overloads........7

10.

Load limitations of associated equipment ...........8

11.

Cooling water .........................................................................................8

12.

Cooling water regulation....8

13. Supplemental cooling ........9

14.

Keeping machines clean ......9

15.

Temperature of old machines ......9

16.

Changing voltage to reduce temperature......10

17.

Load temperature tests .......10

18.

Measuring stator temperature ....10

19.

Measuring field temperature ......10

20.

Computing stator winding temperature rise ........11

21.

Generator capability curves .......11

21.1 0verexcited (boosting voltage) .......13

21.2 Underexcited (bucking voltage) ..13

22. References ................................................................................................16

1.

TYPES OF INSULATION USED ON

ROTATING MACHINES, THEIR

1.1 Thermoplastic (asphalt-mica).-The useful life

of a thermoplastic (asphalt-mica) insulation system
is practically ended when the insulation has become
brittle enough to develop cracks under the
mechanical stresses to which it is subjected. A direct
cause of embrittlement is operation at high
temperatures; cracking results from mechanical
stresses imposed upon conductors having brittle
insulation. The mechanical stresses are caused by
(a) short-circuit currents, (b) thermal expansion and
contraction of the conductors, and (c) vibration. The
dielectric strength of insulation is not significantly
reduced by brittleness alone; however, electrical
breakdown may quickly follow the development of
ensuing cracks, especially when moisture and
contaminants invade the system through the cracks.
Another cause of failure in asphalt-mica windings is
the migration of the asphalt compound when the coil
operating temperature reaches the flow point of the
asphalt. As the compound migrates, the space
formerly occupied by the compound becomes a
void, subject to localized interior corona
deterioration and resultant failure. This type of
deterioration is more predominant in the phase
terminal end of the winding where the voltages to
ground are high enough to produce corona
discharges. Evidence of asphalt compound
migration would be bulges in coil tape, usually at the
lowest point in the coil. It has been known for coils to
remain in service, without failure, for years even if
all the asphalt compound had migrated. This is not
a healthy condition, but the only remedies are
reduced load or rewinding the generator.
1.2 Thermosetting (polyester-mica or epoxymica).-The useful life of thermosetting (polyestermica or epoxy-mica) insulation systems has not yet
been determined as they have not been in service
long enough to determine the eventual effects of
aging. To date, the main cause of failure of
thermosetting insulation systems has been

vibration due to looseness in slots. Thermosetting

insulation systems have proven to be especially
prone to developing loose wedges and slot
discharge because the "hard" nature of the insulation
system does not mold itself to fit the slot as the old
asphalt-mica system did.
New installation methods, such as the use of spring
type wedge fillers, are being used to control the
tendency of thermosetting systems to become loose
in the slots. It appears that proper installation
techniques may solve this problem.
2. MECHANICAL LIMITATIONS
Large and high-voltage hydrogenerators built in
accordance with ANSI C50.12- 1965 may be operated
up to 115 percent load at rated power factor,
frequency, and voltage, with the stator and rotor
temperatures in excess of normal for these machines.
Although this load level does not define the actual
temperature rises, it does define the mechanical limit
as the value on the machine at rated power factor and
115 percent kVA. For example, a generator with a
rated power factor of 0.9 would actually be operating
at 128 percent of the mechanical rating if it was
loaded to 115 percent kVA and unity power factor. If
it is intended to operate units with rated power factors
less than unity at 115 percent kVA and unity power
factor, the Denver Office should obtain the
manufacturer's concurrence that the machine has this
mechanical capability.
For other unusual conditions such as short-time
overloads, unbalanced load operation, harmonic
current loadings, etc., industry standards do not make
any specific provisions. Additionally if persistent
vibrations at some fixed frequency during operation
should occur due to hydraulic forces, the resonant
frequencies of rotating parts and associated
components should be investigated because usually
no allowance has been made for this condition in the
original design. Each such case should again be
discussed with the manufacturer to establish safe
limits.

(FIST 1-4 3/91)

warmed-up generator. Hydroelectric generators

used for peaking power generation are sometimes
loaded at the gate opening speed when peaking
power is required on short notice. An example of
the damage (tape separation) done to asphalt-mica
insulated coils by excessive coil expansion and
contraction is shown in figure 1.

