1.

Introduction in morphology
Types of morphemes:
- Free (to burn) vs. bound (burnt);
- Lexical/derivational (to create new words; they stay close to base) vs. grammatical/inflectional (to
create new forms; they stay at the very end of a word, after derivational morphemes – in English they
are suffixes only; they do not change the lexical class; they are highly systematic: they combine with
large classes of words, but not with each other; they are required by syntax: they typically signal
syntactic or semantic relations between different words in a sentence);
Example (1): misunderstandings: mis (d.m.) + understand (base) + ing (d.m.) + s (i.m.)
Example (2): rewrites: re (d.m.) + write (base) + s (i.m.)
Types of inflection:
- External: called, burnt, known
- Internal: meet/met
- Zero: cut/cut
- Suppletive: go/went/gone
- Word order (case relations): John sees Paul/Paul sees John.
Lexical classes:
- Open-class items: the verbs and the adverbs (dynamic), the nouns and the adjectives (stative); they are
indefinitely extendable;
- Closed-class items: the pronouns, the numerals, the articles, the conjunctions, the prepositions, the
interjections; they hardly allow any new lexical production, they are non-creative.

2. Classification of verbs
Criteria for classification: lexical morphology, form, predication, transitivity, function,
semantics.
In point of lexical morphology, the following verb-forming processes can be identified:
- Derivation:
* Class-changing affixation (empower, glorify);
* Class-preserving affixation (dislike, outlive, underestimate);
- Composition: (to) snowball, (to) whitewash;
- Conversion: to father, to empty, to mail;
- Back formation: donate > donation, negate > negation.
 Formally, verbs are:
- Simple: to get, to stay, to know;
- Compound: to lip-read, to house-keep;
- Complex/phrasal verbs consisting of [V + adverbial particle]: to bring about, to come by;
- Verbal phrases made up of a verb with diminished lexical value accompanied by a noun/noun phrase
which completes its meaning: to be in a hurry, to have breakfast.
In point of predication, verbs can have:
- Complete predication, such as the intransitive verbs (rise, lie) and reflexive verbs (hide oneself);
- Incomplete predication, referring to auxiliaries, transitive verbs, verbs with obligatory preposition,
and verb which requires other obligatory elements;
- Double predication, in the case of intransitive verbs which are able to shift to the transitive class by
taking a cognate object: to laugh a merry laugh, to live a happy live.
In point of transitivity, there are:
- Monotransitive verbs [V + Od]: tell a story;
- Ditransitive verbs [V + Od + Oi]: do somebody a favour;
- Complex transitive verbs [V + Od + Co]: call somebody a hero;
- Intransitive verbs [V]: run, eat.
Functionally, verbs are:
- Lexical (principal), able to stand as separate entities and to form a predicate by themselves;
- Auxiliary, including primary auxiliaries (do, have, be), and modal auxiliaries (can, could, may, might,
shall, should, will, would, must, ought to, need, dare, used to);
- Semi-auxiliary: to have to, to have got to, and to be about to;
- Linking/copular;
- Catenative.

3. The Morphology of Lexical Verbs

Lexical Verbs will be considered below under two heads, regular verbs and irregular verbs.
They have in common the five verb forms. The distinction between regular and irregular verbs is based
on the extent to which the last two forms are predictable from the base; in the case of regular verbs,
there is a V-ed1 = V-ed2 identity, both forms using the same inflectional morpheme. This is not the case
of irregular lexical verbs whose number of forms varies from three to eight.
 Verb inflection in the oral code:
V-s → /iz/ after bases ending in voiced or voiceless sibilants;
V-s → /z/ after bases ending in voiced sounds;
V-s → /s/ after bases ending in voiceless sounds;
V-ed → /id/ after bases ending in alveolar stops;
V-ed → /d/ after bases ending in voiced sounds;
V-ed → /t/ after bases ending in voiceless sounds;
Bases in the written code:
- Gemination (V-ing, V-ed): beg/begging/begged, panic/panicking/panicked;
- Treatment of –y (V-s, V-ed): marry/ marries/married;
- Deletion of final silent –e (V-ing, V-ed): create/creating/created;
- Addition of –e (V-s): catch/catches.
Irregular lexical verbs
Seven classes, according to three criteria:
a) V-ed1 = V-ed2 identity;
b) Suffixation (learnt, taken);
c) Vowel identity in the main forms (put/put/put).
Class 1 (of the type “burn”: a+, b+, c+): learn, smell, have, make, send;
Class 2 (“bring”: a+, b+, c–): deal, feel, buy, sleep, teach;
Class 3 (“cut”: a+, b–, c+): hit, cost, cast, let, shut;
Class 4 (“meet”: a+, b–, c–): feed, hold, find, get, fight;
Class 5 (“mow”: a+/–, b+, c+): mow-mowed-mowed/mown, saw, sew, sow, show, swell;
Class 6 (“know”: a–, b+, c–): break, choose, speak, swear, give;
Class 7 (“swim”: a–, b–, c–): run, sink, begin, sing, go.

