1

A Laboratory Manual for

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY
ME F215/ MF F215
(Enlarge and Edited Version of Measurement Techniques-II :TA C222)

By
Dr. ABHIJEET K. DIGALWAR
Dr. SHARAD SHRIVASTAVA
Dr. ARUN K. JALAN
Mr. TULSI RAM SHARMA

(Department of Mechanical Engineering)
BITS Pilani








EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT DIVISION
BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE
PILANI 333 031 (RAJASTHAN)
2013
i


Preface

The manual is enlarged and edited version of TA C222 Measurement
Techniques-II which was edited by Prof. K. E. Raman, Prof. A. Kapoor, Prof.
Kusum Lata, Prof. Shri Dayal, Prof. S. D. Manajare, Prof. A. K. Sarkar, Prof. S.
Rajesh, Prof. R. K. Saksena, Prof. R. P. Vaid, Prof. H S Moondra, Prof. Rajiv
Gupta, Prof. Pavitra Sandilya, Prof. D. K. Maharaj. Apart from some
experiments which are the same as prescribed in the earlier version, there are
few additional experiments which are beneficial for the Mechanical and
Manufacturing Engineering students. The efforts are made to include theoretical
concepts behind each experiment in the preparation of this manual. We feel that
this would equip the student with sufficient knowledge to conduct the
experiments. We would like to hear any suggestions or constructive feedback
for further development of the manual.
We wish to express our sincere thanks to Prof. K. S. Sangwan, HOD
Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering Department and Prof. M. S
Dasgupta for their guidance and encouragement in preparation of this manual.
We would like to thanks our higher degree students Mr. Sidharth Khare, Mr.
Subhash Bhosle, Ms Vasudha Batra, Mr. Aswan, Abdul Razak and Mr. K.
Lakshminarayana for helping us in preparation of this laboratory manual. We
also thank Mr. Harish Soni, Mr. Jangvir and Mr. R. Yadav for helping in
conducting and validating the experiments.


Dr. Abhijeet K. Digalwar
Dr. Sharad Shrivastava
Dr. Arun K. Jalan
Mr. Tulsi Ram Sharma


EXPERIMENTS

Preface
i
Solid Mechanics/Materials Testing Cycle (1-18)
ME1 Measurement of Modulus of Elasticity by Tension Test 1-2
ME2 Measurement of Modulus of Elasticity by BendingTest 3-5
ME3 Measurement of Modulus of Elasticity by Compression Test 6-7
ME4 Brinell Hardness Test 8-10
ME5 Rockwell Hardness Test 11-13
ME6 Vickers Hardness Test 14-16
ME7 IZOD Impact Test 17-18
ME8 Torsion Test 19-21
Fluid Mechanics Cycle (19-41)
CH1 Calibration of Air and Liquid Rotameter 22-26
CH2 Study of Viscosity Coefficient 27-29
CH3 Study of Reynolds Apparatus 30-32
CH4 Study of Dynamic Behaviour of a Thermometer 33-36
CH5 Verification of Bernoullis Theorem 37-40
CH6 Calibration of Orifice and Elbowmeter 41-44
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Cycle (42-74)
EEE1 Study of Logic Gates and Combinations 44-52
EEE2 Test on Single Phase Induction Motor 53-56
EEE3 Hardware Familarity, Component Study and Study of Operational
Amplifier Circuits
57-63
EEE4 Measurement of Electrical Variables in Single Phase Circuit 64-69
EEE5 Determination of Sensitivity of LVDT 70 73
EEE6 Test on Single Phase Transformer 74-78














SOLID MECHANICS/MATERIALS
TESTING CYCLE
1

ME-1
MEASUREMENT OF MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
OBJECTIVE:-
To measure tensile strain by Ewings extensometer during tension test on an M.S specimen
and to determine the value of modulus of elasticity.
APPARATUS:-
50 Ton Amsler Hydraulic testing Machine, Ewings extensometer, 0.8 inch diameter M.S.
test specimen, marking gauge and micrometer screw gauge.
THEORY:-
If a bar of steel is pulled at its ends, with the application of force, it is elongated. Various m/c
and structure components are subjected to tensile loading in numerous application. For safe
design of these components, there ultimate tensile strength and ductility is to be determined
before actual use. Tensile test can be conducted on UTM. A material when subjected to a
tensile load resists the applied load by developing internal resisting force. These resistances
come due to atomic bonding between atoms of the material. The resisting force for unit
normal cross-section area is known as stress.
The value of stress in material goes on increasing with an increase in applied tensile load, but
it has a certain maximum (finite) limit too. The minimum stress, at which a material fails, is
called ultimate tensile strength. The end of elastic limit is indicated by the yield point (load).
This can be seen during experiment as explained later in procedure with increase in loading
beyond elastic limit original cross-section area goes on decreasing and finally reduces to its
minimum value when the specimen breaks.
TEST SET-UP
The tensile test is conducted on UTM. It is hydraulically operates a pump, oil in oil sump,
load dial indicator and central buttons. The left has upper, middle and lower cross heads i.e;
specimen grips (or jaws). Idle cross head can be moved up and down for adjustment. The
pipes connecting the lift and right parts are oil pipes through which the pumped oil under
pressure flows on left parts to more the cross-heads.


2

PROCEDURE:
1. Fix the M.S. specimen in the marking gauge, symmetrically with respect to its length.
Mark the gauge length of 8 inches correct to 0.01 inch.
2. Using a micrometer screw gauge, determine the diameter of the M.S. specimen at five
different locations within the gauge length. Determine the average of these reading to
find the area of cross-section.
3. Firmly grip the upper end of the specimen in the movable cross-head of the testing
machine. Grip the lower end of the specimen in the bottom cross-head, after adjusting
the required height.
4. Determine the least count of the extensometer and attach it firmly to the specimen.
5. Run the hydraulic testing machine at the slowest for applying load to the specimen,
make simultaneous record of the observations of load and extension, without stopping
the machine.
6. Load is applied until the specimen fails.
OBSERVATION :-
Gauge length of specimen l = ------mm.
Least count of extensometer= 0.0002 inch
Diameter of specimen d = 0.8 inches =
Area of cross section of specimen =
OBSERVATION TABLE
S No. Load on specimen (T) Stress (T/in
2
) Extensometer reading
(division)
Strain X 10
-5





RESULT:-
The Youngs modulus of the given specimen = -------GPa
PRECAUTIONS:-
1. The specimen should be prepared in proper dimensions.
2. The specimen should be properly to get between the compression plates.
3. Take reading carefully.
4. After failed specimen stop to m/c.
3

ME-2
MEASUREMENT OF MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
OBJECTIVE:-
To measure bending strain by dial-gauge indicator during bending test on M.S specimen and
determine the value of modulus of elasticity.
APPARATUS :-
50 Ton Amsler Hydraulic testing Machine, Ewings extensometer, 0.8 inch diameter M.S.
test specimen, marking gauge and micrometer screw gauge.
THEORY :-
Bending test is perform on beam by using the three point loading system. The bending fixture
is supported on the platform of hydraulic cylinder of the UTM. The loading is held in the
middle cross head. At a particular load the deflection at the center of the beam is determined
by using a dial gauge.
In engineering mechanics, bending (also known as flexure) characterizes the behavior
of a slender structural element subjected to an external load applied perpendicular to an axis
of the element. When the length is considerably larger than the width and the thickness, the
element is called a beam.
Simple beam bending is often analyzed with the Euler-Bernoulli beam equation. The
classic formula for determining the bending stress in a member is:
xx
My
I
o =

Where:
is the bending stress
M the moment about the neutral axis
y the perpendicular distance to the neutral axis
Ixx the area moment of inertia about the neutral axis x
PROCEDURE :
1. Measure the length, width and thickness of test piece, by vernier caliper.
2. Place the bending fixture on the lower cross head of the testing m/c.
3. Place the test piece on the rollers of the bending fixture.
4

4. By loading the dial gauge in a stand, make its spindle knob the test piece.
5. Start the m/c and note down the load and dial gauge readings.
6. Plot the graph between load and deflection.
OBSERVATION :-
Least count of dial-gauge indicator = 0.1 mm
Length of beam (L) =
Width of beam (b) = ------
Thickness of beam (t) = ------
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
Sl no. Load on specimen
(Kg)
Stress
(Kg/cm
2
)
Dial gauge
indicator reading
Strain X 10
-5





CALCULATION :-

xx
My
I
o =


3
12
xx
bh
I =

3
2
11
568
t
y
l w
E
I o
=
| |
=
|
\ .

RESULT :- The Youngs modulus of the given specimen = -------GPa
PRECAUTIONS:-
1. The Beam should be carefully placed on the supports.
2. The loading and unloading of beams should be carefully carried out.
5

3. Check the bending strain gauge reads zero before taking the readings
4. Take reading carefully.
6


ME-3
COMPRESSION TEST
OBJECTIVE:-
To Perform compression test on UTM.
APPARATUS :-
A UTM or A compression testing m/c, cylindrical or cube shaped specimen of cast iron,
Alumunium or mild steel, vernier caliper, liner scale, dial gauge (or compressometer).
THEORY :-
Several m/c and structure components such as columns and struts are subjected to
compressive load in applications. These components are made of high compressive strength
materials. Not all the materials are strong in compression. Several materials, which are good
in tension, are poor in compression. Contrary to this, many materials poor in tension but very
strong in compression. Cast iron is one such example. That is why determine of ultimate
compressive strength is essential before using a material. This strength is determined by
conduct of a compression test.
Compression test is just opposite in nature to tensile test. Nature of deformation and fracture
is quite different from that in tensile test. Compressive load tends to squeeze the specimen.
Brittle materials are generally weak in tension but strong in compression. Hence this test is
normally performed on cast iron, cement concrete etc. But ductile materials like aluminium
and mild steel which are strong in tension, are also tested in compression.
TEST SET-UP, SPECIFICATION OF M/C AND SPECIMEN DETAILS :
A compression test can be performed on UTM by keeping the test-piece on base block and
moving down the central grip to apply load. It can also be performed on a compression
testing machine. A compression testing machine has two compression plates/heads. The
upper head moveable while the lower head is stationary. One of the two heads is equipped
with a hemispherical bearing to obtain. Uniform distribution of load over the test-piece ends.
A load gauge is fitted for recording the applied load.
SPECIMEN :-
In cylindrical specimen, it is essential to keep h/d 2 to avoid lateral instability due to
7

bucking action. Specimen size = h 2d.
PROCEDURE :-
1. Dimension of test piece is measured at three different places along its
height/length to determine the average cross-section area.
2. Ends of the specimen should be plane . for that the ends are tested on a bearing
plate.
3. The specimen is placed centrally between the two compression plates, such that
the centre of moving head is vertically above the centre of specimen .
4. Load is applied on the specimen by moving the movable head.
5. The load and corresponding contraction are measured at different intervals.
6. Load is applied until the specimen fails.
OBSERVATION :-
Initial length or height of specimen h = ------mm.
Initial diameter of specimen do = -------------mm.
Applied load (P) in Newton =
Recorded change in length (mm)=
CALCULATION :-
Original cross-section area Ao = -----
Final cross-section area Af = --------
Stress = -------
Strain = -------
Draw stress-strain (-) curve in compression,
Determine Youngs modulus in compression
RESULT :-
The Youngs modulus of the given specimen = -------GPa
PRECAUTIONS :-
1. The specimen should be prepared in proper dimensions.
2. The specimen should be properly to get between the compression plates.
3. Take reading carefully.
4. After failed specimen stop to m/c.
8