3. DAMAGE CAUSED BY EXPANSION OF

COPPER
Temperature rise places stricter limits on loads
than consideration of total temperature alone,
Copper windings have a greater coefficient of
expansion than stator steel, and in addition, are
usually at a higher temperature. Under widely
fluctuating temperatures, portions of the coils
move in the steel slots with which they are in
contact and abrasion and cracking of insulation
may result. This movement is greater for machines
with long slots than short slots, and increases with
temperature rise. Since temperature rise varies
approximately as the square of the load, it can be
seen that a machine which must be overloaded
should have its load maintained as constant as
possible. This may be accomplished by holding
constant load on the overloaded machine as much
as possible, and carrying the fluctuating portion of
the system load on other machines which are not
overIoaded. The rate of load increase on cold
machines should be limited to not more than 10
percent of rated load per minute except in
emergencies when it is essential to pick up load
promptly. This restriction does not apply to
decreasing load, nor to varying load on a

4. LIMITING TEMPERATURES FOR

INSULATION
The safe operating temperature of rotating
machine windings is limited by the heat which
insulating material will stand without abnormal
deterioration. This varies with different classes of
insulating materials as shown in table 1. The
hottest spot temperatures shown in the table have
very little, if any, margin of safety for continuous
operation. The IEEE Standard No. 492 indicates
that life of class B insulation is halved with each 10
C that the hottest spot temperature is above the
limiting temperatures given in table 1 and a
number of manufacturers believe that 8C is a
more realistic value. A curve ofinsulation life is
shown in figure 2 for class B insulation. This curve
is based on an assumed life of 30 years when
operating continuously at the temperature shown.

Figure 1. - Example of stator end turn insulation cracking due to coil expansion and contraction.
Photo 3-5828

(FIST 1-4 3/91)

Insulation life is affected by many other factors, such

as cyclical loading duty, cleanliness, and rate of
loading. so general conclusions on effect of
temperature on insulation life are difficult to make.

5. HOTTEST SPOT ALLOWANCE

Insulation deterioration at a given temperature is
approximately proportional to the length of time that
the temperature is above the limiting value. Hottest
spot temperatures shown in table 1 are not directly
measurable values in actual machines and are,
therefore, not used in machine ratings. Usual
methods for measuring winding temperatures are
embedded RTD's (resistance temperature detectors)
or by measuring the winding resistance. The latter
method is dated and is not used with newer
machines; new machines have RTD's to measure
winding temperatures and RTD's are being phased
in to replace old temperature measuring methods as
older machines are rewound or uprated. The
measurable or observable" temperature indicated
by these devices will be less than the hottest spot
temperature by an amount known as "temperature
gradient" or "hottest spot allowance.' The actual
hottest spot allowance varies with machine design,
and, therefore, the limiting temperature rise is not
the same for all machines. Values of limiting
observable temperature are shown in table 1. It
should be noted that data in table 1 apply only to
insulating materials themselves and not to
equipment in which they are used. To provide a
reasonable service life for insulation in equipment,
rated temperature rise should be used as the
machine base allowable temperature.
6. LIMITING TEMPERATURE RISE

load). For open machines and for parts of enclosed

machines which are cooled by open ventilation, such
as collector rings, cooling air temperature is the
average temperature of the external air at entrances
to the ventilation opening of the machine. For totally
enclosed machines, cooling air temperature is the
average temperature of air leaving the coolers. In no
event should cooling air temperature exceed 40 C.
Machines whose observable temperature rise at
rated load exceeds values given in table 2 should be
considered to have a reduced operational capacity
to correspond to a loading value which does not
exceed temperature rise values given in the table.
7. OPERATION OF MACHINES UNDER
WARRANTY
New, newly uprated, or newly rewound machines
operating under the manufacturer's warranty should
not be loaded above design values. If the results of
acceptance tests or the observation of station
instruments should show that a machine will exceed
temperature rise limitations of specifications, the
machine should not be operated above these
limitations until the contractor has had the
opportunity to make the necessary corrections to the
equipment. This is necessary to avoid nullifying
contractual warranties on equipment as well as to
permit a period of close observation of performance
of new equipment to evaluate the desirability of
allowing increased loading. After acceptance of the
machine and analysis of heat runs, the Denver
Office will prepare and issue capability curves for
subsequent operational use (par.20).
8. OPERATION UP TO RATED CAPACITY
Hydroelectric generators fail into the following of
the five categories:

