STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LAB

(20A01201P)

LAB MANUAL

I – BTECH

Prepared by

B.YUGANDHAR

Department of Mechanical Engineering

VEMU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Affiliated to JNTUA, Ananthapuramu)
Accredited by NAAC, NBA ( EEE , ECE & CSE) & ISO 9001-2015 Certified Institution
Near Pakala. P. Kothakota, Chittoor-Tirupati Highway
Chittoor, Andhra Pradesh -517112
Website: www.vemu.org
 R20 Regulations
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR
(Established by Govt. of A.P., ACT No.30 of 2008)
ANANTAPUR – 515 002 (A.P) INDIA

Course Code L T P C
Strength of Materials
20A01201P Lab 0 0 2 1.5
Course Objectives
 To know the structural behaviour of various materials.
Course outcomes (CO) : After completion of the course, the student can able to
CO-1: Apply the concept of stress and strain in Mechanical components design
CO-2: Determine the mechanical properties of materials by conducting destructive testing
CO-3: Apply the concepts of Compression, Tension and Deflection in design of structures
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Tension test
2. Compression test on Wood
3. Shear test on metals
4. Rockwell Hardness Test
5. Izod Impact test on metals
6. Charpy Impact test on metals
7. Bending test on Cantilever beam
8. Bending test on simply supported beam
9. Torsion test
10. Compression test on Open coiled springs
11. Tension test on Closely coiled springs
12. Use of electrical resistance strain gauges
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LAB MANUAL
 Department of Mechanical Engineering

VEMU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY::P.KOTHAKOTA

NEAR PAKALA, CHITTOOR-517112
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUA, Anantapuramu)

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LAB MANUAL

Name:_____________________________________________

H.T.No:____________________________________________

Year/Semester:______________________________________
VEMU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY::P.KOTHAKOTA
NEAR PAKALA, CHITTOOR-517112
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTUA, Anantapuramu)

(20A01305P) STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LAB

List of Experiments

1 Tension test

2 Compression test on Wood

3 Shear test on metals

4 Rockwell Hardness Test

5 Izod Impact test on metals

6 Charpy Impact test on metals

7 Bending test on Cantilever beam

8 Bending test on simply supported beam

9 Torsion test

10 Compression test on Open coiled springs

11 Tension test on Closely coiled springs

12 Use of electrical resistance strain gauges

 COURSE OUTCOMES

SUBJECT: Strength of Materials Laboratory

After completion of the course Students are able to:

CO No. STATEMENT
CO1 Apply the concept of stress and strain in Mechanical components design
Determine the mechanical properties of materials by conducting destructive
CO2
testings
Apply the concepts of Compression, Tension and Deflection in design of
CO3
structures
 CONTENTS

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LAB

S.NO EXPERIMENT NAME PAGE NO

1 Tension test

2 Compression test on Wood

3 Shear test on metals

4 Rockwell Hardness Test

5 Izod Impact test on metals

6 Charpy Impact test on metals

7 Bending test on (Steel/Wood) Cantilever beam

8 Bending test on simply supported beam

9 Torsion test

10 Compression test on Open coiled springs

11 Tension test on Closely coiled springs

12 Use of electrical resistance strain gauges

 SCHEME OF EVALUATION

Marks Awarded
Observatio Viva Attendanc Total
S.No. Experiment Date Record
n Voce e (30)
(10)
(10) (5) (5)
1 Tension test
Compression test on
2
Wood
3 Shear test on metals
Rockwell Hardness
4
Test
Izod Impact test on
5
metals
Charpy Impact test on
6
metals
Bending test on
7 (Steel/Wood)
Cantilever beam
Bending test on simply
8
supported beam
9 Torsion test
Compression test on
10
Open coiled springs
Tension test on
11
Closely coiled springs
Use of electrical
12 resistance strain
gauges

Signature of Lab In-charge

 INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS

DO‘S

1. Learn objective & significance of the practical.

2. Keep silence in the lab.
3. Always perform the experiment carefully as directed by teacher
4. Don’t forget to bring calculator, graph sheet and other accessories when you come to lab.
5. Before performing practical’s read the instrument manual carefully.
6. Count all accessories before receiving equipments in lab.
7. Submit all the accessories to the Lab Technician after the completion of the experiment

DONT‘S

1. Don’t use mobile phones during lab hours.

2. Don’t try to repair any faulty instrument.
3. Don’t run machine without permission.
 TENSION TEST

Exp. No: 1 Date:

AIM: To study the stress strain relations by conducting tension test using UTM on Mild Steel

APPARATUS: Universal testing machine, test specimen, Vernier caliper, Steel rule,
extensometer

Theory:

In tension test ends of a test piece are fixed into grips connected to a straining device and to a
load measuring device. The test involves straining a test piece by tensile force generally to
fracture for the purpose of determining one or more of the mechanical properties.