ME-4
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
OBJECTIVE:
To measure the hardness of the given samples and to correlate them with the Ultimate Tensile
Strength (UTS) of the materials using Brinell Hardness Testing Machine.
ACCESSORIES:
Power operated Brinell Hardness Testing Machine, Brinell microscope and Steel ball
indenters of 10 mm & 5 mm Ball and specimens (MS, Brass, Aluminium, CI, Broken HSS
bits).
THEORY:
Hardness represents the resistance of material surface to abrasion, scratching and cutting,
hardness after gives clear identification of strength. In all hardness testes, a define force is
mechanically applied on the test piece for about 15 seconds. The indentor, which transmits
the load to the test piece, varies in size and shape for different tests. Common indenters are
made of hardened steel or diamond. In Brinell hardness testing, steel balls are used as
indentor. Diameter of the indentor and the applied force depend upon the thickness of the test
specimen, because for accurate results, depth of indentation should be less than 1/8th of the
thickness of the test pieces. According to the thickness of the test piece increase, the diameter
of the indentor and force are changed.
The following formula is used to calculate the BHN for a given specimen :

( )
2 2
2
avg
P
BHN
D D D d t
=


where, D= Diameter of the ball
P= Load applied
d= Diameter of the indentation
PROCEDURE:
1. Insert ball of dia D in ball holder of the m/c.
2. .Make the specimen surface clean by removing dust, dirt, oil and grease etc.
9

3. Make contact between the specimen surface and the ball by rotating the jack adjusting
wheel.
4. Push the required button for loading.
5. Pull the load release level and wait for minimum 15 second. The load will
automatically apply gradually.
6. Remove the specimen from support table and locate the indentation so made.
7. View the indentation through microscope and measure the diameter d by
micrometer fitted on microscope.
8. Repeat the entire operation, 3-times.
OBSERVATIONS:
Materials given =
Diameter of Indenter (D) =
Type of Indenter =
Load applied (P) = Kg
S.No Material Diameter of the indentation (d) mm







CALCULATION :-
( )
2 2
2
avg
P
BHN
D D D d t
=




10


RESULT:-




PRECAUTION:-
1. At least two preliminary tests should be performed before beginning any measuring,
in order to acclimatize the indenter, raising/lowering screw, and specimen platform.
2. Ensure that contact surfaces such as the indenter attachment face, between the
specimen and specimen platform, and between the specimen platform and
raising/lowering screw are continually maintained in a clean state.
3. Wipe all contact surfaces thoroughly with a clean cloth before performing tests.
4. The specimen measurement location must be spaced at least 4d (where d is the
indentation diameter) from the center of indentations already present.

11


ME-5
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
OBJECTIVE:
To measure the hardness of the given samples and to correlate them with the Ultimate Tensile
Strength (UTS) of the materials using Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine.

ACCESSORIES:
Direct Reading Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine, Diamond cone and Steel ball indenters
and specimens (MS, Brass, Aluminium, CI, Broken HSS bits).

THEORY:
The Rockwell test for hardness consists of the application of a hard indenter of known
Diamond under a known load for the specified time period, to the surface of specimen under
test and the Rockwell Hardness of material by measuring the depth of penetration of standard
indenters under standard loading conditions, and gives a visible indication of degree of
hardness according to establishes scales. The dial indicator eliminates the requirement of a
microscope for measuring the indentation.
The following table gives the standard loads and scales used:

Scale
Symbol Indenter Minor Load (Kg) Major Load (Kg)
A Diamond Cone 10 50
B Steel Ball 10 90
C Diamond Cone 10 140






12

PROCEDURE:
1. The specimen is placed on the table and the table is raised by rotating the hand wheel
clockwise until contact is made with the indenter.
2. Continue rotating the hand wheel until the small indicator on the dial indicates Set
and the main indicator is approximately vertical i.e. rotate the dial itself until the SET
( i.e. C.0 and B.30) position coincides with the main indicator.
3. In the preliminary setting operation as the minor load of 10 kg is applied
automatically, the major load P is applied by pushing back lever on the right hand side
of the machine to its full extent.
4. As soon as the reading of the depth indicator becomes steady the major load is
removed by gently raising the hand lever and the hardness degree may then be read
from scale B or scales C as the case may be.
5. The initial load may be removed by rotating the hand wheel anti clockwise and lower
the elevating screw to facilitate the removal of the specimen without damaging the
indenter.
OBSERVATIONS:
Materials given =
Diameter of Indenter = mm
Type of Indenter =
Load applied (P) = Kg
Reading of scale B or C =
Rockwell Hardness =
Sl. No Material e (=100-E)








13


RESULT:-



PRECAUTION :-
1. At least two preliminary tests should be performed before beginning any
measuring, in order to acclimatize the indenter, raising/lowering screw, and
specimen platform.
2. Ensure that contact surfaces such as the indenter attachment face, between the
specimen and specimen platform, and between the specimen platform and
raising/lowering screw are continually maintained in a clean state.
3. Wipe all contact surfaces thoroughly with a clean cloth before performing tests.
4. The specimen measurement location must be spaced at least 4d (where d is the
indentation diameter) from the center of indentations already present.
14


ME-6
VICKERS HARDNESS TEST
OBJECTIVE:
To measure the hardness of the given materials using Vickers Hardness Testing Machine.
ACCESSORIES:
Vickers Hardness Testing Machine, Diamond pyramid indenter and specimens (MS, Brass,
Aluminum, CI, Broken HSS bits).
THEORY:
The Vickers hardness test uses a square base diamond pyramid as the indenter. The included
angle between the opposite faces of the pyramid is l36 as shown in fig 1. The Vickers
hardness tester operates on the same basic principle as the Brinell tester, the numbers being
expressed in the terms of load and area of the impression. As a result of the indenters shape,
the impression on the surface of the specimen will be a square. The length of the diagonal of
the square is measured through a microscope fitted with an ocular micro meter that contains
movable knife edges. The Vickers hardness values are calculated by the formula:
HV = =
where F is the applied load in kg, is the included angle between opposite faces of indenter
and d is average length of the diagonal in mm as shown in fig 2.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2
The Vickers hardness should be reported like 800 HV/10, which means a Vickers hardness of
800, was obtained using a 10 kgf test force. The advantages of the Vickers hardness test are
that extremely accurate readings can be taken, and just one type of indenter is used for all
15

types of metals and surface treatments. The Vickers method is capable of testing the softest
and hardest of materials, under varying loads.
PROCEDURE:
1. The hardness tester is to connect with the power supply by the main switch. The light
projector flashes up.
2. The corresponding push button is to be pushed for the desired loading. If a loading
was previously applied which differs fundamentally from the desired one or the
method of testing is changed, it might become necessary to set the loading velocity
new. This can be achieved by regulating the knurl nut altering the passage drilling
inside of the piston of the oil brake. If the loading wants to be applied slowly on the
specimen, the knurl nut must be screwed to the right. By a left turn of the knurl nut a
faster application of the loading is achieved.
3. The hand wheel is turned to the right and the specimen, resting on the table is moved
upwards so long until the surface shows distinctly on the focussing screen. After this
the clamping sleeve is clamped by hand against the specimen in that way that at
repeated driving against the specimen a moderate pre-loading of this is achieved. For
bulky or jutting specimen a powerful pre-loading must be chosen.
4. By pushing the button the optic disconnects automatically while the indenter
connects. The adjusted loading, which is intended to act on the specimen, must be
applied in about 15 seconds.
5. After completion of testing time the hand lever must be pressed down. The specimen
is released of the test load, the hardness impression is projected on the focussing
screen.
6. The evaluation of the impressions takes place by means of an inserted projecting
device, measuring two diagonals vertically up on each others. The mean value serves
to calculate the hardness number by using the above mentioned formula.





16

OBSERVATIONS:
Materials given =
Type of indenter =
Load on specimen = Kgf


Sl. No
Length of diagonal d1
(mm)
Length of diagonal
d2 (mm)
Avg. length of
diagonal d= (d1+d2)/2








RESULTS :
Vickers Hardness Number =
Ultimate Tensile Strength of the specimen =
PRECAUTION :
1. When doing the hardness tests the minimum distance between indentations and the
distance from the indentation to the edge of the specimen must be taken into account to
avoid interaction between the work-hardened regions and effects of the edge.
Wipe all contact surfaces thoroughly with a clean cloth before performing tests.

17


ME-7
IZOD IMPACT TEST
OBJECTIVE:-
To study the Impact Testing m/c and Perform Izod impact test.
APPARATUS :-
Impact testing m/c, Izod test specimens of mild steel, Aluminium, Vernier calliper, specimen
setting fixture.
THEORY :-
In manufacturing locomotive wheels, coins, connecting rods etc. the components are
subjected to impact (shock) loads. These loads are applied suddenly. The stress induced in
these components are many times more than the stress produced by gradual loading.
Therefore, impact tests are performed to asses shock absorbing capacity of materials
subjected to suddenly applied loads. These capabilities are expressed as (i) Rupture energy
(ii) Modulus of rupture and (iii) Notch impact strength.
Two types of notch impact tests are commonly-
1. Charpy test
2. Izod test
In Izod test, the specimen is placed as cantilever beam. The specimens have V-shaped notch
of 45. U-shaped notch is also common. The notch is located on tension side of specimen
during impact loading.
Depth of notch is generally taken as t.5 to t/3 where t is thickness of the specimen.
SPECIFICATION OF M/C AND SPECIMEN DETAILS :
Impact capacity =
Least count of capacity (dial) scale =
Weight of striking hammer =
Swing diameter of hammer =
Angle of hammer before striking =
Distance between supports =
Striking velocity of hammer =
Specimen size =
18

Type of notch = V-notch
Angle of notch = 45
Depth of notch =

PROCEDURE:-
1. Lift the hammer to an appropriate knife edge position and notch the energy stored in
2. Locate the test specimen on the m/c supports.
3. Release the hammer. The hammer will break the piece and shoot up the other side of
4. Note the residual energy indicated on the scale by the hammer.
5.Impact strength of the test specimen is the difference of the initial energy stored in the
hammer. For the standard Izod test the energy stored should be 164.5 j.
OBSERVATION :-
S.No
Initial Energy (E1)
in joule
Residual Energy
(E2) in joule
E1-E2

CALCULATION :-
Notch impact strength = Absorb energy / Effective cross section area
RESULT :-
The impact strength of given specimen = -------joule/mm2
PRECAUTIONS :-
1. The specimen should be prepared in proper dimensions.
2. Take reading more frequently.
3. Make the loose pointer in contact with the fixed pointer after setting the pendulum.
4. Do not stand in front of swinging hammer or releasing hammer.
5. Place the specimen proper position.