Observable temperature rise of each of the various

parts of a rotating machine above the temperature of
the cooling air should not exceed values given in
table 2 when the machine is operated at rated power
factor, voltage, and kVA (hereafter called rated

a. Old machines that have not been rewound or

uprated.
b. Old machines that have been rewound.

(FIST 1-4 3/91)

Table 1. - Limiting temperatures for insulating materials. (Note that these data apply to
INSULATING MATERIALS and not to apparatus in which they are used.)
Limiting insulation
temperature o Celsius
By RTD or Hottest
resistance spot

Insulation class and description of material

Class O - Consisting of cotton, silk, paper, and similar materials when

neither impregnated nor immersed in an insulating liquid dielectric
Class A- Consisting of (1) cotton, silk, paper, and similar organic
materials when either impregnated or immersed in a liquid dielectric;
(2) molded and laminated materials with cellulose filler, phenolic resins,
and other resins of similar properties; (3) films and sheets of cellulose
acetate and other cellulose derivatives of similar properties; and
4 varnishes (enamel as applied to conductors
Class B - Consisting of mica, asbestos, fiberglass, dacron glass, and
similar inorganic materials in built-up form with organic or inorganic
binding substances. A small proportion of class A materials may be
used for structural purposes only. Fiberglass or asbestos magnet wire
insulations are included in this temperature class. These may include
supplemental organic materials such as polyvinyl acetyl or polyamide
films.
Class F - Consisting of mica, asbestos, fiberglass, dacron glass, and
similar inorganic materials, or combinations of these materials, suitably
bonded with organic (varnishes or resins) or synthetic inorganic thermosetting resins of two types: epoxy mica and polyester mica. A very small
proportion of cotton, silk, paper, and similar organic materials may be
used for structural purposes only.
Class H - Consisting of (1) mica, asbestos, fiberglass, and similar
inorganic materials in built-up form with binding substances composed
of silicone compounds, or materials with equivalent properties;
2 silicone compounds in rubbery or resinous forms, or materials with
equivalent properties. A minute proportion of class A materials may be
used only where essential for structural purposes during manufacture.
Class C - Consisting entirely of mica, porcelain, glass quartz, and similar
inorganic materials,

c.

Old machines that have been uprated,

d. New machines (post-1982).

e. Machines under warranty (new, recently
rewound or uprated, etc.),
Unless special instructions for a particular
machine state otherwise, machines in categories
a. and b. above having class B or F insulation
may be operated to 115 percent of the original

85

90

100

105

120

130

140

155

160

180

Not
determined

rated load of the machine (or 115 percent of

reduced operational capacity as discussed in
paragraph 9) even though observable
temperature rise values in table 2 are exceeded.
In no event shall loading exceed 115 percent of
rated load except in unusual cases as discussed
in paragraph 9, or unless the Denver Office has
approved higher loads.
Machines in categories c., d., and e. on page 4
should not be operated above rated capacity

(FIST 1-4 3/91)

except as described in paragraph 9, as uprated

and new machines may not have overload
capabilities.

machines and, therefore, the loading limit of a unit

should not be raised on the basis of thermal and
electrical capabilities alone.

The loading limitations given above are primarily

set to guarantee a mechanical safety factor
adequately below the endurance limit for the

Specific recommendations on a machines loading

capabilities can be requested from the Code D8440, Denver Office.

Figure 2. - Life of generator insulation.

(FIST 1-1 3/91)

Table 2A. - Limiting observable temperature rise of indirectly cooled and directly water-cooled salient pole
synchronous generators and synchronous generator/motors for hydraulic turbine applications - indirectly
cooled machines manufactured before 1982

Item

Method of
Temperature
determination

Machine part

Temperature rise(C)
Class B
Class F

(1)

Armature windings of machines 1500 kVs A

and above.

