Descriptive Grammar of English

The Verb

dr Dobromiła Jagiełła-Łoboda
Institute of English Studies, Jagiellonian University
Identifying verbs
The term VERB is used in two senses:
• an element in clause structure
(e.g.: SUBJECT, VERB, OBJECT)
• a member of a word class
(e.g.: NOUN, VERB, ADJECTIVE, ADVERB)
Identifying verbs
• the typical structure of a verb phrase consists of a main verb preceded by
a maximum of four auxiliary verbs (belonging to different subclasses of
auxiliaries):
__________________________________________________________
(aux 1) (aux 2) (aux 3) (aux 4) main verb
__________________________________________________________
Identifying verbs
• the verb phrase (one or more verbs) operates as the verb (=predicate) in
the clause structure:

They linked hands.

I can believe you.
He is making a noise.
She might be leaving soon.
Identifying verbs
• as a word class, verbs can be divided into three categories:

(1) full (=lexical) verbs believe, follow, like, see, …

(an open class)
(2) primary verbs be, have, do
(3) modal auxiliaries can, may, shall, will, must, could,
might, should, would
Identifying verbs
• if there is only one verb in the verb phrase  main verb
They linked hands. linked = main verb

• if there is more than one verb  the final one is the main verb, the verbs
before it are auxiliaries:
She might be leaving soon. leaving = main verb
might, be = auxiliaries
Identifying verbs
Note:
• full (=lexical verbs) can be main verbs only
• modal auxiliaries can be auxiliary verbs only
• primary verbs can be (1) main verbs (2) auxiliary verbs
Morphology of verbs
Verb suffixes:
suffixes added to nouns or adjectives to make verbs:

-ate, -iate chlorinate, originate, differentiate

-en darken, hasten, sadden
-ify, -fy codify, falsify, beautify
-ise, -ize apologise, publicise, rationalize
Morphology of verbs
Verb suffixes:
• like nouns, many verbs have no suffixes: write, walk, reveal, understand

• many suffixes served that function in Latin or French, so we have words in

English that were already suffixed when they were borrowed from these
languages: signify, realize
Morphology of verbs
Verb forms:
• regular full (=lexical) verbs have four morphological forms:

(1) base form (what we find in dictionaries: laugh, mention, play)

(2) -s form (adds to the base form an ending -s)
(3) -ing participle (adds to the base form an ending -ing)
(4) -ed form (the past –ed form and the –ed participle)
Morphology of verbs
Verb forms:
• the morphology of irregular full verbs:
V V-ed1 V-ed2
all three forms cut cut cut
alike
V-ed1 = V-ed2 meet met met
V=V-ed1 beat beat beaten
V=V-ed2 come came come
all three forms speak spoke spoken
different
Morphology of verbs
Functions of verbs forms:
• -s form, -ed (past) forms are always FINITE

He/she calls every day. (3rd person singular present tense)

Someone called yesterday. (past tense)
Morphology of verbs
Functions of verbs forms:
• -ing participle and –ed (participle) forms are always NONFINITE

He’s calling her now. (progressive aspect following be)

Calling early, I found her at home. (-ing participle clause)
He has called twice today. (perfect aspect following have)
Her brother is called John. (passive voice following be)
Called early, he ate a quick breakfast. (-ed participle clause)
Morphology of verbs
Functions of verbs forms:
• base form (call)