19


ME-8
TORSION TEST


OBJECTIVE:-
To find the angle of twist and to obtain some of the mechanical properties of the given
material by conducting torsion test.

INTRODUCTION:-
Torsion occurs when any shaft is subjected to a torque. This is true whether the shaft is
rotating (such as drive shafts on engines, motors and turbines) or stationary (such as with a
bolt or screw). The torque makes the shaft twist and one end rotates relative to the other
inducing shear stress on any cross section. Failure might occur due to shear alone or because
the shear is accompanied by stretching or bending.

THEORY:-
A shaft fixed at one end and twisted at the other end due to the action of torque T. The radius
of shaft is R and the length is L.
Imagine a horizontal radial line drawn on the end face. When the end is twisted, the line
rotates through an angle .

G is one of the elastic constants of the material. The equation is only true so long as the
material remains elastic.

Where
T = torque applied
J = polar moment of inertia of the shaft
G = rigidity modulus of the material
= relative angle of twist in radians
L = gauge length (length of the shaft over which the relative angle of twist is measured)
20

Note the relationship between the modulus of elasticity, E, and G the modulus of rigidity
within the linear elastic range of the material is described by Hookes law, which relates E,
G, and Poissons ration, . The knowledge of any two can be used to find the third using the
relationship
E = 2G * (1 + )

It is easy to recognize that the torsional test measures shear stress vs. shear strain to find the
shear modulus where as in a tensile test, axial stress and axial strain are used to determine
Youngs modulus.

PROCEDURE:-
1. Measure the overall length and the diameter at about three places and take the average
value of the test specimen.
2. Draw a line down the length of the test section of the specimen with a chalk; this serves
as a visual aid to the degree of twist being put on the specimen during loading.
3. Select the driving dogs to suit the size of the specimen and clamp it in the machine by
means of a sliding spindle.
4. Choose the appropriate range by capacity change lever.
5. Set the maximum load pointer to zero.
6. Set the protector to zero for convenience and clamp it by means knurled screw.
7. Carry out straining by rotating the hand wheel in either direction.
8. Load the machine in suitable increments, taking note of the torque and the
corresponding angle of twist.
9. Plot a graph between torque and angle of twist and calculate the value of G.

OBSERVATION:-
Length of the member, l =
Diameter of the member, d =
Polar moment of inertia, J = =



21



Sl. No Load in ft. lbs
No. of Divns. In
right hand chuck.
1
No. of Divns. In
left hand chuck.
2
Actual = 1-
2







RESULT:-
From torque-twist graph,
Modulus of rigidity of the material =












FLUID MECHANICS CYCLE
19

CH 1
CALIBRATION OF AIR AND LIQUID ROTAMETER
OBJECTIVE:
To study the effect of different floats on the flow rates.
ACCESSORIES:
Stopwatch, metre scale, 10 ml graduated pipette, Air and Liquid rotameters
THEORY:
The measurement of fluid flow is important in applications ranging from measurement of
blood flow rates in a human artery to the measurement of the flow of liquid in oxygen in a
rocket. In some cases extreme precision is called for in flow measurement while in other
instances only crude measurements are necessary. Flow rate measurement devices frequently
require accurate pressure and temperature instruments in order to calculate the output of the
instrument. The overall accuracy of the instrument is governed primarily by the accuracy of
some pressure or temperature measurement.
The rotameter is a very commonly used flow measurement device. The flow enters the
bottom of a tapered vertical tube and causes the float or bob to move upwards. The bob will
rise to a point such that the drag forces are balanced by the weight and buoyancy forces. The
drag forces are forces which act on a solid object in the direction of the relative flow velocity.
The position of the bob is then taken as an indication of the flow rate. The elevation (height)
of the bob is dependent on the annular area between it and the tapered glass tube. By equating
all the forces we get mean velocity between bob and tube, u
m
.
u
m
=
Q = A u
m

= A
where Q volumetric flow rate, m
3
/s
C
d
Drag coefficient.
A
b
maximum cross sectional area of the float, m
2
.
g Acceleration due to gravity, m/s
2
.
20

b
,
f
densities of bob and fluid respectively, kg/m
3
.
V
b
total volume of the bob, m
3
.
A Annular area, m
2
.
PROCEDURE:
AIR ROTAMETER
1. Open the supply valve partly and allow the air to flow through the rotameter.
2. Observe the position of the float.
3. Measure the displacement of the water level with respect to the fixed time t seconds.
4. Calculate the volumetric flow rate
5. Repeat the experiment by adjusting the supply valve for increased flow.
6. Repeat the experiment for different rotameters having different floats.
LIQUID ROTAMETER
PART A
1. Known volume of water is passed into the rotameter tube and the corresponding
height of the water column is measured.
2. Plot the volume v/s height of the rotameter reading.
3. At any particular graduation find volume / height (V/ h).
4. Measure the maximum cross sectional area of the float (A).
5. Obtain annular area = (V/ h) A.
PART B
1. On the equipment open the supply valve partially and allow the fluid to flow through
the rotameters.
2. Observe the position of the float.
3. Collect the discharge in a measuring jar for a fixed time to calculate the rate of flow.
4. Repeat the experiment by adjusting the supply valve for increased flow for entire
range of rotameter.
5. Calculate the values of C
d
for different flow rates.
6. Plot the rotameter reading v/s volumetric flow rate graph.
21


Fig 1 Air Rotameter Apparatus
OBSERVATION:
Diameter of the measuring tube = _______________ m
Area of the measuring tube (A) = _______________ m
2

S
l.
N
o.
Rotameter
graduation
reading
Measuring tube
Time of
water
collection
(t), s
Q = V/t,
m
3
/s
Initial
reading,
m
Final
reading,
m
Difference
(h), m
Volume
(V) = A *
h
F
l
o
a
t

1

1.
2.
3.
4.
F
l
o
a
t

2

1.
2.
3.
4.
F
l
o
a
t

3

1.
2.
3.
4.

22


Part A
Sl.
No.
Volume of water added,
ml (10
-3
m
3
)
Total volume of
water (V), m
3

Rotameter
graduated reading
Height of water
column (h), m
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Calculations from the plot of V v/s h.
Sl.
No.
Rotameter graduation
reading
V/ h, m
2
Cross sectional
area of float, m
2

Annular Area,
m
2

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Part B
Volume of float, V
b
= _______________ m
3

Density of float,
b
= _______________ kg/ m
3

Density of fluid
f
= _______________ kg/ m
3


23


Sl.
No.
Rotameter
Reading
Volume of water
collected, m
3

Time of water
collection, s
Volumetric
flow rate (Q),
m
3
/s
Drag
coefficient
(C
d
)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

CALCULATION AND DISCUSSION:

RESULT:

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Operate the valve slowly.
2. Operate one valve at a time i.e. one air rotameter at a time.
3. Note the rotameter reading corresponding to the upper portion of the float, in the air
rotameter.
24


CH 2
STUDY OF VISCOSITY COEFFICIENT
OBJECTIVE:
The experiment is to determine the viscosity coefficient of a liquid by means of an Oswalds
viscometer, which is a simple viscometer based on Poiseuilles law.
ACCESSORIES:
Oswald viscometer, 10 ml graduated pipette, tall beaker, 0-100 C thermometer, stopwatch,
stirring motor with arm, Bunsen burner or heater and stand.
THEORY:
The methods frequently used for the determination of the viscosity coefficient (dynamic
viscosity) of liquids are those based on the rate of flow of the liquid having coefficient of
viscosity (Ns/ m
2
) through a capillary tube of length L (m) of uniform radius r (m) under a
pressure difference of P (Newton/ m
2
) is given by the expression for a particular
temperature.
V = , (m
3
)
This relationship is valid only if the flow is not turbulent and is slow enough for the kinetic
energy to be negligible.
The essential measurement is the timing of the passage through the capillary of a fixed
volume of liquid under a fixed mean hydrostatic head of the liquid. If the density of the liquid
is (kg/ m
3
), for a given viscometer having K as constant of viscometer can be written as:
t
= K t
=
s

where and
s
are the viscosity coefficients of the liquid and water respectively. and
s
are
the densities of liquid and water, respectively, t and t
s
are the time taken for liquid and water
to flow between the markings of the viscometer. Knowing the value of viscosity of one
liquid, one can calculate the viscosity of other liquid. The constant of viscometer can be
25

found for each viscometer from its known dimension or by calibration with a liquid whose
viscosity coefficient is known. Viscosity coefficient and density of water can also be obtained
from Perrys Chemical Engineers handbook.
PROCEDURE:
1. Thoroughly clean the viscometer with warm chromic acid, rinse well several times with
distilled water and drain well. Introduce into the viscometer, by means of the pipette, a
known volume of distilled water sufficient for in one meniscus to be in the lower part of
bulb while the other meniscus to be in the upper bulb.
2. Clamp the viscometer vertically in the large beaker filled with water almost to its brim
so that mark a is below the surface.
3. Keep the temperature of the bath as close as to 25C as possible by occasional heating
with the heater; stir the thermostat continuously. Allow 15 min for thermal equilibrium
to be attained. Suck the water into limb b and note the time taken for the passage of
meniscus between the marks A and B. Repeat the experiment twice.
4. Drain the water from the viscometer, rinse twice and dry by blowing air through the
instrument. Introduce the same volume of the given liquid as was used for the first
measurement with water. Allow sufficient time for thermal equilibrium and determine
the time required for flow through the capillary tube at 25 C as before.
5. Repeat the experiment on the given liquid at approximately 5 C interval up to and
including 60 C.
6. Plot the viscosity coefficient v/s temperature curve.

Fig 1 Oswalds Viscometer
26


TABLE:
Case A: For water Case B: For unknown liquid

s
= _______________ kg/ m
3
= _______________ kg/ m
3

s
= _______________ Ns/ m
2

Sl. No. Temp, C Time (t
s
), s Sl. No. Temp, C Time (t), s
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.

CALCULATION AND DISCUSSION:


RESULT:


PRECAUTION:
1. Handle the viscometer with care, it is a fragile instrument. A slight torque can snap
the viscometer.
2. Make sure that the viscometer is vertical.
3. Filter the liquid before use to prevent solid from clogging the capillary.
4. Raise the level of liquid by forcing air out of the capillary end. If the level is raised by
aspiration at the capillary end, liquid often gets into rubber tubing contaminating the
system.