4. The Structure of the Verb Phrase

 Cohesiveness of the VP:
[John] had mown the lawn.
[John] had the lawn mown.

The finite – non-finite distinction Simple vs. complex VPs

Finite: sings, sang (indicates tense or person) Simple: call
Non-finite: singing, to sing Complex: could call, had been calling

1. Vintransitive: It has rained.

Type A (Modal/Periphrastic): Auxmod/per + V 2. Vlink + Cs: Mary is clever.

(can take) 3. Vmonotransitive + Od: The cat caught the mouse.

Type B (Perfective): AuxHAVE + V-ed2 (has 4. Vditransitive + O + O: Do me a favour.

taken) 5. Vcomplex + Od + Co: I painted the wall white.

Type C (Progressive): AuxBE + V-ing (is taking) 6. Vtransitive + Od + AdvC: I put my head on his

Type D (Passive): AuxBE + V-ed2 (was taken) shoulder.

7. Vintransitive + AdcC: We were upstairs.

Examples of Complex finite verb phrases:

Type AB combination: must have seen;
Type AC combination: will be writing;
Type AD combination: can be built;
Type BC combination: has been taking;
Type BD combination: has been bitten;
Type CD combination: is being built;
Type ABC combination: could have been listening;
Type ABD combination: could have been listened;
Type ACD combination: could be being taken;
Type BCD combination: has been being built;
Type ABCD combination: could have been being built;

5. The Verb Categories

 1. Tense is a grammaticalised expression of location in time. It is a deictic category. Tense
stands for a verb form used to express a time relation (it refers to the speech time). There are absolute
and relative verbs (relative verbs depend on absolute verbs): When walking in the park, I often met her.
1.1. Present Tense
Unrestricted use (PT = Pa + Pr + F): generic present (I speak Chinese.); cognition truths (Two
and two is four.); sentential statements (Crime doesn’t pay.); habitual activities (I walk to work every
morning.);
Instantaneous present (PT = ST)
- Performative sentences: You are under arrest.
- Oral communication: simultaneous narration (Now he opens the door and…); commentaries (Smith
shoots and it’s goal.); demonstrations (I now press this button and…); exclamations (Here comes the
winner!);
Non-specific temporal reference:
- Historical present (PT = Pa): Dickens draws his character from real life.
- Future time references (PT = F): He leaves for Paris tomorrow morning.
1.2. Past Tense
The basic time association of Past Tense is past time. The meaning of the past tense is location
in time prior to the present moment. The temporal framing of the situation is generally carried out by a
deictic adverbial (yesterday, ago, once etc.).
I saw him five minutes ago/yesterday.
I saw him this morning.
The past tense combines two features of meaning: the event/state must have taken place in
the past with a gap between the completion and the present moment; and the speaker and writer must
have in mind a definite time at which the event/state took place.
Past tense can take past perfect reading (when it describes sequentially related situations).
a) Signalled sequentiality: I turned off the light before I left.
b) Unsignalled sequentiality: I stamped the letter and I mailed it.
Past tense forms are sometimes used with present time reference:
- Syntactic constraints: back shifting (He said his name was John.); subjunctive (I wish I knew him
better.)
- Attitudinal past: Did you want to talk with me?
1.3. The Future
A. Auxiliary verb constructions
- SHALL/WILL (neutral future): shall + V (in the 1st person); will + V (in the 2nd and 3rd persons) →
the foretelling future (will + V in all persons, including the 1 st person); in this case “will” has a
predictive value: They will come home by tomorrow.
- FUTURE PERFECT: He will have finished his novel by next year.
B. Be going to + V (futurity + intent)
- future of present intention: I’m going to have my house redecorated.
- future of present cause: It’s going to rain.
C. Present Tense requires the presence, in the same context, of a future time adverbial and it is
associated with the idea of “immutability” of the events it refers to: What time is the football match?; it
is more objective, impersonal, unalterable arrangement dictated by external circumstances: I start work
tomorrow.
D. Present progressive (imminent arrangement, programme, deliberately planned by conscious
human agency: I’m starting work tomorrow.). It requires the presence of a future time adverbial.
E. Auxiliary verb construction + progressive
- indicates that a future event will be in progress at a certain future moment explicitly stated in the
context;
- the use of this pattern precludes the interpretation of volition, insistence or intention associated with
the use of WILL/SHALL/BE GOING TO + V: I’ll do my best/ I’ll be doing my best.
- open endedness (+ further comment/development): I’ll be seeing John tonight.
- higher degree of tactfulness: When will I be seeing you again?
F. Be about to/be to + V
- be about to = ingressive: She is about to speak.
- be to = arrangement/command: They are to be married soon. You are to be back by 11 p.m.
G. The Future-in-the-Past: auxiliary verb construction; be going to + V; past progressive; be
about to/be to + V.
TENSE as a category of the sentence
ST = speech time; RT = reference time (the time axis indicated by the sentence); ET = event time;
Example (1): John went to see the play last week. (RT < ST; ET = RT)
Example (2): They are having lunch. (RT = ST; ET = RT)
Example (3): They have already had lunch. (RT = ST; ET < RT)
Example (4): I will be meeting them at the stadium tomorrow. (RT > ST; ET = RT)
2. Aspect and AKTIONSART
 Aspect is a grammatical category which stands for the different ways of viewing the internal
temporal constituency of a situation. Aspect is also a matter of the speaker’s view point or perspective
on the situation, such as whether the situation is viewed as completed, ongoing, beginning, ending, or
repeating.
English has two aspectual oppositions marked overtly at the level of the verb phrase: that
between progressive [be + V-ing] and non-progressive, and that between perfect [have + V-ed 2] and
non-perfect. (AKTIONSART) AKTIONSART = inherent aspectual properties of verbs organised as
sets of binary oppositions. It is an indication of the intrinsic temporal qualities of a situation covering
such possibilities as stative vs. dynamic, punctual vs. durative, continuous vs. iterative.
2.1. Perfective vs. Imperfective situations
John read the book yesterday; while he was reading, the postman came.
Read – perfective situation (a complete situation with a beginning, middle and end presented as a single
whole); L. perfectum.
Was reading – indicates that the situation is opened up and serves as background for another situation
(imperfective situation); L. infectum. .