• FINITE in the present tense in all persons and numbers (except 3rd person
singular): I/you/we/they call regularly.
• FINITE in the imperative: Call her at once!
• FINITE in the present subjunctive: They demanded that she call and see
them.
• NONFINITE in the bare infinitive: He may call tonight.
• NONFINITE in the to-infinitive: We want her to call.
Morphology of verbs
Finite verb phrases [verbs are either finite or nonfinite]:
• can occur as the verb phrases of independent clauses
• have tense contrast (=distinction between present and past tenses)
He is a journalist now.
He worked as a travel agent last summer.
• have person concord and number concord between the subject of a clause
and the finite verb phrase:
I am You are He/She/It is We/They are
• have mood (unmarked: INDICATIVE mood and marked: IMPERATIVE for
commands and SUBJUNCTIVE for wishes, recommendations)
Morphology of verbs
FINITE VERB PHRASES NONFINITE VERB PHRASES
He smokes. To smoke like that must be
dangerous.
Mary is having a smoke. I regret having started to smoke.
He must smoke 40 a day. The cigars smoked here tend to be
expensive.
You have been smoking all day. That was the last cigarette to have
been smoked by me.
Primary verbs and modal auxiliaries
Verbs as operators [when they occur as the first verb of a finite verb
phrase]:

the main verb BE

the main verb HAVE (in BrE)
the auxiliary DO
Primary verbs and modal auxiliaries
Operators share the following characteristics:
• negate the clause: not immediately after the operator
She may do it. She may not do it.
• form an interrogative clause: the operator in front of the subject (subject-
operator inversion)
She will speak first. Will she speak first?
Primary verbs and modal auxiliaries
Operators share the following characteristics:
• with introductory negatives or semi-negatives (subject-operator inversion)
At no time was the entrance left unguarded.
• the operator can carry nuclear stress to mark a finite clause as positive
rather than negative
Won’t you try again? Yes, I WILL try again.
• the operator functions in elliptical clauses where the rest of the predication
is omitted
Won’t you try again? Yes, I WILL.
Primary verbs and modal auxiliaries
Do-support (the use of the dummy/empty operator Do if there is no other
operator in a corresponding positive declarative sentence):

(a) She did not see the play.

(b) Does he plan to speak first?
(c) But I DO listen to her.
(d) Do you drive a car? Yes, I do.
Primary verbs and modal auxiliaries
the primary verb BE:

can be a main verb:

Ann is a happy girl.

can have auxiliary functions:

- aspect auxiliary for the progressive: The weather has been improving.
- passive auxiliary: Our team has never been beaten.
Primary verbs and modal auxiliaries
the primary verb HAVE:

can be a main verb:

I have money.

as an auxiliary for perfect aspect, have combines with an –ed participle to

form complex verb phrases:
I have finished.
It must have been eaten.
Primary verbs and modal auxiliaries
the primary verb DO:

can be a main verb: as a pro-predicate/pro-predication referring to some

unspecified action(s) (in combination with so, it, this, that, interrogative what, or an
indefinite pronoun):

She didn’t earn as much as she might have done.

I don’t know what to do, so I did nothing.
A: I’m throwing these books away. B: Why are you doing that?
A: What have they been doing to the road? B: Widening it.

as an auxiliary, do has no nonfinite forms (only present and past forms)

Verb: grammatical categories
(1) TENSE, PERSON, AND NUMBER
• the first or only verb in a finite verb phrase is marked for tense, person,
and number
• tense is a grammatical category referring to the time of the situation; the
tense is indicated by the form of the verb
• there are two tense forms: present and past
• there are three persons: first person (the person or persons speaking or
writing), second person (the person or persons addressed), and third
person (others)
• there are two numbers: singular and plural
Verb: grammatical categories
(1) TENSE, PERSON, AND NUMBER
• for all verbs except be, there are two forms for the present
-s form and the base form:
I/You/We/They play football every day.
The road seems narrower. (3rd person singular)

• for all verbs except be, there is only one past form:
He/They played football yesterday.
The road (or: roads) seemed narrower.
Verb: grammatical categories
(1) TENSE, PERSON, AND NUMBER

• be in the present tense:

am – 1st person singular
is – 3rd person singular
are – others

• be in the past tense:

was – first/third person singular
were – others
Verb: grammatical categories
(2) ASPECT
• a grammatical category referring to the way that the time of the situation is
viewed by the speaker or writer
• indicated by a combination of auxiliary and verb form
• requires a choice between the nonperfect/perfect and between the
nonprogressive/progressive:

He writes poems. (simple: nonperfect, nonprogressive)

He has written poems. (perfect, nonprogressive)
He is writing poems. (progressive, nonperfect)
He has been writing poems. (perfect, progressive)
Verb: grammatical categories
(3) VOICE
• verbs have two voices: active and passive
• the active voice most common
• the passive: a form of the auxiliary be followed by an -ed participle:
Verb: grammatical categories
(3) VOICE
Active Passive
loves
sold
is fighting
has reconstructed
will proclaim
may have asserted
should be purifying
Verb: grammatical categories
(3) VOICE
Active Passive
loves is loved
sold was sold
is fighting is being fought
has reconstructed has been reconstructed
will proclaim will be proclaimed
may have asserted may have been asserted
should be purifying should be being purified
Verb: grammatical categories
(3) VOICE
• the passive voice differs not only in the forms of verbs but also in the
positions of certain noun phrases:
• direct object or indirect object of the active sentence becomes the subject
of the corresponding passive sentence
• the subject (if retained) appears after the verb in a by-phrase

Active: A team of detectives (S) is investigating the crime (OD).

Passive: The crime (S) is being investigated by a team of detectives.
Active: The new management has offered employees (IO) a better deal.
Passive: Employees (S) have been offered a better deal by the
management.
Verb: grammatical categories
(3) VOICE
• in the following sentences the -ed forms are adjectives, not passive
participles:

She was annoyed with them.

I am worried about Edward.
My teachers are pleased with my progress.

• they can be modified by very (very annoyed)

• they can occur with a linking verb other than be (became worried)
• they can be linked with another adjective (angry and worried)
Verb: grammatical categories
(4) MOOD
• refers to distinctions in the form of the verb that express the attitude of the
speaker to what is said
• finite verb phrases have three modes:

He listens/is listening to me [indicative]

Listen to me! [imperative]
I demand that he listen to me. [subjunctive]
Verb: grammatical categories
(4) MOOD
• the indicative is the usual mood in declarative, interrogative, and
exclamative sentences:

Roger has known me for a long time. [declarative]

How well does Rosalind play? [interrogative]
What a heavy coat you are wearing! [exclamative]
Verb: grammatical categories
(4) MOOD
• the imperative has the base form
• used chiefly as a directive to request action

Stop them!
Verb: grammatical categories
(5) SUBJUNCTIVE
• there are two forms of the subjunctive: the PRESENT subjunctive and the
PAST subjunctive (although the difference between them is not one of
tense)
• the PRESENT subjunctive has the base form
• for all persons the negative sentence need not have an operator
We demand that he/they not take the witness stand.
I move that the meeting not be adjourned.
Verb: grammatical categories
(5) SUBJUNCTIVE
(I) MANDATIVE is used in that-clauses after the expression of such notions
as demand, recommendation, proposal, intention, or request (We insist,
prefer, request; It is necessary, desirable, imperative; the decision,
requirement, resolution)

We demand that he take the witness stand.

My employer insisted that I be on time.
I move that the meeting be adjourned.
Verb: grammatical categories
(5) SUBJUNCTIVE
(II) FORMULAIC (optative) in certain set expressions:

Long live the Republic!

Be that as it may,…
God save the Queen!
Long live the King!
Come what may,…
Heaven forbid that…
Be that as it may,…
Suffice it to say that…
Verb: grammatical categories
(5) SUBJUNCTIVE
• the PAST subjunctive were is used chiefly to convey that the speaker is
not sure that the situation will happen or is happening (hypothetical in
meaning):

If he were to be appointed, I would leave.

If they were in the city, they would contact us.
I wish you were here.
I wish I were somewhere hotter than here.
Thank you for your attention!
Sources
Greenbaum, S. 1994 (1991). An Introduction to English
Grammar. Longman.
Greenbaum, S. and R. Quirk. 2003 (1990). A Student’s Grammar
of the English Language. Longman.
Huddleston, R., Pullum, G. 2005. A Student’s Introduction to
English Grammar. Cambridge.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A. 1985. A
Grammar of Contemporary English. Harlow.