27


CH -3
STUDY OF REYNOLDS APPARATUS
OBJECTIVE:
The objective of this laboratory experiment is to demonstrate the differences between
laminar, turbulent, and transitional fluid flow, and the Reynoldss numbers at which each
occurs.
ACCESSORIES:
Reynolds apparatus, water source, dye, measuring cylinder, stop watch, thermometer.
THEORY:
Professor Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912) experiment is used to investigate the characteristic
of the flow of the liquid in the pipe which is also used to determine the Reynolds Number for
each state of the flow. The design of the apparatus allowed studying the characteristic of the
flow of the fluid in the pipe, the behavior of the flow and also to calculate the range for the
laminar and turbulent flow where the calculation is used to prove the Reynolds number is
dimensionless by using the Reynolds Number formula.
Laminar and turbulent flow-
Professor Osborne Reynolds first realized that there was a critical velocity at which the law
relating loss of pressure energy and velocity in pipe flow changed. He first demonstrated this
with his famous Color Band (on the die-line) experiment. This consisted of injecting a line jet
of dye into the flow of water visible through a transparent pipe. At low velocities the dye-line
was unbroken, but as the velocity of the flow through the pipe was increased, the dye-line
broke up and eddies were seen to form. From this and further experiments, he came to the
conclusion that there are two distinct types of flow:
1. Streamline or Laminar Flow (Latin lamina = layer of thin sheet)- The fluid moves in
layers without irregular fluctuation in velocity. Laminar flow occurs at low Reynolds
Numbers. (The flow of oil in bearing is Laminar).
2. Turbulent flow- This results in the fluid particles moving in irregular patterns carrying an
exchange of momentum from one portion of the fluid to another .

28

Reynolds investigated these two different types of motion and concluded that the parameters
which were involved in the flow characteristics were
is the diameter of the pipe; its characteristic travelled length, , (m).
is the volumetric flow rate (m
3
/s).
is the pipe cross-sectional area (m).
V is the mean velocity of the object relative to the fluid (m/s).
is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa s or N s/m or kg/(m s).
is the density of the fluid (kg/m).
He arrived at a dimensionless constant (Reynolds number)-

PROCEDURE:
1. Fill the tank with water and the dye-chamber with dye.
2. Note the water temperature.
3. Start the water flow and maintain a small flow rate, enough to fill the whole pipe
cross-section.
4. Once the flow stabilizes, start the dye injection. The injection rate should be just
enough to give a clear visible streak of dye.
5. Observe the pattern of the dye streak. The dye should flow in a straight line.
6. Increase the water in small and equal increments and observe the die streak.
7. Repeat step (6) until some undulations commences in the streak. Note the
corresponding volumetric flow rate of water, which is the critical Reynolds number.
Appearance of the undulations signifies of the intermediate or transition flow.
8. Keep increasing the flow rate of the liquid further until one point there is found a
complete dispersion of the dye (indicated by the liquid getting colored through the
cross-section) just as it comes out of the injection needle . This point shows the
conversion to a fully turbulent regime.
9. Note the corresponding volumetric flow rate.
29

OBSERVATION:
Temperature of the liquid = C
Pipe diameter = m
Volumetric flow rate corresponding to fully transition flow = m
3
/s
Volumetric flow rate corresponding to fully turbulent flow = m
3
/s
Liquid density at the observed temperature = Kg/m
3
Liquid viscosity at the observed temperature = Kg/m s
CALCULATION:
- Volumetric flow rate:-
Q =v/s (m/s)
Where:-
Q = volumetric flow rate
v= volume (m)
s= time (s)
- Velocity:-
V=Q/A (m/s)
- For flow in pipe or tube, the Reynolds number is:-
`
RESULTS:

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Close the die valve before closing the water flow.
2. Open the valves gradually for measurement.


30

CH-4
STUDY OF DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF A THERMOMETER
OBJECTIVE:
To study the dynamic behavior of a thermometer.
THEORY:
Mercury in glass thermometer:-
The liquid in glass thermometer is one of the most common temperature measuring devices.
Both liquid and glass on heating and their differential expansion is used to indicate the
temperature. The lower temperature limit is- 37.8 C for mercury. The higher temperature
range is 340C but this range may be extended to 560C by filling the space above mercury
with CO
2
or N
2
at high pressure thereby increasing its boiling point and range. Though the
liquid in glass thermometer has certain laboratory applications yet it is not much used
industrially because of its fragility, and because of the inevitable proximity of the display to
the measuring point.
The Dynamic response of a measuring instrument is the change in the output y caused by a
change in the input x. Both x and y are functions of time t.A temperature measuring device
when put into different environment does not immediately indicate the temperature of the
changed environment. It takes some time to indicate the actual temperature. The lag between
actual and measured value depends on the order of the system. The mercury thermometer
behaves as the first order system.
The response of it is given by:
Y (t) =AK (1-e
-t/
)
Where:-
Y (t) = (Temperature indicated at time t)-(Temperature indicated at time t=0).
A = (Temperature of the new environment)-(Temperature indicated by the thermometer
before it is put in the new environment).
t = time in second.
= time constant of the thermometer in second.
A first order linear instrument has an output which is given by a non-homogeneous first order
linear differential equation
31

.dy(t)/dt + y(t) = K.x(t),
where (tau) is a constant, called the time constant of the instrument. In these instruments
there is a time delay in their response to changes of input. The time constant tau is a measure
of the time delay.
Thermometers for measuring temperature are first-order instruments. The time constant of a
measurement of temperature is determined by the thermal capacity of the thermometer and
the thermal contact between the thermometer and the body whose temperature is being
measured.
The response of a first order instrument to the unit step function for t > 0 is the solution of
.dy(t)/dt + y(t) = K
with the initial condition y(0) = 0. The solution is
y(t) = AK[1 - exp(-t/)].
After a long time y(t) approaches the value K. If is small the response of the instrument is
fast. If is large the response of the instrument is slow.
ACCESSORIES:
Mercury thermometer, electric heater, beaker, water source.
PROCEDURE:
- Case (a):-
1. Measure the room temperature.
2. Boil water in a beaker and measure its temperature.
3. Put the thermometer in the boiling water and immediately start the stopwatch
and record time vs. temperature data.
4. Repeat step (3).
- Case (b):-
1. Boil water in a beaker and measure its temperature.
2. Measure the room temperature.
3. Remove the thermometer from the beaker and hang it outside.
4. Immediately start and stop watch and record time vs. temperature data.
5. Repeat step (3).
32

OBSERVATION:
A = temperature in step (2)- temperature in step(1) [for both cases]
- Case (a):-
Room temperature =
Temperature of boiling water =
Amplitude (A) =

- Case (b):-
Room temperature =
Temperature of boiling water =
Amplitude (A) =
OBSERVATION TABLE:
- Case (a):-
S.No. Time(sec.) Temperature(C ) Y(t) ln(1-Y)/A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10



33

- Case (b):-
S.No. Time(sec.) Temperature(C ) Y(t) ln(1-Y)/A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
CALCULATION:
For this experiment take K = 1.
1. The slope of straight line between ln(1-Y/A) vs. t is (1/ ).
2. Plot (Y/A) vs. t find the time at which Y/A is 0.632. This time is the time constant
of the thermometer.
RESULTS:
The time constant:
- Case (a):-
- Case (a):-
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Do not lift the beaker off the heater.
2. Dip the thermometer in the water for measuring the temperature.
3. Start measuring only when the water starts boiling.


34

CH-5
VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLIS THEOREM
OBJECTIVE:
To verify Bernoullis Equation
THEORY:
Bernoullis equation is obtained by integrating the Eulers Equation of Motion:
dp/ + gdz + vdv = const
The Bernoulli theorem is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and elevation,
and is valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow where net frictional forces are
negligible. The equation is obtained when the Eulers equation is integrated along the
streamline for a constant density (incompressible) fluid. The constant of integration (called
the Bernoullis constant) varies from one streamline to another but remains constant along a
streamline in steady, frictionless, incompressible flow. Despite its simplicity, it has been
proven to be a very powerful tool for fluid mechanics. Bernoullis equation states that the
sum of the kinetic energy (velocity head), the pressure energy (static head) and Potential
energy (elevation head) per unit weight of the fluid at any point remains constant provided
the flow is steady, irrotational, and frictionless and the fluid used is incompressible. This is
however, on the assumption that energy is neither added to nor taken away by some external
agency. The key approximation in the derivation of Bernoullis equation is that viscous
effects are negligibly small compared to inertial, gravitational, and pressure effects. We can
write the theorem as
Pressure head (p/g)+ Velocity head (v
2
/2g)+ Elevation (Z) = a constant
Where
P = the pressure (N/m2)
= density of the fluid (kg/m3)
V = velocity of flow (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
Z = elevation from datum line (m)
=g (specific weight)

35

Assumptions for Bernoullis equation:
i) Fluid is ideal i.e. no viscosity ii) flow is steady
iii) Fluid is incompressible iv) Flow is irrotational
The Bernoullis equation forms the basis for solving a wide variety of fluid flow problems
such as jets issuing from an orifice, jet trajectory; flow under a gate and over a weir, flow
metering by obstruction meters, flow around submerged objects, flows associated with pumps
and turbines etc.
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP:
The equipment is designed as a self-sufficient unit it has a sump tank, measuring tank and a
pump for water circulation as shown in figure1. The apparatus consists of a supply tank,
which is connected to flow channel. The channel gradually contracts for a length and then
gradually enlarges for the remaining length. That channel is like venture with a no. Of
piezometric points at which piezometric tubes are attached to give piezometric heads at
different elevation of water level in tank.
PROCEDURE:
1. Note down the cross sectional area of duct at all piezometric points.
2. Open the supply valve and adjust the flow such that water level in the inlet tank
remains stable.
3. Measure the piezometric head for each piezometric point.
4. Collect the discharge in a collecting tank for a known time and compute flow rate (Q).
5. Repeat the steps (2 to 4) for various discharges.
6. Plot and observe the variation of total energy (y-axis)across the piezometric points (x-
axis).






36

Table 1. Measurement of Discharge(Q)
Area of measuring tank(A
c
): Length___________(m) x Breadth___________(m)
Trials used for
discharge
variation
Rise of water
level(h) in
collecting
tank(m)
Time of
collection t(sec)
Volume
V(m
3
)=(Acxh)

Discharge Q
(m
3
/sec)=V/t
1.
2.
3.
4.

Figure






Table 2. Computational of Total Head(m) for each variation of discharge
Discharge (Q) for trial 1:
Piezomic Tube
number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Cross sectional
area A (m
2
)

Piezometric head
(p/ +z) (m)

Velocity
(m/sec)=Q/A

Velocity head
v
2
/2g (m)

Total head (m)

37

Discharge (Q) for Trial 2:
Piezomic Tube
number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Cross sectional
area A (m
2
)

Piezometric head
(p/ +z) (m)

Velocity
(m/sec)=Q/A

Velocity head
v
2
/2g (m)

Total head (m)




Discharge (Q) for trial 3:
Piezomic Tube
number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Cross sectional
area A (m
2
)

Piezometric head
(p/ +z) (m)

Velocity
(m/sec)=Q/A

Velocity head
v
2
/2g (m)

Total head (m)






Discharge (Q) for Trial 4:
Piezomic Tube
number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Cross sectional
area A (m
2
)

Piezometric head
(p/ +z) (m)

Velocity
(m/sec)=Q/A

Velocity head
v
2
/2g (m)

Total head (m)



RESULTS:
Draw graphs for each trial.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Take heads for trial in between top head and bottom head.
2. Take accurate readings from piezometric tubes.
3. Drain out water after each trial from measuring tank while calculating h.
38

CH-6
CALIBRATION OF ORIFICE AND ELBOWMETER
OBJECTIVE:
To calibrate Orificemeter and Elbowmeter.
THEORY:
Flow Q is the volume flowing through a mathematically precise determined cross-section
over a certain time unit.
Q = Volume/time
Q = velocity Area
Volume V is the flow volume within a certain time interval.
V = Q t

ORIFICEMETER: An orifice plate is a restriction with an opening smaller than the pipe
diameter which is inserted in the pipe; the typical orifice plate has a concentric, sharp edged
opening, as shown in Figure 1. Because of the smaller area the fluid velocity increases,
causing a corresponding decrease in pressure. The flow rate can be calculated from the
measured pressure drop across the orifice plate, P
1
-P
3
. The orifice plate is the most
commonly used flow sensor, but it creates a rather large non-recoverable pressure due to the
turbulence around the plate, leading to high energy consumption.