PHASE MEANING FORMS

1. IMMINENCE Anteriority with respect to the event Be about to;
proper. Be to;
2. INGRESSIVE Proximity to the event. Be about to;
Be on the point of;
3. INCEPTIVE Beginning of the event. Inchoative verbs: start, begin, take up…
4. PROGRESSIVE/ Development/ progression/ repetition Keep on, go on; verbs type C;
ITERATIVE of the event(s).
5. TERMINAL Completion/ final stage of the event. End, finish, stop, quit; verbs type B.

2.2. Types of Aspect

A. Habitual aspect: habitual situations are manifestations of imperfectivity; habitual aspect is
marked only for the past: Simon used to believe in ghosts.
Cf. John used to smoke a pack of cigarettes a day. (!!! This habit is discontinued at the moment
of speak).
 B. Progressive aspect [be + prep. + N] is primarily concerned with the description of
situations seen as developing processes whose individual phases are essentially distinct from one
another.
In a context, the progressive form generally provides a background for another perfective
situation: It was raining heavily when we got home.
Secondary functions:
- Temporariness: The statue stands in the middle of the park. / We are standing in front of the statue.
- Incomplete events: I read a book last night. / I was reading a book last night.
- Habitual situations that are hold for a relatively limited period of time: At that time I was working the
night shift.
- Non-habitual situations, in constructions with stative verbs: He normally is a civil man, but now he is
being rude.
- Emotional connotation: He likes to brag about his dog. / He is constantly bragging about his dog.
- Iterative meaning
- Idiosyncratic use (the speaker’s preference): I feel better/ I’m feeling better.

C. Prospective aspect
- it has already been made clear that the perfect is retrospective, in that it establishes a relation between
a state at one time and a situation at an earlier time. Similarly, prospective aspect connects present and
future.
Typical English expressions of prospective meaning are periphrastic, consisting of constructions
with: to be going to (there is no implication of imminent futurity; it has no straight forward future time
reference), to be about to, to be on the point of (both of which describe the subject’s present state
relative to some future event; inchoative meaning).
Cf. Bill will throw himself off the cliffs. (Isn’t true)
Bill is going to throw himself off the cliffs. (Intention)

D. Perfect aspect
- while aspect in general is concerned with the different ways of representing the internal temporal
constitution of a situation, the perfect is rather different since it says nothing directly about the situation
itself, but rather relates some state to a preceding situation:
Cf. She has been an invalid all her life. (She’s alive)
She was an invalid all her life. (She’s dead)
 Types of perfect:
- Perfect of result, where the present state is referred to as being the result of some past situation: John
has arrived (He’s here);
- Experiential perfect which indicates that a given situation has held at least once during some time in
the past leading up to the present: Bill has been to America (He’s back now);
- Perfect of persistent situation, describing a situation that started in the past but continues into the
present: I have studied English for ten years. / I have been studying English for ten years.
- Perfect of recent past, used when the present relevance of the past situation referred to is simply one
of temporal closeness (+ just, recently, already etc.): I have just met John.