The straining unit of universal testing machine consists of main hydraulic cylinder with robust
base inside and piston which moves up and down. The lower table connected to main piston
through a ball & the ball seat is joined to ensure axial loading. There is a connection between
lower table and upper head assembly that moves up and down with main piston. The control
panel consists of a power pack complete with drive motor and an oil tank, control valves and an
autographic recorder. Load Indicator system consists of a large dial and a pointer. A dummy
pointer is provided to record the maximum load reached during the test.

Load is applied by a hydrostatically lubricated ram. Main cylinder pressure is transmitted to the
cylinder of the pendulum dynamometer system housed in the control panel. The cylinder of the
dynamometer is also of self-lubricating design. The load transmitted to the cylinder of the
dynamometer is transferred through a lever system to a pendulum. Displacement of the
pendulum actuates the rack and pinion mechanism which operates the load indicator pointer and
the autographic recorder. The deflection of the pendulum represents the absolute load applied on
the test specimen. Return movement of the pendulum is effectively damped to absorb energy in
the event of sudden breakage of a specimen.
Procedure:

1. Take the specified specimen and measure the gauge length and diameter with the help of
Vernier caliper by marking the indication with chalk piece.
2. After marking indications on the specimen for gauge length and for extensometer, fix the
specimen in the UTM
3. Fix the extensometer along with the specimen with the help of clamp
4. Now the load is applied, that can be seen in dial indicator when we apply the load
gradually
5. Load is applied gradually until the specimen breaks
6. Record the value of the ultimate load where at which the needle movement in the dial
gauge shows in backward direction at some point
7. And measure the final diameter and final length of the specimen
Observations:

Test specimen Material Mild Steel Cast Iron

Initial length of the specimen in mm
Final length of the specimen in mm
Initial diameter of the specimen in mm
Final diameter of the specimen in mm
Initial Area of the specimen in mm2
Final Area of the specimen in mm2

Calculations:

Load Young’s
Extensometer
applied Stress Strain Modulus
S.No. Material reading
(from Curve)
Kgf N mm N/mm2 N/mm2
1
2 Mild Steel
3
1
2 Cast Iron
3

Precautions:

1. Measurements should be taken carefully

2. Apply the load gradually without giving sudden load
3. Observe the readings without an error
Result:
 COMPRESSION TEST

Exp. No: 2 Date:

AIM: - To determine the Compressive strength of a wood specimen.

APPARATUS: Wood, Venire Caliper, Scale, Etc.

Max. Load at failure

Compressive Strength = -------------------------

Loaded Area of wood

PROCEDURE:

1. Select some wood with uniform shape and size.

2. Measure its all dimensions. (LXBXH)
3. Place the wood on the lower platform of compression testing machine and lower the
spindle till the upper motion of ram is offered by a specimen the oil pressure start
increasing the pointer engineering start returning to zero leaving the drug pointer that is
maximum reading which can be noted down.
OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Area Lo Compressive Average

LxBxH
S.No. LxB ad Strength Compressive
mm3
mm2 N P/A(N/mm2) Strength

CALCULATION: Max. Load at failure

Compressive Strength = -----------------------------

Loaded Area of brick

PRECAUTION: -

1) Measure the dimensions of wood accurately.

2) Specimen should be placed as for as possible in the lower plate.
3) The range of the gauge fitted on the machine should not be more than double
the breaking load of specimen for reliable results.

RESULT : - The average compressive strength of wood is _______________

 SHEAR TEST

Exp. No: 3 Date:

AIM: To determine the shear strength of the given specimen

APPARATUS: Universal testing machine, test specimen, Vernier caliper, Steel rule, Shear test
set up

THEORY: In direct shear test, the shearing stress is considered as uniformly distributed over the
entire cross section. The shear force is applied by a suitable test rig, two different cases of
shearing may arise; i.e., single shear and double shear. In single shear shearing occurs across a
single surface and in double shear shearing occurs across two surfaces. Knowledge of shear
failure is important while designing any structures or machine components. Shear force causes
the surface to go out of the alignment with each other and thus the material fails.

