527E
527E
Author: Alberto GARCIA ------------------------------------------Company: FFE Fundacin Ferrocarriles Espaoles ------------------------------------------Document: 1st delivery ------------------------------------------Date: 12 December 2010
railway heritage, cultural activities, periodic publications and specialized books. It also manages the Library, the Railway History Archive and the Railway Documentation Centre, as well as the Madrid Delicias and Vilanova i la Geltr (Barcelona) Railway Museums. The Spanish Railway Foundations Board of Trustees currently comprises: Renfe Operadora; Administrador de infraestructuras Ferroviarias (ADIF), Ferrocarriles de Va Estrecha (FEVE), Ferrocarriles de la Generalitat de Catalunya (FGC), Ferrocarriles de la Generalitat Valenciana (FGV), Eusko Tren; Metro de Madrid S.A., Ferrocarril Metropolit de Barcelona S.A., Asociacin de Empresas Constructoras de mbito Nacional (SEOPAN), MAFEX, Serveis Ferroviaris de Mallorca (SFM), Euskal Trenbide Sarea, Ferrocarriles de la Junta de Andaluca (FJA); Asociacin Ferroviaria de Certificacin, CETREN and INECO. Department of Research, Training and Cientific Cooperation The mission of the Department of Research, Training and Cientific Cooperation involves performing activities aimed at promoting the development of the railway, providing the necessary tools for education, promoting the positive image of the railway, and carrying out studies and research projects to serve the interests of the railway sector as a whole, both at home and abroad, and especially in Ibero-American countries. Its main lines of action are: studies and research projects, sectorial promotion and cooperation, training and communication activities. The own Departments research activity is carried out by the following study and research groups: 1. 2. 3. 4. Study and research group for energy and emissions in transport Study and research group for economics and transport operation Study and research group for geography and rail traffic Study and research group for the sociology of transport
In recent years, these groups have worked on many different projects (some completed and others still in progress), the most important being: EnerTrans, ElecRail, Reactiva, Observatorio del Ferrocarril Espaol (Spanish Railway Observatory), Securemetro, Hope in Stations, Viadintel, Aeroave, Balasto artificial (Artificial Ballast), etc.
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................................................... 5 1. 2. 3. Introduction and background ........................................................................................................................... 7 Definitions and assumptions............................................................................................................................ 8 Identification and classification operating costs. Output quantification ................................................... 11
List of operating costs .................................................................................................. 11 Output calculation offered by a train in a year .............................................................. 13 Costs related to train ownership................................................................................... 16 Costs of own and external capital ................................................................................ 22 Rolling stock maintenance and cleaning costs............................................................. 25
Fixed cost of train maintenance ...................................................................................................... 26 Variable cost of train maintenance .................................................................................................. 27 Fixed workshop costs ...................................................................................................................... 28 Exterior and interior cleaning costs ................................................................................................. 29 Traction energy ............................................................................................................................... 30 Energy returned to the network ....................................................................................................... 32 Cost of energy distribution .............................................................................................................. 33 Total energy cost ............................................................................................................................. 34 Train insurance costs ...................................................................................................................... 22 Total operating cost arising from train possesion ............................................................................ 23 Train repayment .............................................................................................................................. 16
4.
Direct cost component analysis..................................................................................................................... 16 4.1.1. 4.2.1. 4.2.2. 4.3.1. 4.3.2. 4.3.3. 4.3.4. 4.4.1. 4.4.2. 4.4.3. 4.4.4.
4.4.
4.5. 4.6.
4.7.
Train operation personnel costs ................................................................................... 35 Marginal cost of infrastructure maintenance ................................................................ 37
Components of infrastructure use charges ..................................................................................... 37 Capacity allocation and monitoring of train movements .................................................................. 38 Movement of trains or vehicles ....................................................................................................... 38 Use of stations by passengers ........................................................................................................ 39 Distribution, sales and access control costs ................................................................................... 41 Passenger services ......................................................................................................................... 41 Infrastructure charges above marginal cost .................................................................................... 41
Indirect operating costs apart from those needed to move the train............................. 40
5.
5.1.
Sensitivity of different cost components to speed variation. Case examples .......................................... 43 5.1.1. 5.1.2. 5.1.3. 5.2.1. 5.2.2. 5.2.3.
5.2.
6. 7.
1.