RTD

60

80

(2)

Field windings of machines 1500 kVs A and

above.

Resistance.

80

100

(3)

Collector rings

Thermometer.

65

85

(4)

Cores and mechanical parts in contact with

or adjacent to insulation

Thermometer.

(5)

Miscellaneous parts such as brushholders,

brushes, etc.

May attain such temperature as will not

injure the machine in any respect.

55
(except
motors)
70
(motors)

75
(except
motors)
90
(motors)

Table 2B. - Limiting observable temperature rise of indirectly cooled and directly water-cooled salient pole
synchronous generators and synchronous generator/motors for hydraulic turbine applications - indirectly
cooled machines manufactured after 1982

Item

Machine part
Armature winding1+
(a) 7000 V and less
(b) over 7000 V to 15 000 V
inclusive.
(c) over 15 000 V
Field winding.
Collector rings.
Cores and mechanical parts in contact
with or adjacent to insulation

(1)

Method of
Temperature
determination
Embedded detector.*
Embedded detector.*

Temperature rise (C)

Class B Class F

80
75

100
90

70
85
80
100
85
85
Not to exceed the value
for the associated
adjacent insulation.**
Miscellaneous parts (such as amortisseur windings, brush holders, brushes, etc.) may attain
such temperatures as will not injure the machine in any respect.

(2)
(3)
(4)

(5)

*
+

**

Embedded detector.*
Resistance.
Thermometer.
Thermometer
or detector,

Embedded detectors are located within the slot of the machine and can be either resistance elements or
thermocouples.
The temperature rise limits listed are for insulation system with thermosetting materials. For thermoplastic
materials, the
temperature rise limit shell be 70 C.
When core temperatures are measured at the outside diameter of the core, the limiting temperature rise shall
be 5 C less than the associated armature winding insulation limiting temperature rise.

(FIST 1-4 3/91)

Table 2. - Limiting observable temperature rise of indirectly cooled and directly water-cooled salient pole
synchronous generators and synchronous generator/motors for hydraulic turbine applications - directly
cooled machines manufactured after 1982

Item

(1)

Method of
temperature
determination

Machine part

Temperature of cold coolant

(2)

Temperature rise of directly cooled

armature windings

(3)

Temperature rise of directly cooled

field windings.

(4)

Temperature rise of cores and

mechanical parts in contact
with or adjacent to insulation

(5)

Temperature rise of collector rings.

Detector or thermometer.
(Note 1)
Coolant
(Note 3)
Resistance.

Detector or thermometer.

Thermometer.

Water-cooled windings
Class B insulation
temperatures (C)
45 - 50
(Note 2)
55 -50
(Note 2)
55 - 50
(Note 2)
85 -80
(Notes 4
and 5)
85

(6)
Temperature of miscellaneous parts such as amortisseur windings, rotor surface, brush holders,
brushes, etc., may attain such levels as will not injure the machine in any respect.

Note 1. - The method of coolant temperature measurement shell be optional with the manufacturer
unless otherwise agreed upon. Only one method of temperature measurement shall be required in any
particular case.
Note 2. - Cold coolant temperatures shall be provided within the range of 45 to 50 C, at the
manufacturer's option, so long as compensating adjustments are made in the rise of the respective parts
so that the sum of the cold coolant temperature and respective part rise does not exceed 100 C for water
coolant.
Note 3. - Temperature rise of coolant at the outlet of the hottest coil shall be considered the observable
temperature rise of the directly cooled armature winding.
Note 4. - Temperature of the core and mechanical parts in contact with or adjacent to insulating material including that of the winding and of core laminations shall not exceed the values in the table.
Temperature of other metal parts, including structural members and shielding devices in the end region, is
not required to be within the limiting temperature, provided that these parts do not appreciably influence
the temperature of insulating material either by contact or radiation. These parts may be operated at
temperatures which are considered safe for the particular metals used.
Note 5. - The values shown for item 4 are limiting regardless of the operating power factor.
9. SHORT-TIME AND EMERGENCY
OVERLOADS
During short-time emergencies, loads of 115
percent of the normal loading limit are permissible
at the discretion of the plant superintendent.