2.3. PERFECT ASPECT AND PROGRESSIVE ASPECT

Cf.
We have talked for hours. / We have been talking for an hour.
He was bought a sport car. / He’s been buying a sport car again.

2.4. Cf. AKTIONSART

The Vendler-Kenny aspectual classification:
- Verbs with internal temporal constituency: activity VP (run, walk, drive a car); accomplishment VP
(grow up, point a picture, make a speech, buy, run a mile, draw a cicle);
- Verbs with no internal temporal constituency: achievement VP (recognize, reach, lose, find, win, die);
state VP (own, have, believe, wish, like, know, trust).
Comrie’s classification of AKTIONSART
- Punctual (kick, jump, arrive, reach, sit down) vs. durative (read, write, walk, sleep, cook, paint);
- stative (situations characterized by lack of effort/made up of identical phases: know, believe, like) vs.
dynamic (with effort/internal structure consists of non-identical phases: pay, run, walk, read);
- telic (die, climb, buy, run a mile, draw a circle) vs. atelic
Cf. John went home earlier – TELIC
John got home earlier – ATELIC.
They climbed the mountain. – TELIC
They reached the summit. – ATELIC (there is no process)
 3. Voice is a grammatical category which makes it possible to view a situation in two ways,
without change in the facts reported.
Cf. John beat Jack. (It focuses on the actor)
Jack was beaten [by John] (It focuses on the patient)
!!! “by-phrase” = agent; the “by-phrase” is optional.
Reflexive verbs:
He washes himself (Cd) – reflexive meaning (the voice is active)
He washes Ø – reflexive meaning (the voice is active)
He washes the car - active meaning (the voice is active)
In English there are two types of voice: an active voice which is unmarked, and a passive voice
which has morphosyntactic realisation.
The passive transformation involves:
- The use of particular complex finite VP (type D)
- The change of word order and shift in the grammatical status of items (Od becomes Spass);
- The addition of an optional constituent:
* The passive auxiliary: BE (formal)
* The closest substitute: GET (less formal, preferred in imperatives and agentless constructions); it is
used in contexts where the subject is not regarded as a purely passive participant; on the contrary, some
measure of responsibility, intention or involvement is attributed to the subject;
a) Get lost!
b) Don’t get run over!
c) Our flat is getting painted.
d) I’m getting vaccinated tomorrow.
e) John got mugged last night.
f) They almost get themselves killed in a car accident.;
As a rule, transitive verbs can occur in both active and passive constructions. Exceptions: verb
related constraints, agent related constraints, object related constraints, semantic constraints, and style
constraints.
A. Verb related constraints = transitive verbs in certain uses cannot be passivized:
Ten a.m. suits me.
This colour becomes you.
He resembles his father.
Mourning becomes Electra (Din jale se întrupează Electra)
B. Agent related constraints = the agent phrase is optional; passive is the normal construction when the
agent is difficult to specify/unknown (Many people were killed during the war), when the agent is too
obvious (He was born in 1980), or when the speaker prefers to leave the agent unspecified (John was
accused by murder).
C. Object related constraints = passivization is impossible if the object is expressed by/ includes a
reflexive, reciprocal, or possessive pronoun:
John hurt himself.
John and Jack hurt each other.
She shook her head.
D. Semantic constraints:
I cannot do it. / It cannot be done.
I can’t teach John. / John cannot be taught.
E. Style constraints: This picture was painted by an unknown French artist.

Actional vs. Statal passives

The vase was broken by the boy. (The verb phrase is actional passive; “be” is an auxiliary and
V-ed2 is the head of the verb phrase);
The vase was already broken. (The verb phrase is statal passive; “be” is a linking verb and V-
ed2 form is an adjectival functioning as Cs);