39


Figure 1
Elbow meter: A differential pressure exists when a flowing fluid changes direction due to a
pipe turn or elbow, as shown in Figure 2 below. The pressure difference results from the
centrifugal force. Since pipe elbows exist in plants, the cost for these meters is very low.
However, the accuracy is very poor; there are only applied when reproducibility is sufficient
and other flow measurements would be very costly.

Figure 2 (Elbow flow meter)
PROCEDURE:
1. Start the air flow through the pipe by switching on the blower.
2. At steady state (unchanging liquid height in the manometers), note the height
difference in the liquid-levels in each of the manometers attached to the orifice meter
and elbow meter.
3. Using a stop-watch and anemometer, determine the flow velocity.
4. Record the temperature of the process fluid(air).
5. Repeat steps 1-4 for different airflow rates by changing the variac-position.
6. Plot discharge coefficient versus the Reynolds number, Dv/ (D-pipe diameter, v-
flow velocity, - kinematic viscosity of process fluid)
40

P=P
0
-- P
i
P
0
= Pressure at outer radius of elbow
P
i
= Pressure at inner radius of elbow
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Temperature of air (flowing through pipe)= _______________
2. Diameter of orifice = 2.54 cm
3. Diameter of pipe = 5.08 cm
4. Angle of inclination of the inclined tube
5. of manometer with the elbow meter = _______________
Table
S.No.
Velocity measurement Height difference in manometer
Time
Anemometer
reading
Flow velocity
(m/s)
Elbow meter
(cm)
Orifice meter
(cm)
Ft m


CALCULATIONS:
1. Q = vA
p
= /4 D
2
v v- flow velocity
1. D- pipe dia
2. A
0
= /4 D
0
2
A
0
- Orifice cross-sectional area
1. D
0
- Orifice diameter :
3. C = Q

A

4. Re = Dv /

5. =
f
/
f

m
hg

nmn
mbg

f

41

f
and
f
should be found at the temperature of process fluid,
m
should be determined at the
ambient temperature.
For the elbow meter , take h = h
m
sin
: Angle with the horizontal of the inclined downstream tube of the inclined manometer.
h
m
: Difference in the liquid level in the two limbs.
RESULTS:
S.No. Reynold number
Discharge coefficient
Orifice meter Elbow meter


RESULTS:

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Keep the other valves closed while taking reading through one pipe.
2. The initial error in the manometer should be subtracted from the final reading.
3. The parallax error should be avoided.
4. Maintain a constant discharge for each reading.











ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING CYCLE
42

EEE 1
STUDY OF LOGIC GATES AND COMBINATIONS
OBJECTIVE:
To study the basic logic gates: AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR and EX-OR and
combinational circuits.
ACCESSORIES:
Digital IC power supply, bread board, 7408, 7432, 7404, 7400, 7402, 7486 ICs, LEDs and
1k resistance and connecting wires etc.
THEORY:
Transistors, when operated at their bias limits, may be in one of two different states: either
cut-off (no controlled current) or saturation (maximum controlled current). If a transistor
circuit is designed to maximize the probability of falling into either one of these states (and
not operating in the linear, or active, mode), it can serve as a physical representation of a
binary bit. A voltage signal measured at the output of such a circuit may also serve as a
representation of a single bit, a low voltage representing a binary "0" and a (relatively) high
voltage representing a binary "1".
A logic gate is a special type of amplifier circuit designed to accept and generate voltage
signals corresponding to binary 1's and 0's. As such, gates are not intended to be used for
amplifying analog signals (voltage signals between 0 and full voltage). Used together,
multiple gates may be applied to the task of binary number storage (memory circuits) or
manipulation (computing circuits), each gate's output representing one bit of a multi-bit
binary number.
PROCEDURE:
1. Each IC has four gates with an exception of 7404which is having six gates.
2. For all gates, output terminal is to be connected to the LED through the 1k
resistance. If LED glows, output will be treated as 1; if LED does not glow, output
will be treated as 0.
3. For 1 input a voltage of +5V is to be applied and for 0 input a voltage of 0 level
means to be grounded and should not be left open.
4. Connect ve terminal of the IC power supply to pin no.7 and +ve terminal of IC
power supply to pin no.14 of the IC.

43

EXPERIMENT: Let A and B be the inputs to gates and Y be the corresponding output in
each of the following runs
OBSERVATIONS:
RUN 1:
(a) AND GATE
Y = A AND B
= A.B
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1


Fig 1 AND GATE IC 7408






44

(b) OR GATE
Y = A OR B
= A + B
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1



Fig 2 OR GATE IC 7432

(c) NOT GATE

Y =
INPUT OUTPUT
A Y
0
1
45


Fig 3 NOT GATE IC 7404

(d) NAND GATE
Y = A NOT AND B
= A NAND B
=
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1


Fig 4 NAND GATE IC 7400
46

(e) NOR GATE
Y = A NOT OR B
= A NOR B
=
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1




Fig 5 NOR GATE IC 7402
(f) EX-OR GATE
Y = A EX-OR B
= A B
INPUT OUTPUT
A B Y
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
47




Fig 6 EX-OR GATE IC 7486
RUN 2:
To determine output of the given logical circuit.


A B C J K L M N Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1



48

RUN 3:


A B C J K L M N Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

RUN 4:


A B C D E F G H Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
49


RUN 5:



A B J K L M N Y
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1


CONCLUSION:


PRECAUTIONS:
1. Do not keep the circuit on for prolong length of time. It leads to overheating and may
corrupt the IC.
2. Ensure the circuit is closed.













50

EEE 2
TEST ON A SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
OBJECTIVE:
To operate and measure parameters in a single phase induction motor.
ACCESSORIES:
Single phase capacitor starts induction motor, voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter and tachometer.
THEORY:
In induction motors, alternating current is directly applied to the stator winding. Rotor
currents are then produced by induction i.e. transformer action. Induction motor is a widely
used motor; it is used in compressors, refrigerators, air conditioners, fans, heat pumps,
pumps, washers and dryers. Its performance as a generator is unsatisfactory and hence not
used as a generator. When a stator winding is excited by a sinusoidal varying current in time
at electrical frequency
e
, the space fundamental mmf distribution is given by the following
expression.

ag1
=
max
cos (
ae
) cos (
e
t)
This expression can be resolved into two rotating mmf waves each of amplitude one half the
maximum amplitude of
ag1
with one
+
ag1
travelling in +
ae
direction and the other
-
ag1

travelling in
ae
direction, both with angular velocity
e
.

+
ag1
=
max
cos (
ae
-
e
t)

-
ag1
=
max
cos (
ae
+
e
t)
Each of these component mmf waves produces induction action, but the corresponding
torques are in opposite directions. With the rotor at rest, the forward and backward air gap
flux waves created by the combined mmfs of the stators and rotor currents are equal, the
component torques are equal and hence no starting torques is produced. If the motor is started
by auxiliary means, it would produce torque in whatever direction it was started.
PROCEDURE:
TEST 1
1. Make connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. R1, R2 are the running windings.
3. S1, S2 are the stationary windings.
51

4. C1, C2 are the terminals of a non-polarized capacitor.
5. Check the scales and ranges on the measuring equipments used.
6. Switch on the supply.
7. Measure the required parameters.
TEST 2
1. Switch off supply.
2. Interchange the connections at S1 and S2.
3. Switch on the supply.
4. Measure the required parameters.
TEST 3
1. Switch off supply.
2. Disconnect the circuit.
3. Now connect only the ammeter and the rotor coils R1 and R2 in series.
4. Ensure the circuit is closed.
5. Switch on the supply.
6. See if the motor rotates.
7. Hold the shaft by hand and feel direction of torque. Then switch off supply.
8. Rotate shaft manually in clockwise direction and switch on the supply. Note direction
of rotation. Then switch off supply. Let it come to rest.
9. Now rotate shaft manually in anticlockwise direction and switch on the supply. Note
direction of rotation.


52

OBSERVATION:
VOLTMETER:
No. of scales
Ranges
AMMETER:
No. of scales
Ranges
WATTMETER:
No. of scales
Ranges
TACHOMETER:
No. of scales
Ranges
TEST 1:
Direction of rotation
Voltage (V) V
Current(I) A
Power (P) W
Speed (N) Rpm
Power factor = W/ (V I)
TEST 2:
Direction of rotation
Voltage (V) V
Current (I) A
Power (P) W
Speed (N) Rpm
Power factor = W/ (V I)
53

TEST 3:
Current (I) A
Speed (N) Rpm
Does the motor rotate initially?
YES / NO
Does the motor continue to rotate in the same direction when rotated manually in the
clockwise direction?
YES / NO
Does the motor continue to rotate in the same direction when rotated manually in the
anticlockwise direction?
YES / NO

CONCLUSION:


PRECAUTIONS:
1. Ensure the circuit is closed.
2. Do not make changes in the circuit wiring while the supply is still switched on.
3. Make sure that the power supply is switched off before making changes to the circuit.





54


EEE - 3
HARDWARE FAMILARITY, COMPONENT STUDY AND
STUDY OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS
OBJECTIVE:
Hardware familiarity and component study. Study of operational amplifier circuits.
ACCESSORIES:
AF signal generator, Digital multimeter(DMM), Bread Board ,Op. Amp (A741), resistances.
THEORY:
Resistors:
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to
the voltage across the resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law:
`
where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in
units of ohms. The ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of
current in the circuit is called its resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant
(independent of the voltage) for ordinary resistors working within their ratings.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and
films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-
chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog
devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.