In extreme emergencies where lack of generation

might cause a system breakup, it may be
necessary to overload machines briefly in excess
of 115 percent of the loading limit and/or

(FIST 1-4 3/91)

maximum temperature permitted in table 2, but if

and when this is done, a sacrifice in insulation life
must be expected and the risk of mechanical
damage to the machine must be considered.
If it is anticipated that the emergency overload
must be continued for 1 or more days, temporary
supplemental cooling, as discussed in paragraph
13 should be installed.
10. LOAD LIMITATIONS OF ASSOCIATED
EQUIPMENT
It is important that overloads should not be carried
on rotating machines without an investigation of
the limitations of associated equipment. Equipment
such as cables, buses, reactors, circuit breakers,
disconnecting switches, current transformers, and
power transformers should be checked. Any one of
these may constitute the practical limit in load
carrying ability of the unit. On the machine itself,
auxiliary equipment such as exciters or rheostats
should be checked. The exciter should have
sufficient margin while carrying the overload to
take care of small fluctuations in load and voltage
that may occur with minor system disturbances. In
some cases it may be possible to ease the burden
on the exciters of the machine being overloaded by
transferring reactive kVA to other units of the same
system.
11. COOLING WATER
If the mechanical limits of a machine are not
exceeded, overload capacity of air-cooled
machines with water cooled air coolers can be
increased in some cases by increasing flow of
cooling water so as to not exceed temperature
limits in table 2. This is particularly true where cold
cooling water is
available. It should be
emphasized that in addition to limiting the total
temperature, temperature rise should be held
within indicated limits. In a non-overload condition
for class B insulation, if the limiting stator
temperature rise is 60 C, and the limiting total
temperature is 100 C, the difference between the
temperature of the stator and the air leaving the
cooler should not be more than 60 C even though
it may be possible to hold the total stator
temperature to less than 100 C by increasing flow
or reducing the temperature of cooling water.

(FIST 1-4 3/91)

12. COOLING WATER REGULATION

As stated earlier, winding insulation life (a) is
shortened by high temperature, and (b) is subject
to mechanical damage by temperature cycling.
Unfortunately, these facts place conflicting
demands on any cooling system which is
designed to lengthen the insulation service life,
since, if maximum cooling of insulation, the
possibility of mechanical damage due to
temperature cycling under varying load is
increased; likewise, if temperature cycling is to be
minimized, the insulation temperature must be
held constant at a relatively high value.
Therefore, there are presently in use two methods
for controlling cooling water, each of which
operates to lengthen insulation service life by
controlling one (but not both) of the above
conflicting requirements a. and b. as follows:
a. In cooling systems not provided with
automatic regulation of water flow, the
cooling water should be adjusted to produce
minimum cooling air temperature without
exceeding temperature rise limits in table 2
when the machine is carrying the maximum
expected load. This flow should be constant
for all other loads in order to maintain
minimum insulation temperature at all times.
However, winding temperatures should
always be held above
10 C.
Where cold cooling water is used, it is
important to watch for condensation on
piping and cooler surfaces within the
generator and see that water is not being
carried into the windings, causing rust or
corrosion of metal parts. The amount of
cooling water may have to be reduced to
prevent condensation, or mixed with the
warmer discharge water through a bypass
connection to raise its temperature.
b. On some units, an automatic cooling
water flow control system has been installed
to reduce the range of temperature

should be compared with log sheet data of past

years, or when the machine was new, or just after
being cleaned to determine the amount of
temperature rise due to accumulation of dirt and
estimate the benefit obtainable by cleaning.
Reduction of approximately 10 C in the stator
temperature of of an open-type Bureau generator
resulted from a thorough cleaning and enable the
plant to carry more load during a critical period.
Where possible, suction should be used to clean
machines, since with this method the grit and
dust is not merely moved from one resting place
to another. Clean, dry compressed air at a
pressure of not over 276 kPa (40 lb/in2 ) may be
used to blow dust out of the wound section or
other places not accessible to the suction
attachment. If dust is allowed to accumulate on
the windings, it not only prevents proper
dissipation of heat and circulation of cooling air
through ducts, but also tends to hold moisture and
oil against insulation. In the cleaning process, slip
rings and commutators should be cleaned of dust
to prevent abrasion. Oil should never be allowed
anywhere on machines except where it is required
for lubrication. Oil harms commutators by
carbonizing mica insulating segments between
bars. Oil on windings catches dirt and dust and
the resulting gummy compound hastens ultimate
failure of insulation. Flammable or highly toxic
cleaning mixtures such as carbon tetrachloride
should not be used. Several satisfactory
commercial solvents are now available for this
purpose. Windings should not be allowed to soak
in any solvent, but just enough solvent should be
used to loosen grease so that it can be wiped off.
Ample ventilation should be supplied for
workmen. Any oil leaks should, of course, be
promptly repaired.