The work is in response to the contract signed on January 20, 2010 between the Union International des Chemins de Fer (UIC) and the Fundacin de los Ferrocarriles Espaoles (FFE), the aim of which is to conduct a study entitled "Operating costs on High Speed Trains.
2. Definitions
and assumptions
The costs necessary for the operation of rail services are called operating costs, including repayment of rolling stock, maintenance, sales and distribution costs, energy, infrastructure charges and capital and financial costs. Operating costs do not include infrastructure costs not covered by charges, external costs, or taxes on company profits. There are various costs related to the ticket price and passengers services on board the train or on land. These include sales commission, meals on board included in the fare, etc. These costs are not of course directly related to speed, although they could be indirectly related if speed affects the ticket price, but this direct relationship does not imply a higher cost of speed, quite the opposite, it implies greater profit, precisely because speed is partly deducted from the higher cost. This is why it has been decided to introduce a concept, direct costs, which would be the operating cost of moving the train; and which would not include items relating to passenger services and sales that would however (for the result of the operating account to be unaffected) be subtracted from income. Nor do the "direct costs" include the part of the charge that exceeds the marginal cost of infrastructure use. Costs of running empty trains are not considered, nor those related to shunting manoeuvres, which are, barring a few exceptions, very low in passenger traffic (around 2-4%) and are not substantially differently from those in aviation, which does not invalidate the comparison. Capital costs (included in operating costs) are understood to be the resulting cost needed to remunerate any economic resources used in the purchase of trains. They do therefore include financial costs (remuneration of external capital), and the remuneration of own capital with the same interest rate as external capital. This is done to make capital costs in the amount involved independent of the financial structure. It also makes it possible to put trains owned on the same level as rented trains. The unit of measurement to be used for operating cost is the Euro cent per seat-kilometre (-ct/seat-km), taking kilometre to mean those covered by the train in each commercial service. Commercial income is considered to be that received for traffic (and accessories) excluding VAT and other taxes. Abbreviations for absolute indicators are expressed in capital letters in the study for greater clarity, while those corresponding to relative indicators are expressed in lowercase letters.
Parameters L Mr s CC C Train length Tare (without motors) Number of seats Comfort coefficient Number of cabs lr r
Train type T100l 100 160 158 1.5 2 T100r 100 160 279 1 2 T200l 200 320 328 1.5 2 T200r 200 320 579 1 2 T300l 300 320 498 1.5 2 T300r 300 320 879 1 2
Turnaround time
Minutes
40
20
40
20
40
20
Note: All data are studied for single floor, non-articulated, non-wide carbody trains
Figure 1. Changes in the structure (which does not affect the result) but which is better suited to the need to analyze the effect of speed
10
3. Identification
3.1.
11
Train repayment Costs of own and external capital Train insurance Train maintenance fixed costs Workshop variable costs Workshop fixed costs Workshop maintenance variable cost Cost of exterior and interior cleaning Traction energy Energy returned to the network (negative) Auxiliary energy Train operation personnel Train manning personnel Marginal cost of infrastructure Cost for station use Distribution and sales (fixed part) Distribution and sales (variable part) Agency commission (included in ticket price) Access control Travel services (per passenger) Travel services (variable part per train) Travel assistance Travel insurance Advertising and promotion General and structural expenses Interest on working capital Bank charges and loyalty cards Station charge per passenger Security charge Fixed access charge Charge per passenger Charge per seat-km Charge for parking
3 Energy
6 ii) Commercial costs of customer services Distribution (sales) and access control (not direct costs)
7 Passenger services
8 9 10
Advertising General and structural expenses Working capital costs, bank and credit charges Station and security charges
11
12
3.2.
The annual distance covered by a train depends (among other variables) on the average number of daily hours of service (Ht), this time including both travel time and turnarounds at main line stations.
Time spent in a trip and turnaround The time employed by the train on a trip and its turnaround is:
Train trip and turnaround time (min ) = R +
Where: R is the turnaround time (minutes) D is the travel distance (km) Sav is average speed (km/h).
D 60 S av
13
and
RA = (365 60)
Where:
S av H t D (R S av ) + (D 60)
T/D is the number of trips (in a direction) the train can make in a day RA is the annual distance covered by the train in commercial services (km) If Ht=7, the annual distance covered by the train in commercial services (km) is:
RA = 153,300
S av H t D (R S av ) + (D 60)
It can be noted that the annual distance covered, RA (km), increases almost proportionally with average speed (Sav), daily hours of use (Ht) and distance (D), and that it is reduced as the turnaround time (R) increases. Indicated below for seven hours of daily use (Ht = 7) are the annual distances covered by trains in terms of average speed for long distance (D = 500 km is used in the example) and regional (D = 200 kilometres) services. They are also calculated for different turnaround times (R) in order to explain the effect of this variable.
Table 3. Annual distances covered by a train in terms of speed and turnaround time R=90 Average speed (km/h) 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 R=60 R=30 R=45 R=30 R=15
Long distance (D=500 km) 156,429 196,538 232,273 264,310 293,197 319,375 349,209 365,000 166,630 212,917 255,500 294,808 331,204 365,000 396,466 425,833 178,256 232,273 283,889 333,261 380,532 425,833 469,286 511,000
Regional trains (D=200 km) 149,561 185,818 217,447 245,280 269,962 292,000 311,797 329,677 161,368 204,400 243,333 278,727 311,043 340,667 367,920 393,077 175,200 227,111 276,216 322,737 366,872 408,800 448,683 486,667
Notes: The results are expressed in kilometres per train per year. All calculations are made for average daily use (Ht) of 7 hours.
14
350,000 Y=122,844 + (56,671x Sav) (1,022.5x Sav2) Y=121,871+ (54,810 x Sav) (1,156.1 x Sav2) Y=119,154 + (49,456 x Sav) (1,398.4 x Sav2) Y=117,411 + (46,158 x Sav) (1,472.7 x 250,000 Sav2) Y=115,358 + (43,141 x Sav)- (1,468 x Sav2)
300,000
200,000
150,000
Figure 2. Annual train distance covered according to its speed and turnaround time
Once the annual distance (measured in kilometres) covered by a train is known, the seat-km produced by this train in a year (which must offset the annual cost of the train) are obtained by multiplying the annual distance covered (AD) in km by the number of train seats (s):
S km t = RA s
15
4. Direct
4.1.
These three items relate to the case in which the train is acquired in ownership, but in the case of renting, it would be equivalent to a single cost, which would be the renting payments (including the profit of the renting company, which does in turn include risk derived from lack of use). Each of these cost items will now be analyzed. 4.1.1.
Train repayment
Train repayment depends on four factors, which are: its initial value (which coincides with the purchase price); the residual value, the period of repayment; and the actual repayment criterion. The European rail system uses the straight-line repayment method with no residual value for a period of approximately 25 years, but other repayment criteria would also be acceptable, either a period of 20-30 years or a duration of 15 years with a significant residual value. The 25 year repayment method with no residual value has been used in this study (for the example).
16
Added to this amount, if appropriate, are surcharges for multisystems or multicurrent and for short series, which, since they are not exclusive to high speed trains, are not taken into account in this study.
Where: P is train power (in kW) L is train length (in m) Smax is maximum train speed (in km/h)
Even though the power required for a given maximum speed depends on the profile of the line, desirable acceleration (besides the mass) can give us alternative values.
17
Type of train
160 1,462
200 1,959
250 2,624
300 3,332
T100l
T300r
300
4,903
6,569
8,799
11,173
So: M = M r + M m The empty mass without considering the mass of the motors (Mr) depends essentially on the size and railway architecture (for a non articulated train with distributed power, consider M r (t ) = 1.6 L , where L is the length in train metres). As regards the mass derived from the motors, we can assume as guidance the average value of 10 kg/kW. The mass of the empty train is therefore: M = M r + M m = (1.6 L) +
Where: Mm: Motor mass (t) Mr: No load tare or non motorized mass (t) L: trains length (m) P: Power in kW
10 P 1,000
18
For the six types of trains in the case example, the total mass (empty train) is as shown in the table:
Table 5. Total mass according to train type
Meaning Units Generic formula Maximum train speed (Smax) T100l T100r T200l T200l T300l T300r
M = M r + M m = (1.6 L ) +
160 km/h 194 194 391 391 589 589 200 km/h 199 199 402 402 605 605
10 P 1,000
300 km/h 213 213 432 432 651 651
19
L 15 1 1 . 31 TP = (150 , 000 C ) + 26 , 500 (1 . 8 L ) + 4 . 46 S max 100 215 1 . 31 (L 15 ) 4 . 46 S max L 15 1 . 31 25 , 000 + 1, 000 4 . 46 S max + 215 215 + (6 , 000 s CC ) =
) +
1 + 2 , 000
)]}
160 7,701,335
200 8,291,584
250 9,082,239
300 9,923,765
)] )] )]
T100r
7,617,635
8,207,884
8,998,539
9,840,065
T200l
15,516,098
16,800,603
18,521,236
20,352,572
T200r
)] )] )]
15,342,398
16,626,903
18,347,536
20,178,872
T300l
23,330,861
25,309,623
27,960,232
30,781,379
T300r
23,067,161
25,045,923
27,696,532
30,517,679
20
T 200 l
T 300 l T 300 r
Y= 706 + (431,686 x Sav) + (62,822 x Sav2)
20,000,000 20000000
T 200 l T 200 r
Y=107+ (939,459xSav) + (136,709 x Sav2)
10,000,000 10000000
T 100 l
Y = 207 + (106 x Sav) + (210,597 x Sav2 )
T 100 r
Y=207 +(106x Sav) + (210,597x Sav2 ) 5,000,000 5000000
160 160
300 300
TP RV YR
Re payment =
TP 0 = 0.04 TP 25
21
4.2.