OBSERVATIONS:

Length of the specimen = _______________mm

Diameter of the specimen = _______________mm

Max. load at Diameter of the Cross sectional Double shear

S.No.
Failure (N) Specimen (mm) Area (mm2) Strength (P/2A) in N/mm2

PROCEDURE:

1. Measure the dimensions of the test specimen.

2. Insert the specimen in position and grip one of the ends of the attachment in the upper
portion and the other end in the lower portion.

3. Switch on the main switch of universal testing machine.

4. Gradually move the head control level in left-hand direction till the specimen shears.
 5. Stop the machine and remove the specimen.

PRECAUTIONS:

1) Measure the dimensions of wood accurately.

2) Specimen should be placed as for as possible in the lower plate.

RESULT:
 ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

Exp. No: 4 Date:

AIM: - Determining the hardness of the given specimen

APPARATUS: - Hardness tester, Indenter, Specimen

DIAGRAM:-

THEORY: - The hardness of a material is resistance to penetration under a localized pressure or

resistance to abrasion. Hardness tests provide an accurate, rapid and economical way of
determining the resistance of materials to deformation. There are three general types of
hardness measurements depending upon the manner in which the test is conducted:

a. Scratch hardness measurement,

b. Rebound hardness measurement
c. Indention hardness measurement.
In scratch hardness method the material are rated on their ability to scratch one another and it is
usually used by mineralogists only. In rebound hardness measurement, a standard body is
usually dropped on to the material surface and the hardness is measured in terms of the height
of its rebound .The general means of judging the hardness is measuring the resistance of a
material to indentation. The indenters usually a ball cone or pyramid of a material much harder
than that being used. Hardened steel, sintered tungsten carbide or diamond indenters are
generally used in indentation tests; a load is applied by pressing the indenter at right angles to
the surface being tested. The hardness of the material depends on the resistance which it exerts
during a small amount of yielding or plastic. The resistance depends on friction, elasticity,
viscosity and the intensity and distribution of plastic strain produced by a given tool during
indentation

PROCEDURE:-

1. Place the specimen securely upon the anvil.

2. Elevate the specimen so that it come into contact with the penetrate and put the
specimen under a preliminary or minor load of 100+2N without shock
3. Apply the major load 900N by loading lever.
4. Watch the pointer until it comes to rest.
5. Remove the major load.
6. Read the Rockwell hardness number or hardness scale.
OBESERVATION TABLE:-

Rockwell
Trial Material Total Load
Hardness Number

PRECAUTION:-

1. Brielle test should be performed on smooth, flat specimens from which dirt and
scale have been cleaned.
2. The test should not be made on specimens so thin that the impression shows
through the metal, nor should impression be made too close to the edge of a
specimen.
RESULT: -
 IZOD IMPACT TEST

Exp. No: 5 Date:

AIM : To determine the impact strength of the given specimen

by conducting Izod Impact test.

APPARATUS : Impact testing machine, specimen.

THEORY:

The loads that are suddenly applied on a structure with an impact are Known as shock or impact
loads. The test consists of breaking a test piece, gripped vertically at the level of notch, by one
below from a swinging hammer under prescribed conditions. The specimen should be struck by
the hammer on the side of the notch (Notch on the tension side). The energy absorbed is noted,
from which the impact strength is obtained.

PROCEDURE:

1. The Izod striker is firmly secured to the bottom of the hammer with the help of clamping
piece.
2. The support for Izod test is to be fixed to the base with the help of Socket head screws.
3. The latching tube is to be firmly secured to the bracket fitted at the top of stands with the
help of socket head screws.
4. Adjust the reading pointer to 164 J dial reading, when the pendulum is hanging free
vertically.
5. Now raise the hammer by hands and latch in.
6. Release the hammer by operating the levers. The pointer will then indicate the energy loss
due to friction which should be zero. Raise the hammer and lock it.
7. Place the specimen on the support as a cantilever. The specimen should be placed in such a
way that the notch is on tension side, when the pendulum is released (Notch should face
towards the hammer). For correct centering of the specimen, use the settingGuage.
8. Press down the lever with left hand. After ascertaining that no person is within the range of
swinging pendulum, push down lever so that the pendulum is released and the specimen is
broken.
9. Wait until the pendulum reverses its direction of motion and bring the pendulum carefully to
stand still position by applying the pendulum brake.
10. Note down the reading on the scale indicated bythe pointer.