from no load to full load. On these units,

the cooling water temperature is varied by
mixing warm discharge water with fresh
cool water as required to minimize
temperature variations.
13.

SUPPLEMENTAL

COOLING

For air/water-cooled units, when not limited by the

mechanical capability, the capacity may be
increased by using colder water, or by increasing
the quantity of water circulated through the coolers.
Open-type units depend on the surrounding air for
the removal of heat. By increasing circulation of
the air, or by cooling the air in some manner,
capacity of open-type machines can be increased,
but temperature rise limitations of table 2 must be
kept in mind. Ventilating fans may be used to direct
air toward the machine. Advantage should be
taken of windows and doors to admit outside air. In
several instances, cooling has been improved by
building a duct to bring outdoor air directly into the
turbine pit and eliminating the possibility of warm
air exhausted from the generator being recirculated
into the machine, if artificial cooling of the air is
attempted, care should be taken to prevent
moisture or dusty air from being drawn into the
generator.
14. KEEPING MACHINES CLEAN
Another factor which should be watched in
machines, especially if they are to be overloaded,
is accumulation of dust and dirt. Dust and dirt
hinder heat dissipation and can adversely affect
the voltage grading system; therefore, internal
cleanliness of the machine is important to assure
proper cooling and retention of the voltage grading
should be cleaned regularly to assure maximum
heat transfer. When generator temperatures
appear to be getting higher, temperature data
should be compared with log sheet data of past
years, or cleaned to determine the amount of
temperature when the machine was new, or just
after being rise due system. Particular attention
should be given to field winding because dirt is
more apt to deposit on irregular surfaces.
Inspection should be made of ventilating passages
of the stator core for dirt accumulations. For
machines having recirculating systems, the cooler
should be cleaned regularly to assure maximum
heat transfer. When generator temperatures
appear to be getting higher, temperature data

15. TEMPERATURE OF OLD MACHINES

For older machines, special care should be taken
in determining the temperature of all parts if
operation at overload is contemplated. Many older
machines have stator core laminations of poor
quality steel and inadequate ventilating systems
for taking care of losses in the area close to the
air gap. Increased load or operation above normal
voltage means more leakage flux and even higher
temperatures for these machines. During
underexcited operation, some machines are
subject to above normal temperatures on end
and finger plates or laminations at each end of

(FIST 1-4 3/9)

the stator core because of excessive leakage flux

near the winding end turn area. Most machines are
not subject to this trouble, but the condition should
not be overlooked in the few cases where it exists.
Table 2 shows allowable temperature rises of
various components of the machine.
16. CHANGING
TEMPERATURE

VOLTAGE

TO

REDUCE

rise above ambient air temperature reaches a

constant value, and readings should be taken at
30-minute intervals for several hours alter
conditions become stabilized. Specific test
procedures may be obtained from the Denver
Office. A curve of generator amperes versus
stator temperature rise plotted from the test data
may be of value for future reference.
18. MEASURING STATOR TEMPERATURE