Quasi-passives constructions
- Constructions including active verbs with passive value: The book sold quickly;
- Gerund with passive meaning: The garden needs watering;
- Constructions with factitive, causative, sufferative verbs (have, make, get);
I had my flat painted.
John had his photo taken.
- Constructions with prepositions which can introduce quasi-agents (about, at, over, to, in, with):
We are interested in literature.
He is fascinated with her.
We were alarmed at this news.
I am worried about John’s health.
 4. Mood is a grammatical category which stands for the linguistic means of expression used to
refer to a situation as factual or non-factual, real or unreal, assertive or non-assertive. In English mood
related distinctions rest upon the finite (indicative, subjunctive, imperative) – non-finite opposition
(infinitive, gerund, participle).
4.1. Finite verb forms have person and number distinctions; will necessarily pertain to the
past/present/future time sphere; are context-dependent, due to the high number of syncretic forms.
A. THE INDICATIVE is used to refer to real, factual situations or assertions; has a full range
of temporal references;
B. THE SUBJONCTIVE occurs in contexts involving non-factuality; can also be found in
main clauses.
Types of subjunctive:
- The mandative subjunctive (V) = occurs in clauses introduced by “that”, after a relatively small class
of verbs (verba dicendi) or after expressions of recommendation, resolution, surprise; it is used in
formal style: The Parliament voted that the present law be changed.
- The formulaic subjunctive (V) = occurs in certain stereotyped, conventional or traditional phrases
built on patterns of little productivity in the language:
Come what may
Heaven forbid
Long live friendship
So be it
Be it so
Suffice it to say
Far be it from me
Be as it may
God bless you
- The “were” subjunctive (V-ed1) = used to express factual remoteness in conjunction with conditional
constructions introduced by if/unless/suppose/supposing/imagine; it also occurs in clause functioning as
complement to the verb “wish” or after constructions with it is (high) time, would rather, had better:
If this were true, we would have to change our plans. (there is an irrealis “were”)
I wish we met more often.
!!! The time reference of the subjunctive = defective time reference: past & present;
I wish we had met you before that.
 Subjunctive equivalents:
* SHOULD + INFINITIVE = it provides an alternative to the mandative subjunctive ( The Parliament
voted that the present law should be changed.); it also occurs after verbs denoting feeling, emotion,
doubt, mainly in impersonal constructions with introductory it (It is odd that he should resign);
* WOULD + INFINITIVE = it stands as a more colloquial variant of the subjunctive after WISH (I
wish you would behaved/I wish you behaved);
* MAY + INFINITIVE = it is an alternative to formulaic subjunctive (Long live our friendship); in
subordinate clauses it can express wish, purpose, comparison (May you never set foot in this house
again);
* MIGHT + INFINITIVE = it is a more tentative variant of MAY + INFINITIVE;
* INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS: There was a suggestion to fire John.
C. THE IMPERATIVE displays certain features of syntactic structure;
- subjectless imperatives = occur in most common types of directive clauses; no tense, aspect or voice
distinctions (rare exceptions in: Have done with it!, Be prepared!, Be gone!, Get lost!);
- subject + imperative = You be quiet!, Don’t you worry!, Speak up you!;
- constructions with “let” = Let’s you and I do it!, Let everyone speak for himself!;
- negative imperatives = do → don’t; let’s/let us → let’s not/don’t let us;
4.2. Non-finite verb phrases
A. THE INFINITIVE
- Distribution:
* short (plain, bare) + modals, verbs of perception, causative “make”; + “wh-” questions; + modal
idioms (had rather/sooner/better);
* long (“to”) + auxiliaries (ought to, have to, be to, used to); + perception verbs in the passive; +
causative “make” in the passive;
- Infinitival constructions:
* Accusative + infinitive (I want you to come earlier);
* Nominative + infinitive (He was supposed to be out);
* “for-to” infinitive (It’s time for us to go);
* Absolute infinitival construction (He left home, never to return).
B. THE GERUND (V-ing)
- Distribution:
* + aspectual verbs (start, stop, finish, begin, take up, give up, quit);
* + verb + feeling (like, enjoy, hate, avoid);
 * + verbs like need, went, require, deserve, in quasi-passive constructions;
* + impersonal constructions with introductory “it”;
* + word/expressions like busy, feel like;
- Constructions with the gerund:
* Genitive + Gerund (Nobody noticed his leaving earlier);
* Accusative + Gerund (Excuse me yawning).
C. THE PARTICIPLE (V-ing, V-ed2)
- Distribution:
* V-ing is usually found in complex VPs type C;
* V-ed2 is usually found in complex VPs type D;
- Present participial constructions:
* Accusative + participle (I felt him trembling);
* Nominative + participle (She was seen leaving the house at dawn);
* Absolute participial constructions (Weather permitting, we shall go on trip);
* Prepositional absolute participial construction (The Children were playing, with their mother
watching them);
- Past participial constructions:
* Accusative + participle (He heard his name called);
* Absolute past participial construction (Our work done, we went home).