OBSERVATIONS:

Breadth, b=

Depth, d=

Energy absorbed without the specimen, E1 =

Energy absorbed for breaking the specimen, E2 =

CALCULATIONS:

Impact strength = E2 – E1

Where, a=c/s area of the specimen=

RESULT:
 CHARPY IMPACT TEST

Exp. No: 6 Date:

AIM : To determine the impact strength of the given specimen

by Conducting Charpy impact test.

APPARATUS : Impact testing machine, specimen.

THEORY:

The loads that are suddenly applied on a structure with an impact are known as shock or impact
loads. The test consists of breaking a test piece; U-notched in the middle and supported at each
end, by one blow from a swinging should be struck by the hammer on the side opposite to the
notch (Notch on the tension side). The energy absorbed is noted, from which the impact strength
is obtained.

PROCEDURE:

1. The Charpy striker is firmly secured to the bottom of the hammer with the help of clamping
piece.
2. The support for charpy test is to be fixed to the base with the help of socket head screws.
3. The latching tube is to be firmly secured to the bracket fitted at the top of stands with the
help of socket head screws.
4. Adjust the reading pointer to 300 J dial reading, when the pendulum is hanging free
vertically.
5. Now raise the hammer by hands and latch in.
6. Release the hammer by operating the levers. The pointer will then indicate the energy loss
due to friction.
7. Place the specimen on the support as a simply supported beam. The specimen should be
placed in such a way that the notch is on tension side, when the pendulum is released
(Notch should face opposite to the hammer). For correct centering of the specimen, use the
setting gauge.
8. Press down the lever with left hand. After ascertaining that no Person is within the range of
swinging pendulum, push down lever so that the pendulum is released and the specimen is
broken.
9. Wait until the pendulum reverses its direction of motion and bring the pendulum carefully
to stand still position by applying the Pendulum brake.
10. Note down the reading on the scale indicated by the pointer.

OBSERVATIONS:

Breadth, b =

Depth, d=

Energy absorbed without the specimen, E1 =

Energy absorbed for breaking the specimen, E2 =

CALCULATIONS:

E 2  E1
Impact strength =
a

Where, a = c/s area of the specimen

RESULT:
 CANTILEVER BEAM

Exp. No: 7 Date:

AIM: -To determined young’s modulus and bending stress of material of cantilever beam

APPARATUS: 1. Deflection of beam apparatus 2. Pan 3. Weights 4. Beam

THEORY: The beam which has one end is fixed and another end is free is called cantilever
beam. For the cantilever beam the bending moment is zero at free end and maximum at fixed
end. When the cantilever beam is subjected to a load at free end the beam will bend in convexity
downwards. The deflection at free end is maximum and at fixed end is zero.

When the cantilever beam is subjected to a load at free end then the maximum bending moment
is given by

M= WL

Where W =Load acting on the beam

L= length of the beam

When the cantilever beam is subjected to a load at free end then the deflection is given by

Where W =Load acting at the free end , N

L =Length of the beam mm

E =Young’s modulus of material of the beam, N/mm2

I =Second moment of area of the cross- section (i.e, moment of Inertia) of the beam,
about the neutral axis, mm4
Bending Stress:

When the stress produced to due to bending moment, the stress is known as bending
stress. The bending stress can be obtained by bending equation
Procedure:

1. place the cantilever beam, Take dimension i.e., Length, Width, Thickness of the
specimen

2. check the flatness of given beam with the help of dial gauge

3. Place the dial gauge under the beam where the deflection is to be measured.

4. place the hanger at the end point of the beam

5. now place the weights in span in increasing order at free end

6. calculate the deflections in dial gauge for different weights

7. repeat the experiment with various loads of the beams

8. calculate deflections in decreasing order also

9. using the equation calculate the bending stress

Precautions:

1. Make sure that beam and load are placed a proper position.

2. The cross- section of the beam should be large.

3. Note down the readings of the vernier scale carefully

Result:

The young’s modulus for beam is ___________________N/mm2.

The Bending stress for beam is______________________N/mm2

 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

Exp. No: 8 Date:

Aim: -To determine the modulus of elasticity of material of beam simply supported at ends.

Apparatus: 1. Deflection of beam apparatus 2. Pan 3. Weights 4. Beam

Theory:- If the beam is supports at the two ends, the beam is known simply supported beam.
When a beam is subjected to load the beam goes under deformation. The difference between the
elastic curve to original position of the beam is called deflection. When a simply supported beam
subjected to point load at the midpoint, the beam bends concave upwards.