55


Color code of Resistors
Color

First Digit
1
Second Digit
2
Multiplier
3
Resistance
Tolerance
Percentage 4
Silver - - 10
-2
10%
Gold - - 10
-1
5%
Black 0 0 10
0
-
Brown 1 1 10
1
1%
Red 2 2 10
2
2%
Orange 3 3 10
3
3%
Yellow 4 4 10
4
4%
Green 5 5 10
5
5%
Blue 6 6 10
6
6%
Violet 7 7 10
7
7%
Grey 8 8 10
8
8%
White 9 9 10
9
9%

Operational amplifier:
An operational amplifier (op-amp) is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic
voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. An op-amp
produces an output voltage that is typically hundreds of thousands of times larger than the
voltage difference between its input terminals.
The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Operational amplifiers had their origins
in analog computers where they were used to do mathematical operations in many linear,
non-linear and frequency-dependent circuits.
56

In an inverting amplifier, the output voltage changes in an opposite direction to the input
voltage.
In a non-inverting amplifier, the output voltage changes in the same direction as the input
voltage.
AF signal generator:
Signal generators, also known variously as function generators, RF and microwave signal
generators, pitch generators, arbitrary waveform generators, digital patter
generators or frequency generators are electronic devices that generate repeating or non-
repeating electronic signals (in either the analog or digital domains).Audio-frequency signal
generators generate signals in the audio-frequency range and above.
Digital multimeter(DMM):
Modern multimeters are often digital due to their accuracy, durability and extra features. In a
digital multimeter the signal under test is converted to a voltage and an amplifier with
electronically controlled gain preconditions the signal. A digital multimeter displays the
quantity measured as a number, which eliminates parallax errors.
PROCEDURE:
- Inverting amplifiers :
1. Make connections as per Fig.(3)
2. Feed a signal of 1KHz at the input through AF signal generator.
3. Measure input and output signals using Digital multimeter and record the
same in the observation table. Hence calculate voltage gain(A
v
).
4. Try changing values of R
f
and R
i
, verify your result. Frequency may also be
altered.
Note: A D.C power supply may also be connected at the input. You should get the D.C
output as per the values of R
f
and R
i
with a reversed polarity.
- Non-Inverting amplifiers :
1. Make connections as per Fig.(4)Type equation here.
2. Feed a signal of 1KHz at the input through AF signal generator.
3. Measure input and output signals using Digital multimeter and record the
same in the observation table. Hence calculate voltage gain(A
v
).
57

4. Try changing values of R
f
and R
i
, verify your result. Frequency may also be
altered.
Figure:

Fig.(1)

Fig.(2)
58


Fig.(3)

Fig.(4)
OBSERVATION TABLE:
- Inverting :-
S.No.

V
in
V
out
A
v
= V
out
/V
in
R
f
R
in
A
v
= -R
f
/R
in


1
59

2
3
4
- Non-inverting :-
S.No.

V
in
V
out
A
v
= V
out
/V
in
R
f
R
in
A
v
= 1+R
f
/R
in

1
2
3
4


CALCULATION:
- Inverting amplifiers :
A
v
= V
out
/V
in
= -R
f
/R
in

- Non-Inverting amplifiers :
A
v
= V
out
/V
in
= 1+R
f
/R
in

RESULTS:


PRECAUTIONS:
1. Handle operational amplifier with care.
2. Check the setting of AF signal generator before taking the readings.
3. Check the wiring before taking the reading.
4. The digital multimeter does not display a negative sign.

60






61


EEE-4
MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL VARIABALES IN
SINGLE PHASE CIRCUIT
OBJECTIVE:
- Study of terminals and controls available in given voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter,
Variac (autotransformer).
- Measurement of electrical quantities in single phase circuit with
1. Resistive load
2. RC & RL load
3. RLC load
ACCESSORIES:
Voltmeter, ammeter, variac, double pole single throw (DPST)switch,
wattmeter, R,L&C components and connecting wires
THEORY:
Wire wound Resistor:
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to
the voltage across the resistor's terminals.
A wire wound resistor is an electrical passive component that limits current. The resistive
element exists out of an insulated metallic wire that is winded around a core of non-
conductive material. The wire material has a high resistivity, and is usually made of an alloy
such as Nickel-chromium (Nichrome) or a copper-nickel-manganese alloy called Manganin.
Common core materials include ceramic, plastic and glass. Wire wound resistors are the
oldest type of resistors that are still manufactured today. They can be produced very accurate,
and have excellent properties for low resistance values and high power ratings.
Capacitor:
A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component
used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all
62

contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example,
one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.
When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric
field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and
negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal
capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is
the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.
Inductor:
An inductor (also choke, coil or reactor) is a passive two-terminal electrical component that
stores energy in its magnetic field. For comparison, a capacitor stores energy in an electric
field, and a resistor does not store energy but rather dissipates energy as heat.
Any conductor has inductance. An inductor is typically made of a wire or other conductor
wound into a coil, to increase the magnetic field.
When the current flowing through an inductor changes, creating a time-varying magnetic
field inside the coil, a voltage is induced, according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction which by Lenz's law opposes the change in current that created it. Inductors are one
of the basic components used in electronics where current and voltage change with time, due
to the ability of inductors to delay and reshape alternating currents.
PROCEDURE:
1. First take the basic observations about the different measuring instrument (ammeter,
voltmeter etc.).
2. Make connections as per Fig.(1) and connect the output of variac to a single phase
load.
- For first set of readings take resistance(R) as load. Fig.(3)
- For second set of readings take resistance(R) and inductor(L) as load. Fig.(5)
- For third set of readings take resistance(R) and capacitor(C) as load. Fig.(6)
- For forth set of readings take resistance(R), inductor(L) and capacitor(C) as
load. Fig.(7)
Note : all the loads are connected in series.
63

3. Connect voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter with proper connection.
4. We keep the voltmeter terminals free so that one voltmeter can be used for measuring
voltage anywhere on the circuit by touching its terminals at the two points between
which voltage is to be measured.
Figure:

Fig.(1)

Fig.( 2)

Fig.(3) Fig.(4)

Fig.(5)

64


Fig.(6)

Fig.(7)
OBSERVATION:
- Voltmeter :
1. It measures only ac/dc voltage, both ac and dc
voltage
2. Its scale is linear/non-linear
3. Voltage range available are
4. It reads the rms/peak/dc voltage
5. It is connected in series/ parallel with load(fig.3)
6. Input impedance of voltmeter is very large/small as compared to
load.
- Ammeter :
1. It measures only ac/dc voltage, both ac and dc voltage
2. Its scale is linear/non-linear
3. Current range available are
4. It reads the rms/peak/dc voltage
5. It is connected in series/ parallel with load(fig.2)
6. Input impedance of voltmeter is very large/small as compared to
load.
- Variac(Autotransformer) :
65

1. Input ac voltage given to the variac(fig.4) .
2. Variable output ac voltage is from to V (rms)
- Wattmeter :
It has four terminals coming out of it, two for the pressure coil(pc)(marked as COM
and V) and two for current coil(cc) (marked as M and L)(fig.1). The readings
of the digital mete are in KW.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Frequency of the source voltage observed is .
Loads V
s
V
L
V
r
V
c
V
I
I
L
W
R - -
R and L -
R and C -
R,L & C
RESULT:
1. Draw the phasor diagram for V
L ,
V
r ,
I
L
of R load on(fig.a).
2. Draw the phasor diagram for V
r ,
I
L ,
V
I
of R,L load on(fig.b).
3. Draw the phasor diagram for V
r ,
V
c ,
I
L
of R, C load on(fig.c).
4. Draw the phasor diagram for V
r ,
V
c ,
I
L ,
V
I
of R,C,L load on(fig.d).

Fig.(a) Fig.(b)
66


Fig.(c) Fig.(d)

PRECAUTIONS:
1. We keep the voltmeter terminals free so that one voltmeter can be used for measuring
voltage.
2. Check the connections before taking the readings.
3. Keep hands off the terminals once the power is switched on.





67


EEE-5
DETERMINATION OF SENSITIVITY OF LVDT
OBJECTIVE
To Determine sensitivity of the LVDT transducer
THEORY
A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to another. Energy types include
electrical, mechanical, electromagnetic (including light),chemical, acoustic or thermal energy.
While the term transducer commonly implies the use of a sensor/detector, any device which
converts energy can be considered a transducer. Transducers are widely used in measuring
instruments
What Is An LVDT?
The letters LVDT are an acronym for Linear Variable Differential Transformer, a common
type of electromechanical transducer that can convert the rectilinear motion of an object to
which it is coupled mechanically into a corresponding electrical signal.
Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) are used to measure displacement. LVDTs
operate on the principle of a transformer. As shown in Figure , an LVDT consists of a coil
assembly and a core. The coil assembly is typically mounted to a stationary form, while the
core is secured to the object whose position is being measured. The coil assembly consists of
three coils of wire wound on the hollow form. A core of permeable material can slide freely
through the center of the form. The inner coil is the primary, which is excited by an AC
source as shown. Magnetic flux produced by the primary is coupled to the two secondary
coils, inducing an AC voltage in each coil. The two secondary coils are in phase opposition
with each other.

68

(1) General LVDT Assembly
How Does An LVDT Work?
Figure 2 illustrates what happens when the LVDT's core is in different axial positions. The
LVDT's primary winding, P, is energized by a constant amplitude AC source. The magnetic
flux thus developed is coupled by the core to the adjacent secondary windings, S1 and S2. If
the core is located midway between S1 and S2, equal flux is coupled to each secondary so the
voltages, E1 andE2, induced in windings S1 and S2 respectively, are equal. At this
reference midway core position, known as the null point, the differential voltage output, (E1 -
E2), is essentially zero.
As shown in Figure 2, if the core is moved closer to S1 than to S2, more flux is coupled to S1
and less to S2, so the induced voltage E1 is increased while E2 is decreased, resulting in the
differential voltage (E1 - E2). Conversely, if the core is moved closer to S2, more flux is
coupled to S2 and less to S1, so E2 is increased as E1 is decreased, resulting in the
differential voltage (E2 - E1).

Figure(2)
The main advantage of the LVDT transducer over other types of displacement transducer is
the high degree of robustness. Because there is no physical contact across the sensing
element, there is no wear in the sensing element.
Because the device relies on the coupling of magnetic flux, an LVDT can have infinite
resolution. Therefore the smallest fraction of movement can be detected by suitable signal
conditioning hardware, and the resolution of the transducer is solely determined by the
resolution of the data acquisition system.
ACCESSORIES
LVDT transducer, AF signal generator, CRO and connecting wires.