TP RV CC = r TP Y YR
If: r=0.06; RV=0; YR=25
TP FC = 0.06 TP Y 25
4.2.1.
IC = i TP
Assuming that i=0.02, we have:
IC = 0.02 TP
22
1 0 TC = TP + (0.5 0.06) + 0.02 = TP [0.04 + 0.03 + 0.02] = 0.09 TP 25 It can then be assumed that with the hypotheses outlined the average annual cost of train possession is 9% of its value. And by substituting in the value of the train, this is:
[ ( TC = 0.09 [5,879,200+ (2,253 S TC = 0.09 [11 ,732,900+ (4,903 S TC = 0.09 [11 ,559,200+ (4,903 S TC = 0.09[17,502 ,900+ (7,553 S TC = 0.09 [17,239,200+ (7,553 S
)] )]
1.31 max
1.31 max
)] )]
1.31 max
1.31 max
)] )]
Note: Results are expressed in Euros a year for each single train
23
Where: OC: relative possession cost per seat-km (-ct/seat-km) s: Number of seats TC: Absolute annual train possession cost (/year) RA: Annual distance covered by the train in commercial services (km/year) By substituting the train value, we have:
160
200
250
300
T100l
OC100l
) ) )
1.190
1.081
1.001
0.961
T100r
0.650
0.591
0.545
0.596
T200l
1.31 11,732,900 + 4,903 S max = 328 RA 1.31 11,559,200 + 4,903 S max = 579 RA 1.31 17,502,900 + 7,553 S max 498 RA
0.440
1.055
0.984
0.950
T200r
) ) )
0.253
0.577
0.535
0.515
T300l
OC300l = OC 300 r
1.151
1.047
0.978
0.946
T300r
0.631
0.572
0.532
0.513
24
100 m. L.D.
1,2 1.2 1,15 1.15
100 m. R.
1,1 1.1 1,05 1.05
11
0,95 0.95 0,9 0.9 0,85 0.85 0,8 0.8 0,75 0.75 0,7 0.7 0,65 0.65 0,6 0.6 0,55 0.55 0,5 0.5
200 m. R.
300 m. L.D.
300 m. R.
0.45 0,45
0,4 0.4 0,35 0.35
160
200
250
300
300
Speed (km/h)
For the same type of train (long distance or regional), it can be seen that costs are lower (for any speed) the larger the size of the train. It can also be seen, and is therefore more relevant, that the train possession cost per seat-km cost drops significantly with increasing speed, and this happens for all kinds and lengths of the train.
4.3.
A part of the costs are fixed, and are independent of train routes and, of course, the time taken to perform them. Costs for workshop building and maintenance, monitoring and security, and the overall costs of the maintainer (management, documentation, etc.) can therefore be considered (in general) to be fixed.
25
cf =
CF L s RA
Where: cf: annual fixed cost divided by seat-km (-ct/seat-km) CF: Fixed maintenance cost per linear train metre (/m.year) L: length of the train (m) s: number of train seats (seats) RA: Annual distance covered by the train (km/year) Assuming an approximate value of C =1,175 per linear metre and year, and the following values: L = 200 m, s = 350 seats, RA = 500.103 km /year this will give an annual fixed cost per train metre:
cf =
26
Where: cv: variable cost of maintenance per seat-km (-ct/seat-km) CV: variable cost of train maintenance per linear metre and per kilometre covered (ct/m-km) L: train length (m) s: train seats (seats/train) For a typical value of CV = 0.98 -ct per linear metre and per kilometre, with values of: L=200 ml s=350 seats
cv =
27
Where: CT: is the workshop maintenance cost per linear train metre and per kilometre covered between inspections (RR) (/m-km) RR: kilometres covered between inspections (km) L: train length (m) s: train seats (seats/train) For a typical value of CT=175.10-7 /m-km, and for: RR=6,000 km L=200 m s=350 seats We obtain the following value:
28
(L cc )
Ds
Where: NC, means Cleaning Cost per seat-km (c/s.km) L, means train length (m) cc, is the cleaning cost per train metre (depends on the type of service)(/m) D, means Route Distance (km) s: train seats (seats/train) For a usual value of cc=1.33 /m, and for the following values L=200 m; D=475 km; s=350 seats we obtain the following result:
nc =
Values of NC=1.33 /linear train metre are common in medium and long distance services. For each of the trains in the example, therefore, the cost per seat kilometre is as shown in the table. As can be seen in the table, the cost per kilometre does not depend on speed, but (and to a great extent) on the trains route lenth.
Table 9. Cost of cleaning train per seat kilometre
Cleaning cost per train metre (cc) Units T100l T100r T200l T200r T300l T300r m 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33
N of seats (s)
Cleaning cost (NC) -ct/seat-km 0.1684 0.1907 0.1622 0.1838 0.1602 0.1816
Results in Euro cents per fleet train and journey per seat-kilometre
29
4.4.
Energy costs
The economic cost of energy comprises: Charges for energy consumed (which is generally measured at the substation entrance). Payments (negative) received from energy returned at the substation. Distributor charges linked to energy supply management. The latter may or may not be the infrastructure manager, which may, where applicable, hire a marketing body outside the rail system.
It is understood that the charge for the maintenance of electrical installations (substations and catenary) is included in the marginal cost for the use of infrastructure and that it will therefore be different for diesel and electric traction trains. 4.4.1.
Traction energy
The cost of traction energy and auxiliary power forms can be obtained by multiplying the amount of energy consumed at the substation by the unit price of imported energy. Energy imported at the substation is energy imported from the pantograph multiplied by the coefficient of losses occurring between substation and pantograph entrance, i.e. at the substation itself and in the catenary.
30
Where:
ec =
where: ec: cost of energy imported per seat-km (-ct/seat-km) The value = 1.03 can be adopted for AC current and = 1.11 for DC current.
Energy consumption (in the pantograph) for a train with a mass of M tons running at an average speed of Sav km/h can be estimated as2:
2 E PM = 5 .867 10 7 S av 2 .787 10 5 S av + 2 .163 10 2 M
[(
) (
So for the case in which the price of imported energy is E p S = 9 -ct/kWh, loss
coefficient = 1.03 and the train has a mass of M = 412 tons and a capacity of s = 350 seats
2 ec = 5.867 10 7 S av 2.787 10 5 S av + 2.163 10 2 M 1.03 9
[(
) (
1 350
-ct /s-km and for different average speeds the following are obtained for Sav=100 km/h, ec=0.269638 -ct/s-km for Sav=150 km/h, ec=0.334459 -ct/s-km for Sav=200 km/h, ec=0.431290 -ct/s-km for Sav=250 km/h; ec=0.560132 -ct/s-km
Garca lvarez, A. (2010): Energa y emisiones en el transporte por ferrocarril, Fundacin de los Ferrocarriles Espaoles Madrid.
31
1 ) s
Energy exported for a train with a mass of M tons running at an average speed of Sav km/h can be estimated as 3:
[( 1 .760 10
2 S av 1 .760 10 6 S av + 400 M
) (
[(
1 1 (9 1) 1.03 350
and for different speeds for Sav=100 km/h, rec=-0.03752 -ct/seat-km for Sav=150 km/h, rec=-0.03435 -ct/seat-km for Sav=200 km/h, rec=-0.03028 -ct/seat-km for Sav=250 km/h, rec=-0.02530 -ct/seat-km
Garca lvarez, A. (2010): Energa y emisiones en el transporte por ferrocarril, Fundacin de los Ferrocarriles Espaoles Madrid.
32
ced = ec
Where: ced: Cost of electric energy distribution per seat and kilometre (-ct/seat-km)
for S av = 100 km / h, ced = 0.015 0.269638 = 0.004045 -ct/seat-km for S av = 150 km / h, ced = 0.015 0.334459 = 0.005017 -ct/seat-km for S av = 200 km / h, ced = 0.015 0.431290 = 0.006469 -ct/seat-km for S av = 250 km / h, ced = 0.015 0.560132 = 0.008402 -ct/seat-km
33
tec = ec rec + ec
i.e.
tec = (1 + ) ec rec
And with the above assumptions regarding consumption as a function of mass and speed:
for S av = 100 km / h, tec = 0.269638 0.03752 + 0.004045 = 0.236161 -ct/seat-km for S av = 150 km / h, tec = 0.334459 0.03435 + 0.005017 = 0.305122 -ct/seat-km for S av = 200 km / h, tec = 0.43129 0.03028 + 0.006469 = 0.407479 -ct/seat-km for S av = 250 km / h, tec = 0.560132 0.0253 + 0.008402 = 0.543232 -ct/seat-km
34
4.5.
With respect to ground personnel, no relationship has been appreciated in principle between their costs and the speed of trains: or the number of people needed or the unit cost related to speed, and so these costs can be considered to be independent of speed. With personnel working on board the trains, there is a clear link between their costs and the average speed of the trains on which they work. This personnel does in fact have a fixed working timetable (typically 40 hours a week or 1,880 hours a year), and if the trains move more quickly, employees who travel on the trains will cover more kilometres in the same time, thereby reducing the number of people required to offer the same service and, therefore, the labour cost per unit of supply.
35
LCd : annual cost to the company of a driver (/person) J d : number of days a year the driver works (days/year) Hd : hours a days the driver actually operates the train (days/year) S av : average speed (km/h) LCa : annual cost to the company of accompanying personnel (/person) J a : number of days a year each accompanying person works on the train (days/year) H a : hours a day each accompanying person works on the train (hours/day)
With the following representative values:
LCd = 40,000 /year LCa = 30,000 /year J d = J a = 210 days H d = 4 hours a days H a = 4.5 hours a day
Cost per seat-km:
= 0 .7936 -ct/seat-km
= 0 .3968 -ct/seat-km
36
150
200
4.6.
4.6.1.
37
7.36 100 sD
where: s: number of equivalent train seats D: train distance covered
4.6.3.
38
For every 1,000 dynamic tons-km moved:: axles with a dynamic stress that is less than 80% of the admitted level, 0.17; axles with dynamic stress from 80% to 90% of the admitted level, 0.27; axles with a dynamic stress from 90% to 100% of the admitted level, 0.37; For every pantograph-km in collection, 0.06.
39
1.68 100 lf D
where: lf: is the load factor (passengers/seat-km) For values of: lf = 0.75 passengers/seat-km D = 500 km
4.7.
Indirect operating costs apart from those needed to move the train
Within operating costs, there are some (as mentioned above) that are not required to move the train, and whose amount has nothing to do with speed or other operating parameters. In some cases, these are costs incurred to extend the service (this is the case with restaurant costs and on board services), but which may be added to the basic service in any speed range; in other cases they are costs related to ticket distribution and sale (obviously independent of train movement) whose amount is linked to the type of sales system, the extent of the sales network, the cost of the ticket, etc. In other cases it does in short involve operator costs that respond to the aim of the Administration or infrastructure manager to take a part of the income and/or potential profit to achieve a more equitable distribution of profits (this is the case with charges above marginal cost, taxes, premiums, etc.). What all these costs have in common is that they are not essential for the production of transport services and are therefore, for what concerns us here, independent of speed. It can certainly be observed that the absolute value of these costs will often be greater in high speed services, but they do not depend on speed, but rather on the fact that the speed makes it possible to charge higher prices for transport and (thanks to the reduction in costs it brings) also offers greater profits. This means that these trains are often burdened with a mark-up that is above the marginal cost of infrastructure maintenance; that premiums or specific taxes are charged by the Administration; that distribution costs linked to the cost of the ticket are higher and, in short, that significant amounts of money are often devoted to on board services to make it possible to charge more for some tickets.
40
Capital costs, bank charges and credit card sales can also be bracketed under this heading. As can be seen, these costs are unrelated to speed and are often proportional to the ticket price. This is the case, for example, with the agency commission included in the ticket price and commissions at ticket offices for sales. Although they are billed in this way, there is nevertheless an intrinsic relationship between these costs and the ticket price (in fact, both tend to be increasingly independent). 4.7.2.
Passenger services
The following items are included within passenger services: On board passenger services (restaurant, newspapers, etc.). Ground Services (specific waiting halls, support to disabled people, parking exemptions, etc.). Passenger assistance (transfers, connections, losses, etc.). Passenger Insurance
The cost of some of these services is sometimes included in the ticket and sometimes not. When it is not included in the ticket, the expense generated is not considered an operating cost since the customer pays for it directly; but when it is included in the ticket price it can be an operating cost, although for the purpose of analysis and for the reasons stated, it seems more appropriate to deduct it from income. 4.7.3.
41
42
5. Sensitivity
Even in those that vary (rising or falling) with increasing speed, the variation depends on many factors, such as mass, seats, service type, etc. Furthermore, the influence of each cost component in total costs is also different in each case. This makes it impossible to give the same result on the variation in costs when speed changes, either in the form of a formula or in the form of elasticity for specific values. However, it would seem advisable to develop some specific cases to have an idea of the specific cost variations and of each of their components when speed changes. Two case examples have therefore been selected: one corresponding to a high speed train, and another to a commuter train. In each one of them the characteristics of the route, rolling stock technology, seat density have all been kept constant. Average and maximum speed have been changed in constant steps (along with, of course, the parameters of the train affected by this change, such as power, mass, and the acquisition cost of the train). Route length, train size and turnaround time have also been changed independently to analyse sensitivity to each of these factors. For each case, the evolution of costs (broken down into their components) when speed changes are shown on a graph.
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5.1.
5.1.1.
where:
Table 10. Changes in direct costs when average and maximum speeds change over long distances Speed (km/h) Costs Unit 100 150 200 250 300 Train ownership cost Rolling stock maintenance and cleaning cost Energy cost Operating personnel cost Marginal cost of infrastructure Operating direct costs (train movement costs)
-ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km
44
Operating direct costs (Long distance train; D=400 km; R=40 min)
4,50 4.50 4,00 4.00
3.50 3,50 Operating Direct Costs = 5.5273814 - (0.0192545 x Sav) + (0.0000427 x S2av)
-c t/s e a t-k m
Energy Cost = -0.0878 + (0.0025 x Sav ) Rolling Stock Maintenance and Cleaning Cost = 0.667464 (0.000009 x Sav)
1,00 1.00
0.50 0,50 0.00 0,00 Train Ownership Cost =1.7351 (0.0026 x Sav )
100
150
200
250
300
Speed (km/h)
Figure 6. Changes in direct costs when average and maximum speeds change over long distances
5.1.2.
45
1.50 1,50
1.00 1,00 0.50 0,50 0.00 0,00 Train Ownership Cost = 1.4245 (0.0007 x D)
300
350
400
450
500
46
As can be seen, three types of costs exist, depending on their sensitivity to turnaround time changes: A direct one, which are costs that increase when turnaround times increase. These are: costs for infrastructure use and train ownership costs. A constant one, which are those costs that are not sensitive to changes in turnaround times (since the latter do not form part of the calculation of the former). These are personnel operating costs and energy costs. An indirect one, which is related to the falling cost of train ownership when turnaround time increases (economies of scale occur).
47
Operating direct costs (Long distance train; Sav= 200km/h; D=400 km)
4,00 4.00 3,50 3.50 3,00 3.00
Marginal Cost of Infrastructure = 0.8336 Operating Personnel Cost = 0.3968 Energy Cost = 0.3795 Rolling Stock Maintenance and Cleaning Cost = 0.66487 + (0.00001 x R)
-c t/s e a t-k m
2.50 2,50
2,00 2.00
1.50 1,50 1.00 1,00
0,50 0.50
0.00 0,00
20
30
40
50
60
5.2.
48
5.2.1.
) (
c / seat.km
Where:
Operatingdirect direct costs cost (Commuter train; D= 30 km; R=7 min) Operating (Commuter train; D=30 km; R=7 min)
4,00 4.00 3,50 3.50 3,00 3.00
+ (0.00002 x Sav) Operating Pe rsonnel Cos t = 0.0729 (0.0131 x S Energy Cos av) t = -0.0744 + (0.0005 x Sav) Rolling Stock M aintenance and Cleaning Cost =0.40994 (0.00 003 x S ) av Marginal C ost of Infr astructure = 0.41637
-c t/s e a t-k m
2.50 2,50
2,00 2.00
1.50 1,50 1.00 1,00
60
70
80
90
100
Speed (km/h)
Figure 9. Changes in direct costs when speed times change over long distances
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-ct/seat-km
Table 14. Changes in direct costs when travel distance changes (D) Travel distance (km) Costs Unit 10 20 30 40 Train ownership cost Rolling stock maintenance and cleaning cost Energy cost Operating personnel cost Marginal cost of infrastructure Operating direct costs (train movement costs)
-ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km
-c t/s e a t-k m
ucture = 1. 0049
(0.0016 x
D)
Operating Personnel Cost = 0.9921 Energy Cost = 0.1098 Rolling Stock Ma intenance and Cl eaning Cost = 0.4 413
1,50 1.50
1.00 1,00
(0.00009 x D)
0,50 0.50
0.00 0,00
10
20
30
40
50
50
-ct/seat-km
Table 15. Changes in direct costs when turnaround times change (R) Turnaround time (min) Costs Unit 5 6 7 8 Train ownership cost Rolling stock maintenance and cleaning cost Energy cost Operating personnel cost Marginal cost of infrastructure Operating direct costs (train movement costs)
-ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km
Marginal Cost of Infrastructure = 0.4180 Operating Personnel Cost = 0.9921 Energy Cost = 0.1098 Rolling Stock Maintenance and Cleaning Cost = 0.40693 + (0.00001 x R)
-c t/s e a t-k m
0,50 0.50
0.00 0,00
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6. Conclusions
In the light of the study it can be stated that railway operating costs have the following key features: 1. There is an important part of operating costs incurred by trains that are not necessary to move the train, and which either correspond to additional passenger services (restaurant services), commissions and ticket sale costs, or taxes or infrastructure use charges above the marginal cost. These costs are not inherent in the service or necessary for its provision and are not therefore dependent on speed. Operating costs necessary to move trains are reduced (overall) with speed. There are many cost items that are independent of speed, but an increase in speed involves an increase in the annual distance covered by trains and a consequent reduction in depreciation and financial costs (much higher than the additional costs, if any, that the train has in increasing speed). Energy costs and a part of rolling stock maintenance costs (those connected to monitoring, control and signalling equipment) may also increase slightly, but other maintenance cost items are reduced (workshop costs, wear to wheels, brake shoes and pantographs). Personnel costs are also reduced, since at higher speeds the same people cover more kilometres in their working time.
2.
3. There is a slight reduction in cost per seat-kilometre when the train distance covered is increased. This is due to the effect of turnaround time at main stations that affects depreciation and train capital costs, reducing the hours the train is actually used. "Economy of distance" is also due, to some extent, to personnel changeover times. The impact per kilometre of the marginal costs of using main stations is also reduced when distance is increased. 4. There are "economies of size" for the train, i.e. fewer costs per seatkilometre are produced the bigger the train. This is because the train cost includes some fixed components that are independent of size, and which result in depreciation and financial costs. Furthermore, personnel operating costs depend very little on the size of the train and their costs are independent of size, resulting in lower costs on bigger trains. Finally, energy costs are lower when train size increases, because both the mass per seat is reduced and the cross section of the train (and hence pressure drag), is the same for any train size, unit cost being reduced accordingly.
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7. Bibliography
Cillero Hernndez, A.; Bouzada Outeda, P.; Garca lvarez, A.; Martn Caizares, M.P. (2009): Incrementos de recorrido en el transporte por longitud de caminos, operacin y gestin; Enertrans Monographs (n 7) Garca lvarez, A. (2006): Explotacin econmica y regulacin del transporte de viajeros por ferrocarril, Fundacin de los Ferrocarriles Espaoles, Madrid. Garca lvarez, A. y Minayo de la Cruz, Francisco. (2009): Relacin entre la alta velocidad ferroviaria y los costes operativos no energticos. Fernndez Rodrguez, Z. (1997): Los costes y la eficiencia empresarial. Variables explicativas, Fundacin Argentaria, Madrid. Filippi, M. and Maggi, R. (1992): The Cost Structure of the Swiss private Railways, in the International Journal of Transport Economics, vol. 39. Forkenbrok, D. (2001): Comparison of external costs of rail and truck freight transportation, Transportation Research, part A 35, 2001. Fridh, O. (2006): Modelling operational costs of a future high-speed train, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Stockholm, Sweden. H. Serist and A.P.J. Vepslinen (1997): Airline cost drivers: cost implications of fleet, routes and personnel policies, in the Journal of Air Transport management, vol 3, no. 1.
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