The deflection at mid point is given by

Bending Stress: When the stress produced to due to bending moment, the stress is known as
bending stress. The bending stress can be obtained by bending equation
 f= bending stress, N/mm2

y=distance from N.A. ,mm

For simply supported beam bending moment is zero at supports and maximum at mid point when
the load is symmetrical

Procedure:

1. place the simply supported beam, Take dimension i.e., Length, Width, Thickness
of the specimen

2. check the flatness of given beam with the help of dial gauge

3. Place the dial gauge under the beam where the deflection is to be measured.

4. place the hanger at the midpoints of the beam

5. now place the weights in span in increasing order at mid point

6. calculate the deflections in dial gauge for different weights

7. repeat the experiment with various loads of the beams

8. calculate deflections in decreasing order also

9. using the equation calculate the bending stress

Precautions:

1. Make sure that beam and load are placed a proper position.

2. The cross- section of the beam should be large. 3. Note down the readings of the
vernier scale carefully

Result:

The young’s modulus for beam is ____________________ N/mm2

The Bending stress for beam is ______________________N/mm2

 TORSION

Exp. No: 9 Dates:

AIM: - To determine modulus of rigidity of a given Mild Steel rod specimen.

APPARATUS: -

1. A torsion test machine along with angle of twist measuring attachment.

2. Standard specimen of mild steel or cast iron.
3. Steel rule.
4. Vernier caliper or a micrometer.

DIAGRAM:-

THEORY:-

For transmitting power through a rotating shaft it is necessary to apply a turning force. The force
is applied tangentially and in the plane of transverse cross section. The torque or twisting
moment may be calculated by multiplying two opposite turning moments. It is said to be in pure
torsion and it will exhibit the tendency of shearing off at every cross section which is
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.

Torsion equation is given by below

T/J = τ/R= Gθ/L

 G = T L/J θ N/mm2

T= maximum twisting torque (N mm)

J = polar moment of inertia (mm4) = π d4/32

τ = shear stress (N/mm2) G = modulus of rigidity (N/mm2)

θ = angle of twist in radians

L= length of shaft under torsion (mm)

PROCEDURE:-
1. Select the driving dogs to suit the size of the specimen and clamp it in the machine by
adjusting the length of the specimen by means of a sliding spindle.
2. Measure the diameter at about three places and take the average value.
3. Choose the appropriate range by capacity change lever
4. Set the maximum load pointer to zero.
5. Set the protractor to zero for convenience and clamp it by means of knurled screw.
6. Carry out straining by rotating the hand wheel in either direction.
7. Load the machine in suitable increments.
8. Then load out to failure as to cause equal increments of strain reading.
9. Plot a torque- twist (T- θ) graph.
10. Read off co-ordinates of a convenient point from the straight line portion of the torque twist
(T-θ) graph and calculate the value of G by using relation.

OBESERVATIONS:- Gauge length of the specimen,

L = ……… Diameter of the specimen,

d = ……… Polar moment of inertia,

J = (π/32) d4 =........
 Modulus of Average
Torque, Torque
S.No. Angle of twist Rigidity(G) (G)
Kg-cm N-mm
N/mm2 N/mm2
Degrees Radians

PRECAUTIONS:-

1) Measure the dimensions of the specimen carefully

2) Measure the Angle of twist accurately for the corresponding value of Torque.
3) The specimen should be properly to get between the jaws.
4) After breaking specimen stop to m/c.

RESULT: - Thus the torsion test on given mild steel specimen is done and the modulus of

rigidity is __________________N/mm2.
 OPEN COILED SPRING

Exp. No: 10 Date:

AIM: To determine stiffness and Modulus of rigidity of a open coiled spring

APPARATUS: Spring testing machine, Spring Specimen, Micrometer, Vernier Caliper

Theory :

Procedure :

1. By using the micrometre measure the diameter of the wire of the spring
2. By using the vernier calliper measure the diameter of the spring coils
3. Count the number of turns
4. Insert the spring in the spring testing machine and load the spring by using suitable
weight and note the corresponding axial deflection in compression
5. Increase the load and take the corresponding axial deflection readings
6. Plot a curve between load and deflection. The shape of the curve gives the stiffness of the
spring
Observations :

Spécifications of a spring to be measured initially,

Least count of micrometer=____________mm
Diameter of spring wire, d=___________mm
Least count of Vernier Caliper=__________mm
Diameter of the spring coil, D=_________mm
Mean coil Diameter, Dm=__________mm
Number of turns, n=______