69


PROCEDURE
1. Study the following carefully:
a. Least count of the screw gauge.
b. Frequency (range) and output of the AF
Signal.
c. Controls of CRO, particularly Volts/Division on Y-input
2. Set Volts/Div control to 1 Volt/Div.
3. Connect Y input to CAL-IV terminal. You will see two dotted lines on the horizontal
screen one division apart from each other.
4. Hook up the connections as per circuit diagram (1) and switch on the mains supply.
5. Feed a signal of 1 KHz at 10Volts from the signal generator and notice a sine wave on
the CRO screen. Change Volts/Div., if necessary.
6. Adjust screw gauge for a straight horizontal line. This indicates ZERO output (Null
point). Note down the reading of screw gauge at null point.
7. Shift cantilever plate up and down by means of the screw gauge noting CRO reading
and the corresponding displacement on screw gauge with reference to null point
reading in the observation table.
8. Plot graph for displacement vs output and thereby determine the slope of the graph.
(Slope=y/x)
9. Slope of the graph = Sensitivity of LVDT trans












Cantilever
70


OBSERVATION TABLE
1. Least count of the screw gauge ____________ mm.
2. Sensitivity of the CRO _____________Volts/div.
3. Null point reading _____________mm.
S.No.
Displacement of cantilever
plate w.r.t Null point
reading
CRO reading
Output
(mV)
Up(mm) Down(mm) Up(div) Down(div)












Iron core
Primary winding Secondary winding
Anti phase
71

EEE-6
TEST ON SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
OBJECTIVE:
To conduct tests on a single phase transformer and determine its :-
i. Turns Ratio
ii. Voltage Ratio
iii. Current Ratio
iv. No load losses
v. Percentage Regulation
THEORY:
Transformer terminology
A transformer is an apparatus for converting electrical power in an ac system at one
voltage or current into electrical power at some other voltage or current without the
use of rotating parts.
The primary winding is the winding of the transformer which is connected to the
source of power. It may be either the high- or the lowvoltage winding, depending
upon the application of the transformer.
The secondary winding is the winding of the transformer which delivers power to the
load. It may be either the high- or the low-voltage winding, depending upon the
application of the transformer.
The core is the magnetic circuit upon which the windings are wound.
The high-tension winding is the one which is rated for the higher voltage.
The low-tension winding is the one which is rated for the lower voltage.
A step-up transformer is a constant-voltage transformer so connected that the
delivered voltage is greater than the supplied voltage.
A step-down transformer is one so connected that the delivered voltage is less than
that supplied voltage.
An autotransformer (sometimes called auto step down transformer) is an electrical
transformer with only one winding. The "auto" (Greek for "self") prefix refers to the
single coil acting on itself and not to any kind of automatic mechanism. In an
72

autotransformer portions of the same winding act as both the primary and secondary.
The winding has at least three taps where electrical connections are made.
Autotransformers have the advantages of often being smaller, lighter, and cheaper
than typical dual-winding transformers, but autotransformers have the disadvantage of
not providing electrical isolation.
Regulation Of Transformer
The regulation of a transformer is the change in secondary voltage from no load to full
load. It is generally expressed as a percentage of the full-load secondary voltage.
Efficiency Of Transformer
The efficiency of a transformer is, as with any other device, the ratio of the output to
input or, in other words, the ratio of the output to the output plus the losses.
loss iron loss copper output
output
Input
output
Efficiency
+ +
= =
The copper loss of a transformer is determined by the resistances of the high-tension
and low-tension windings and of the leads. It is equal to the sum of the watts of I
2
R
losses in these components at the load for which it is desired to compute the
efficiency.
The iron loss of a transformer is equal to the sum of the losses in the iron core.These
losses consist of eddy- or Foucault-current losses and hysteresis losses. Eddy-current
losses are due to currents generated by the alternating flux circulating within each
lamination composing the core, and they are minimized by using thin laminations and
by insulating adjacent laminations with insulating varnish. Hysteresis losses are due to
the power required to reverse the magnetism of the iron core at each alternation and
are determined by the amount and the grade of iron used for the laminations for the
core.
Transformer ratings. Transformers are rated at their kilovolt-ampere (kVA) outputs.

73

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
ACCESSORIES
Single Phase Transformer, Single Phase autotransformer, voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter,
load and switches
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the circuit as shown in diagram.
2. Switch on the supply and take readings for no load.
3. Now take readings in load conditions
OBSERVATIONS
RUN 1
1. Voltmeter I
Voltage ranges available _____________
Its scale is linear/ non-linear/digital display
It measure only ac/dc
2. Voltmeter II
Voltage ranges available _____________
Its scale is linear/non-linear/ digital display
It measure only ac/dc/both
3. Ammeter I
Current ranges available _________________
Its scale is linear/non-linear/ digital display
It measures only ac/dc/both
4. Ammeter II
Current ranges available _________________
Its scale is linear/non-linear/ digital display
It measures only ac/dc/both
5. Wattmeter
1) It is Dynamometer/induction type/ digital
2) It reads only dc/active/reactive power on same scale
3) Its scale is linear/non-linear/ digital display
74

4) Number of division on scale is ______________ divisions
5)Wattmeter has four terminals coming out of it-two for the pressure coil (pc)
(marked as COM and V) and two for current coil (cc) marked M (for mains) and L (for
load) fig.3-1 shows the wattmeter connections for power measurement in a single phase
circuit. We observe that:
a) M of cc is connected to incoming line/neutral/load terminal
b) L of cc is connected to live/neutral/load terminal
c) V of pc is connected terminal M/terminal L/ neutral N.
d) COM of pc is connected terminal M/terminal L/ neutral N.
e) Load current will pass through cc/pc
f) Load voltage appears cc/pc
6) Available pressure coil ranges are __________________________
7) Available current coil ranges are __________________________
8) Specified power factor (pf)for the given
Wattmeter is (Normal power factor 1, if not _________________________
specified on wattmeter)
9) Multiplication factor (MF) of the wattmeter)
= Pressure coil range X current coil range X pf
Total no. of divisions on the scale
10) Wattmeter reading in watts
= _____________________
Autotransformer:
Range: Input ____________
Output____________
Transformer name plate details:
Voltage(HV) _____________
Voltage(LV) _____________
KVA rating _______________
RUN 2 (No load test)
i. Connect meters, transformers, load etc. As shown in fig. 3-1
ii. Keep the variac position near 0i.e. no voltage is applied to the circuit.
Load switch (S2) must be off.
75

Iii Switch on the supply, (Switch S1) increase the input voltage with the help of variac,
a) Voltage on HV side: (reading in V1) _______________volts
b) Voltage on LV side (reading in V2) _______________volts
c) No load current (reading in A1) _______________volts
d) Current in LV side (reading in A2) _______________volts
e) No load losses (reading in W) ________________watt
(This is the no-load loss, since the transformer is not converting any energy to the load
circuit).
f) Turns ratio = Voltage on HV side
Voltage on LV side
(Turns ratio = voltage ratio)
g) Current ratio = 1/Turns ratio
RUN 3 (Load Test)
Close the switch (S2) on LV side.
Note down:
a. HV side voltage ___________________V
b. LV side voltage ___________________V
%Regulation= Change in LV side Voltage from no load to LV side voltage from load X100
No-load voltage
c. HV side current ________________A
d. LV side current ________________A
e. Power consumed ________________W
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Be as neat a possible. Keep the work area and workbench clear of items not used
in the experiment.
2. When disassembling a circuit, first remove the source of power.
3. Keep the body, or any part of it, out of the circuit.
4. Always check to see that the power switch is OFF before plugging into the outlet.
Also, turn instrument or equipment OFF before unplugging from the outlet.
76

APPENDIX I
HARDNESS-STRENGTH CONVERSION PLOTS (courtesy of The American Society
for Metals.)


















77


APPENDIX II
CHART FOR VICKERS HARDNESS TEST



















78


APPENDIX III
Question bank
MECHANICAL

1. What is the limitation of Brinell hardness test?

2. Which is the hardest material ? and how ?

3. Can we predict the tensile strength of a material if its
hardness in known ?

4. What is the unit of B.H.N?

5. Which ball size is recommended for Brinell test?

6. In what way the values of impact energy will be influenced if the impact tests are
conducted on two specimens, one having smooth surface and the other having
scratches on the surface ?

7. What is the effect of temp. on the values of rupture energy and notch impact strength ?

8. What is resilience? How is it different from proof resilience and toughness?

9. What is the necessity of making a notch in impact test specimen ?

10. If the sharpness of V-notch is more in one specimen than the other, what will be its
effect on the test result ?

11. Which steel have you tested in tensile testing ? what is its carbon content ?
12. What general information are obtained from tensile test regarding the properties of a
material.

13. Which stress have you calculated during tensile, compression and bending test:
nominal stress or true stress ?

14. What kind of fracture has occurred in the tensile specimen and why ?
79


15. Which is the most ductile metal ?How much is its elongation ?

16. Compression tests are generally performed on brittles materials-why ?

17. Which will have a higher strength : a small specimen or a full size member made of
the same material ?

18. What is column action ? how does the h/d ratio of specimen affect the test result ?

19. How do ductile and brittle materials in their behaviour in compression test ?

20. What are bi-modulus materials ? Give examples

21. What is deflection ? how will define ?

22. What is moment of inertia ?

23. What is young modulus ?

24. Write Eulers formula.

25. Does the shear failure in wood occur along the 45 shear plane ?










80


CHEMICAL
1. What are the various forces that act on a float in a rotameter?
2. What is drag force?
3. What is buoyancy force?
4. Can a rotameter be placed horizontally?
5. Why should be a rotameter placed vertically?
6. What are the directions of the various forces acting on the float of a rotameter?
7. What is dynamic viscosity?
8. What is the principle of a viscometer?
9. What is the unit of dynamic viscosity?
10. Reynolds number importance?
11. Describe the Reynolds number experiment to demonstrate the two types of flow?
12. Define laminar, transition and turbulent flow?
13. What is critical velocity?
14. Properties of fluid on which Reynolds number is dependent?
15. Why is the dye used in the experiment?
16. What happens when fluid of high viscosity is used?
17. Give a practical example of laminar flow?
18. What do you mean by dynamic response of a measuring instrument?
19. What do you mean by first order instruments?
20. Name one first order instruments?
21. What do you mean by time constant of a thermometer?
22. How is the time constant determined?
23. Discuss effect of variation of on response of the instrument?
24. Properties of mercury?
25. 1) Bernoullis equation holds good for non ideal fluids
81

a) True b) False
26. The pressure head is given by
a) P/ b) V
2
/2g
27. Bernoullis theorem deals with law conservation of momentum
a) True b) false
28. What is piezometeric tube?
29. Where piezometric head comes to be minimum ?
30. What is the principle of flow measurement in orificemeter?
31. Define parallax error?
32. What is coefficient of discharge?
33. What is coefficient of velocity?
34. Define vena-contracta?

82


EEE
1. How many pins does each IC given in this experiment have?
2. Which gate is IC 7400?
3. Which gate is IC 7402?
4. Which gate is IC 7404?
5. Which gate is IC 7408?
6. Which gate is IC 7432?
7. Which gate is IC 7486?
8. How many logic gates are there in an IC 7404 (NOT)?
9. How many logic gates are there in an IC 7432 (OR)/7400/7402/7408/7486?
10. Define Power Factor.
11. What is the unit of power factor?
12. In what unit is the True power expressed?
13. What is the unit of apparent power?
14. What is the power factor of a purely resistive circuit?
15. What is the power factor of a purely capacitive circuit?
16. What is the power factor of a purely inductive circuit?
17. What do you mean by operational amplifier (op-amp)?
18. What do you mean by inverting amplifier?
19. What do you mean by non-inverting amplifier?
20. What is the use of AF signal generator?
21. What is the use of Digital multimeter(DMM)?
22. What do you mean by voltage gain?
23. What type of input is given to the circuits?
24. What is the output shown in the multimeter?
25. What is the use of color code of resistors?
83

26. What do you mean by resistor?
27. What do you mean by capacitor?
28. What do you mean by inductors?
29. What does a phasor diagram indicate?
30. What happens to voltage across the load when the no of loads increase?
31. What happens to current across the load when the no of loads increase?
32. What are the different measuring instruments used in the experiment?
33. Define the term sensitivity as it relates to a transducer.
34. Define what the null position of an LVDT is.
35. Determine the sensitivity of the LVDT. Generate a plot of the output voltage vs.
input displacement of the core.
36. If the LVDT has a linear input range of +/- 3 inches with a correspondingoutput
range of +/- 10 V dc, what nominal sensitivity should this instrument have?
37. Is the calibrated sensitivity different from the expected value? Why may these values
differ?
38. Determine the sensitivity of the accelerometer.
39. What means can be used to determine if the accelerometer was calibrated at100Hz?
40. How accurate are the experimental sensitivities of the LVDT and accelerometer?
Discuss the sources for error.
41. Discuss an alternate means of calibrating an accelerometer.
42. Discuss types of losses in transformer?
43. What is variac?
44. What do you mean by step up and step down transformer?
45. What value of voltage and frequency is used in India?
46. Give relationship between turns ratio and current ratio?



84















PERFORATED SECTION

Name: ID No.
Marks Obtained Date
Instructors Signature .

EXPERIMENT NO.
MEASUREMENT OF MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
OBJECTIVE:-
To measure tensile strain by Ewings extensometer during tension test on an M.S specimen
and to determine the value of modulus of elasticity.
OBSERVATION :-
Gauge length of specimen l = ------mm.
Least count of extensometer= 0.0002 inch
85

Diameter of specimen d = 0.8 inches =
Area of cross section of specimen =
OBSERVATION TABLE
S.No.
Load on specimen
(T)
Stress (T/in
2
)
Extensometer
reading (division)
Strain X 10
-5





RESULT :-

The Youngs modulus of the given specimen = -------GPa
PRECAUTIONS :-
1. The specimen should be prepared in proper dimensions.
2. The specimen should be properly to get between the compression plates.
3. Take reading carefully.
4. After failed specimen stop to m/c.

Name: ID No.
Marks Obtained Date
Instructors Signature .

EXPERIMENT NO.

MEASUREMENT OF MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Objective:-
To measure bending strain by dial-gauge indicator during bending test on an M.S specimen
and to determine the value of modulus of elasticity.
86

OBSERVATION :-
Least count of dial-gauge indicator = 0.1 mm
Length of beam (L) =
Width of beam (b) = ------
Thickness of beam (t) = ------

OBSERVATION TABLE
Sl no. Load on specimen
(Kg)
Stress (Kg/cm
2
) Dial gauge indicator
reading
Strain X 10
-5










CALCULATION:-
xx
My
I
o =

3
12
xx
bh
I =

87

3
2
11
568
t
y
l w
E
I o
=
| |
=
|
\ .


RESULT :-

The Youngs modulus of the given specimen = -------GPa

PRECAUTIONS :-
1. The specimen should be prepared in proper dimensions.
2. The specimen should be properly to get between the compression plates.
3. Take reading carefully.
4. After failed specimen stop to m/c.




Name: ID No.
Marks Obtained Date
Instructors Signature .
EXPERIMENT NO.

COMPRESSION TEST
OBJECTIVE:-
To Perform compression test on UTM.
OBSERVATION :-
88

Initial length or height of specimen h = ------mm.
Initial diameter of specimen do = -------------mm.
Applied load (P) in Newton =
Recorded change in length (mm)=
CALCULATION :-
Original cross-section area Ao = -----
Final cross-section area Af = --------
Stress = -------
Strain = -------
Draw stress-strain (-) curve in compression,
RESULT :-
The Youngs modulus of the given specimen = -------GPa
PRECAUTIONS :-
1. The specimen should be prepared in proper dimensions.
2. The specimen should be properly to get between the compression plates.
3. Take reading carefully.
4. After failed specimen stop to m/c.

Name: ID No.
Marks Obtained Date
Instructors Signature .
EXPERIMENT NO.
IZOD TEST

OBJECTIVE:-
To study the Impact Testing m/c and Perform Izod impact test.
APPARATUS :-
89

Impact testing m/c, Izod test specimens of mild steel, Aluminium, Vernier calliper, specimen
setting fixture.
SPECIFICATION OF M/C AND SPECIMEN DETAILS :
Its specifications along-with their typical values are as follows:
Impact capacity =
Least count of capacity (dial) scale =
Weight of striking hammer =
Swing diameter of hammer =
Angle of hammer before striking =
Distance between supports =
Striking velocity of hammer =
Specimen size =
Type of notch = V-notch
Angle of notch = 45
Depth of notch =




OBSERVATION :-
S.No Initial Energy (E1)
in joule
Residual Energy
(E2) in joule
E1-E2


CALCULATION :-
90



Notch impact strength = Absorb energy / Effective cross section area

RESULT :-
The impact strength of given specimen = -------joule/mm2


PRECAUTIONS :-
1. The specimen should be prepared in proper dimensions.
2. Take reading more frequently.
3. Make the loose pointer in contact with the fixed pointer after setting the pendulum.
4. Do not stand in front of swinging hammer or releasing hammer.
5. Place the specimen proper position.




Name: ID No.
Marks Obtained Date
Instructors Signature .
EXPERIMENT NO.
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
OBJECTIVE:
To measure the hardness of the given samples and to correlate them with the Ultimate Tensile
Strength (UTS) of the materials using Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine.
OBSERVATIONS:
91

Materials given =
Diameter of Indenter = mm
Load applied (P) = Kg
Reading of scale B or C =
Sl. No Material e (=100-E)






RESULT:-

PRECAUTION :-
1. At least two preliminary tests should be performed before beginning any measuring, in
order to acclimatize the indenter, raising/lowering screw, and specimen platform.
2. Ensure that contact surfaces such as the indenter attachment face, between the specimen
and specimen platform, and between the specimen platform and raising/lowering screw
are continually maintained in a clean state.
3. Wipe all contact surfaces thoroughly with a clean cloth before performing tests.
4. The specimen measurement location must be spaced at least 4d (where d is the
indentation diameter) from the center of indentations already present.
Name: ID No.
Marks Obtained Date
Instructors Signature .
EXPERIMENT NO.
VICKERS HARDNESS TEST
OBJECTIVE:
To measure the hardness of the given materials using Vickers Hardness Testing Machine.
OBSERVATIONS:
Materials given =
92

Type of indenter =
Load on specimen = Kgf
Sl. No
Length of diagonal d1
(mm)
Length of diagonal
d2 (mm)
Avg. length of
diagonal d= (d1+d2)/2








RESULTS :
Vickers Hardness Number =
Ultimate Tensile Strength of the specimen =
PRECAUTION :
1. When doing the hardness tests the minimum distance between indentations and the
distance from the indentation to the edge of the specimen must be taken into account to
avoid interaction between the work-hardened regions and effects of the edge.
2. Wipe all contact surfaces thoroughly with a clean cloth before performing tests.
Name: ID No.
Marks Obtained Date
Instructors Signature .
EXPERIMENT NO.
TORSION TEST
OBJECTIVE:-
To find the angle of twist and to obtain some of the mechanical properties of the given
material by conducting torsion test.
93

OBSERVATION:-
Length of the member, l =
Diameter of the member, d =
Polar moment of inertia, J = =
S.No Load in ft. lbs
No. of Divns. In
right hand chuck. 1
No. of Divns. In
left hand chuck. 2
Actual =
1-2








CALCULATION :-

RESULT:-
From torque-twist graph,
Modulus of rigidity of the material =
94



95

VICKERS HARDNESS NUMBER
Eindruck Diagonale HV (5 Kg)
d (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.08 1449 1413 1379 1346 1314 1283 1253 1225 1197 1171
0.09 1145 1120 1095 1072 1049 1027 1006 986 966 946
0.10 927 908 891 874 857 841 825 810 795 781
0.11 766 752 739 726 713 701 689 677 666 655
0.12 644 633 623 613 603 593 584 575 566 558
0.13 549 540 532 524 516 509 502 494 487 480
0.14 473 466 460 454 447 441 435 429 423 418
0.15 412 407 401 396 391 386 381 376 371 367
0.16 362 358 353 349 345 341 336 332 329 325
0.17 321 317 313 310 306 303 299 296 293 289
0.18 286 283 280 277 274 271 268 265 262 260
0.19 257 254 251 249 246 244 241 239 236 234
0.20 232 229 227 225 223 221 219 216 214 212
Eindruck Diagonale HV (10 Kg)
d (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.11 1533 1505 1478 1452 1427 1402 1378 1354 1332 1310
0.12 1288 1267 1246 1226 1206 1187 1168 1150 1132 1115
0.13 1097 1081 1064 1048 1033 1018 1003 988 974 960
0.14 946 933 920 907 894 882 870 858 847 835
0.15 824 813 803 792 782 772 762 752 743 734
0.16 724 715 707 698 690 681 673 665 657 649
0.17 642 634 627 620 613 606 599 592 585 579
0.18 572 566 560 554 548 542 536 530 525 519
0.19 514 508 503 498 493 488 483 478 473 468
0.20 464 459 455 450 446 442 437 433 429 425
0.21 421 417 413 409 405 401 397 394 390 387
0.22 383 380 376 373 370 366 363 360 357 354
0.23 351 348 345 342 339 336 333 330 327 325
0.24 322 319 317 314 312 309 306 304 302 299
96

indruck Diagonale HV (15 Kg)
d (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.12 1932 1905 1866 1838 1808 1780 1752 1724 1697 1671
0.13 1646 1617 1598 1572 1549 1526 1504 1482 1460 1439
0.14 1418 1397 1376 1360 1341 1323 1305 1287 1270 1253
0.15 1236 1219 1204 1188 1173 1158 1143 1128 1114 1100
0.16 1086 1073 1062 1047 1034 1021 1009 997 985 974
0.17 962 952 940 929 919 908 898 888 878 868
0.18 858 848 840 830 821 812 804 795 787 779
0.19 770 762 754 747 739 731 724 717 709 702
0.20 695 688 682 675 668 662 655 649 643 637
0.21 630 625 619 613 607 602 596 591 585 580
0.22 574 570 564 559 554 549 544 540 535 530
0.23 526 521 517 512 508 504 499 495 491 487
0.24 483 479 475 471 467 463 460 456 452 449
0.25 445 441 438 434 431 428 424 421 418 415
Eindruck Diagonale HV (20 Kg)
d (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.14 1892 1865 1839 1813 1788 1764 1740 1716 1693 1670
0.15 1648 1626 1605 1584 1564 1543 1524 1504 1485 1467
0.16 1448 1431 1413 1396 1379 1362 1346 1330 1314 1298
0.17 1283 1268 1253 1239 1225 1211 1197 1184 1170 1157
0.18 1144 1132 1119 1107 1095 1083 1072 1060 1049 1038
0.19 1027 1016 1006 995 985 975 965 955 946 936
0.20 927 918 909 900 891 882 874 865 857 849
0.21 841 833 825 817 810 802 795 787 780 773
0.22 766 759 752 746 739 732 726 720 713 707
0.23 701 695 689 683 677 671 666 660 655 649
0.24 644 638 633 628 623 618 613 608 603 598
0.25 593 589 584 579 575 570 566 561 557 553
0.26 549 544 540 536 532 528 524 520 516 512
0.27 509 505 501 498 494 490 487 483 480 476