Some reduction in operating temperature is

sometimes possible, particularly on synchronous
motors, without reducing load, by changing the
operating voltage. Stator iron losses and
temperatures increase with increased applied
voltage, and vice versa. Copper losses and
temperature are proportional to the square of the
stator current. If stator laminations run cool and
coils comparatively hot, an increase in stator
voltage by changing transformer taps will decrease
the copper temperature and increase the iron
temperature, without a change in output. The
minimum stator winding temperature for any kW
load will be obtained at 100 percent power factor.
17. LOAD TEMPERATURE TESTS
For all types of machines, an indication of the
amount of overload which can be carried can be
determined from the mechanical limits and a series
of temperature tests. A prediction can be made
from results of a single temperature run by
computing the temperature rise as outlined in
paragraph 19. More accurate indications are
obtained by making temperature rise test runs at
50, 75, and 100 percent load. However, the best
plan is to make a temperature test at the actual
overload which the machine is desired to carry.
Voltage and power factor should be held constant
for all runs so that the internal voltage and core
loss will be about the same. Switchboard
instruments should be supplemented with
accurately calibrated instruments during
overloading of the machine. Each load
temperature test should be run with constant load,
excitation, cooling water, etc., until the temperature

(FIST 1-4 3/91)

10

Temperature of the stator coils should be taken as

the highest reading obtained. Where embedded
RTDs are provided for measuring the stator
temperature and a temperature check should be
made by placing a few thermocouples on the
stator iron (core). Where no embedded RTDs are
installed, it is desirable to use a number of
thermocouples for measuring stator temperature;
thermocouples should be placed on the hottest
parts of the stator steel, well protected from the
airstream, and the highest thermocouple readings
should be used. Thermocouples may be held
against the surface with duct seal. Precautions
should be taken if thermocouples are used to
measure end turn temperatures, end turn coils
could be charged to nearly the turn-to-ground
voltage during machine operation. Specific test
procedures may be obtained from the Denver
Office.

19. MEASURING FIELD TEMPERATURE

Field temperature for both static or rotating
excitation systems shall be determined by the
resistance method from field voltage and current
readings while the machine is carrying the load for
which data are desired. Specific test procedures
may be obtained from the Denver Office. An
accurate voltmeter and ammeter should be used.
Field voltage should be measured at collector
rings by pilot brushes. If no pilot brushes are
provided, one of the main brushes on each ring
can be disconnected and insulated from the
brush holder by a layer of paper and used as

temporary pilot brushes. Field winding temperature

can be found from the following formula:

T2 =

R2
(234.5 + T1) - 234.5
R1

considered important unless they are near the

limiting temperature. Each curve in figure 3b is a
straight line plotted between two values of voltage
and its corresponding current giving the same
value of resistance. That is,

R=
where:
T2 = temperature (OC) corresponding to final
resistance
T1 = temperature (OC) corresponding to
Initial resistance R1
R2 =

field volts
field amperes

Field resistance R1 at temperature T1 is usually

given on the generator manufacturer's test report.
If these data are not available, resistance should
be measured after the machine has been shut
down for at least 12 hours with constant ambient
temperature and using ambient temperature for T1.
Data obtained from field temperature tests can be
used for making up curves as shown in figure 3b
for future use in determining field temperature
from readings of field volts and amperes. These
curves will be particularly valuable if the field
temperature is the limiting factor in overloading
the generator. While making the field temperature
test, readings of the accurate voltmeter and
ammeter used should be compared with the
switchboard voltmeter and ammeter and the latter
should be corrected if necessary. It is important
that the field voltages be measured at collector
rings. If pilot brushes are not provided, an
allowance for brush drop can be made as found
from comparison of voltage measured on the main
brushes and temporary pilot brushes, The
temperature-resistance curve, figure 3a, is a
straight line and can be plotted through any two
points of resistance and corresponding
temperature, such as R1, T1, and R2, T2 used in the
above formula. Curves in figure 3b should be
plotted in the range of about 80 to 130 percent of
full load field amperes and corresponding voltage,
so as to obtain a broad spread in the temperature
scale. Field temperature readings are not

E1
E2
=
I1
I2

The value of R is first found from figure 3a for

each value of temperature for which a curve is
to be made.
20. COMPUTING STATOR WINDING
TEMPERATURE RISE
At times it is difficult or inconvenient to measure
stator winding temperature rise by tests at all
desired loadings; therefore, a method of
computing temperature rise, TR1 from available
temperature test data is outlined below:
The basic equation to be used is:
TR = C1 C2 (kVA)2
This equation has two unknowns, C1 and C2, and
test data are required from two heat runs to find
these unknown values. By substituting TR1 and
kVA1 in equation for heat run No. T R2 and kVA2 for
heat run No. 2 and subtracting one equation from
the other, C2 can be found. Substituting C2 back
into either equation gives a value for C1. The
constant C1 represents stator winding temperature
rise for no-load losses. If it is more convenient, or
if data are already available, stator winding
temperature rise attained during a no-load, rated
voltage heat run may be used for C1.
After C1 and C2 are known, the stator winding
temperature rise, TR, for other desired loading
conditions may be calculated.
21. GENERATOR CAPABILITY CURVES
Capability curves for large rotating machines are
required to establish safe operational limits. These
curves are required for inclusion involved.

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Figure 3. - Typical field resistance temperature curves.

21.1. Overexcited (boosting voltage).-A

capability curve is defined as a curve which shows
boundaries of the area on the kilowatt-kilo-var
diagram within which a machine may be operated
continuously. Capability curves are furnished for
each installation which show kVA capability
throughout the expected range of operation and
which include the range of permissible operating
voltages. One such curve sheet for a generator
rated 65 789 kVA, 13 800 volts, and 95 percent
power factor is shown in figure 4. The highest
operating voltage is limited to 105 percent of rated
terminal voltage in order to meet voltage
limitation requirements of the Standards for
Synchronous Generators. Capability curves for
machines in categories a and b in paragraph 7 not
operating under manufacturer's warranty will
normally show limitations for 115 percent of
nameplate ratings. Limitations for new machines
(post 1982) will normally be the nameplate rating,
For uprated generators, the kilowatt rating rather
than the kVA rating is set at a maximum fixed
value which should not be exceeded. The
Capability curve will be based on a constant
kilowatt load.
21.2. Underexcited (bucking voltage).Generator capability when operating underexcited
is limited by the permissible armature current and
steady-state stability limit of the machine. A
capability curve sheet for underexcited operation
is shown in figure 5. Steady-state stability limit is
a function of system at this point are above
terminal voltage. As the kilovar load is increased
at zero-kilowatt load, the generator will eventually
become unstable and start to slip poles. The kVA

reactance, and generator and armature current

rated values so that continuous operation near
this point is out of the generator reactances,
external question because of armature heating.
Most modern generators may be operated
continuously at zero field current and rated
voltage except for a few machines with special
electrical characteristics such that stator heating
becomes a problem. Modern, continuously acting
voltage regulators are equipped with
underexcited reactive ampere limiters which
permit machine operation at underexcited
capability determined by thermal limitations
without danger of the machine becoming
unstable. These limiters respond to underexcited
reactive stator current and to terminal voltage.
As a part of the regulating function, limiters
automatically hold the underexcited reactive
amperes at lower values as kilowatt load on the
machine is increased. Limiter settings are
adjustable so that their operating characteristics
may be coordinated with the thermal capability
curve and the steady state stability curve. The
Denver Office, should be consulted when any
operating problems arise concerning
underexcited operating capability either under
load or strictly as a synchronous condenser.
Additional underexcited synchronous condenser
capacity is sometimes made available by
operating with negative field current under
automatic control of voltage regulators.
However, any changes in limiter settings to
accommodate this operation must be
coordinated with machine thermal limitations and
with the settings of the loss of excitation relays.

13

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(FIST 1-1 3/91)

14

15

(FIST 1-4 3/91)

22. REFERENCES
General Principles of Temperature measurements as Applied to Electrical Apparatus
IEEE Publication No. 119, 1974

General Principles upon which Temperature

Limits are Based in the Rating of Electrical
Machines and Other Equipment, IEEE Standard No. 1, 1969

American Standard for Rotating Electrical Machinery, American National Standard C50.10,
1977; C50.11, 1965; C50.12, 1982; C50.13,
1977

Guide for Functional Evaluation of Insulation

Systems for Large High Voltage Machines
IEEE Standard No. 434-1973

Guide for Operation and Maintenance of

Hydrogenerators, IEEE Standard No. 4921974.

Test Procedures for Synchronous Machines,

IEEE publication No. 115, 1965

(FIST 1-4 3/91)

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