Calculations :

Stiffness =
Load Deflection Modulus of
S.No. Load/Deflection
( N) (mm) Rigidity
(N/mm)

Modulus of Rigidity, C= [8W(Dm)3n]/(d)4

Mean Stiffness =

Modulus of Rigidity, C = N/mm2

Result:
 CLOSED COILED SPRING

Exp. No: 11 Date:

AIM: To determine stiffness and Modulus of rigidity of a closed coiled spring

APPARATUS: Spring testing machine, Spring Specimen, Micrometer, Vernier Caliper

Theory :

Procedure :

1. By using the micrometre measure the diameter of the wire of the spring
2. By using the vernier calliper measure the diameter of the spring coils
3. Count the number of turns
4. Insert the spring in the spring testing machine and load the spring by using suitable
weight and note the corresponding axial deflection in tension
5. Increase the load and take the corresponding axial deflection readings
6. Plot a curve between load and deflection. The shape of the curve gives the stiffness of the
spring

Observations :

Spécifications of a spring to be measured initially,

Least count of micrometer=____________mm
Diameter of spring wire, d=___________mm
Least count of Vernier Caliper=__________mm
Diameter of the spring coil, D=_________mm
Mean coil Diameter, Dm=__________mm
Number of turns, n=______

Calculations :

Stiffness =
Load Deflection Modulus of
S.No. Load/Deflection
( N) (mm) Rigidity
(N/mm)

Modulus of Rigidity, C= [8W(Dm)3n]/(d)4

Mean Stiffness =

Modulus of Rigidity, C = N/mm2

Result:
 ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE STRAIN GAUGES

Exp. No: 12 Date:

AIM: To study the use of electrical resistance strain gauges

INTRODUCTION:

Experimental stress analysis is an important tool in the design and testing of many products.
Several practical techniques are available including photo elastic, coatings and models, brittle
coatings, and electrical resistance strain gauges. In this experiment, the electrical resistance strain
gauge will be utilized.

There are three steps in obtaining experimental strain measurements by using a strain gauge:

1. Selecting a strain gauge

2. Mounting the gauge on the test structure

3. Measuring strains corresponding to specific loads.

The operation and selection criteria for strain gauges will be discussed. In this experiment, you
will mount a strain gauge on a beam and test its accuracy. Measurements will be made with a
strain gauge rosette in this experiment to obtain the principal stresses and strains on a
cantilevered beam

What’s a Strain Gauge Used For?

The Birdman Contest is an annual event held on Lake Biwa near Kyoto, Japan. In this contest
cleverly designed human-powered airplanes and gliders fly several hundred meters across the
lake. Aside from the great spectacle of this event, it is a wonderful view of engineering
experimentation and competition. Despite the careful designs and well-balanced airframes
occasionally the wings of these vehicles fail and crash into the lake. There have been some
spectacular crashes but few, if any, injuries to the contestants. Increasingly, each time a new
airplane, automobile, or other vehicle is introduced, the structure of such vehicles is designed to
be lighter to attain faster running speeds and less fuel consumption. It is possible to design a
lighter and more efficient product by selecting light-weight materials. However, as with all
technology, there are plusses and minuses to be balanced. If a structural material is made lighter
or thinner the safety of the vehicle is compromised unless the required strength is maintained. By
the same token, if only the strength is taken into consideration, the vehicle’s weight will increase
and its economic feasibility is compromised. In engineering design the balance between safety
and economics is one variable in the equation of creating a successful product. While attempting
to design a component or vehicle that provides the appropriate strength it is important to
understand the stress borne by the various parts under different conditions. However, there is no
technology or test tool that allows direct measurement of stress. Thus, strain on the surface is
frequently measured in order to determine internal stress. Strain gauges are the most common
instrument to measure surface strain.

STRAIN GAUGE:

There are many types of strain gauges. The fundamental structure of a strain gauge consists of a
grid-shaped sensing element of thin metallic resistive foil (3 to 6 microns thick) that is
sandwiched between a base of thin plastic film (12-16 micron thick) and a covering or
lamination of thin film.

Strain gauge is tightly bonded to the specimen. Therefore, depending that unit deformation on
the specimen, the sensing element may elongate or contract. During elongation or contraction,
electrical resistance of the metal wire changes. The strain gauge measure the strain on the
specimen by means of the principle resistance changes. Generally, sensing element are made of
copper-nickel alloy in strain gauge.

RESULT: