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This document discusses a study conducted by the Fundación de los Ferrocarriles Españoles (FFE) on operating costs for high speed trains. The study was commissioned by the International Union of Railways to analyze how direct operating costs are affected by train speed. It identifies different cost components related to train ownership, operation, and infrastructure usage. It then provides examples of how costs may vary with changes in average speed, maximum speed, travel distances, and turnaround times.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
119 views54 pages

527E

This document discusses a study conducted by the Fundación de los Ferrocarriles Españoles (FFE) on operating costs for high speed trains. The study was commissioned by the International Union of Railways to analyze how direct operating costs are affected by train speed. It identifies different cost components related to train ownership, operation, and infrastructure usage. It then provides examples of how costs may vary with changes in average speed, maximum speed, travel distances, and turnaround times.
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed

Study and Research Group for Economics and Transport Operation

Author: Alberto GARCIA ------------------------------------------Company: FFE Fundacin Ferrocarriles Espaoles ------------------------------------------Document: 1st delivery ------------------------------------------Date: 12 December 2010

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed


This report is in response to the contract signed on January 20, 2010 between the Union International des Chemins de Fer (High Speed Committee) and the Fundacin de los Ferrocarriles Espaoles (FFE), the aim of which is to conduct a study entitled "Operating costs on High Speed Trains.

The international Union of Railways


The International Union of Railways (UIC known by the acronym of the French Union Internationale des Chemins de Fer) is the global partnership for cooperation among key international actors in the railway sector. Founded in 1922 with the aim of moving towards standardization and improving systems of railway construction and operation of interoperable, currently holds within it to 171 members, including national railways, operators, infrastructure managers, public transport companies and others. In recent years the organization has redesigned its objectives and has put special emphasis on issues such as liberalization and globalization of the global rail sector, or the new challenges arising in the rail its key role in a stage of sustainable development and combating climate change. The main aims of the UIC High Speed Department are to coordinate high speed activities carried out by UIC members and to contribute to logical development of high speed systems. It performs the following activities: updating databases (lines, rolling stock, traffic, etc.), high speed world maps, benchmarking and other working teams, communications and contacts, website and high speed brochures as well as other publications.

Fundacin de los Ferrocarriles Espaoles (Spanish Railway Foundation)


The Fundacin de los Ferrocarriles Espaoles (FFE, Spanish Railway Foundation) was created on February 20, 1985 by RENFE (National Network of Spanish Railways) currently split into Renfe Operadora and the Administrador de Infraestructuras Ferroviarias (ADIF, Administrator of Railways Infrastructures)- and Ferrocarriles de Va Estrecha (FEVE, Narrow Gauge Railways). Since 2002 it has been a National Public Sector Foundation. The mission of the FFE is to promote knowledge and use of the railway through: research and education, technological services, the recovery and alternative use of the

railway heritage, cultural activities, periodic publications and specialized books. It also manages the Library, the Railway History Archive and the Railway Documentation Centre, as well as the Madrid Delicias and Vilanova i la Geltr (Barcelona) Railway Museums. The Spanish Railway Foundations Board of Trustees currently comprises: Renfe Operadora; Administrador de infraestructuras Ferroviarias (ADIF), Ferrocarriles de Va Estrecha (FEVE), Ferrocarriles de la Generalitat de Catalunya (FGC), Ferrocarriles de la Generalitat Valenciana (FGV), Eusko Tren; Metro de Madrid S.A., Ferrocarril Metropolit de Barcelona S.A., Asociacin de Empresas Constructoras de mbito Nacional (SEOPAN), MAFEX, Serveis Ferroviaris de Mallorca (SFM), Euskal Trenbide Sarea, Ferrocarriles de la Junta de Andaluca (FJA); Asociacin Ferroviaria de Certificacin, CETREN and INECO. Department of Research, Training and Cientific Cooperation The mission of the Department of Research, Training and Cientific Cooperation involves performing activities aimed at promoting the development of the railway, providing the necessary tools for education, promoting the positive image of the railway, and carrying out studies and research projects to serve the interests of the railway sector as a whole, both at home and abroad, and especially in Ibero-American countries. Its main lines of action are: studies and research projects, sectorial promotion and cooperation, training and communication activities. The own Departments research activity is carried out by the following study and research groups: 1. 2. 3. 4. Study and research group for energy and emissions in transport Study and research group for economics and transport operation Study and research group for geography and rail traffic Study and research group for the sociology of transport

In recent years, these groups have worked on many different projects (some completed and others still in progress), the most important being: EnerTrans, ElecRail, Reactiva, Observatorio del Ferrocarril Espaol (Spanish Railway Observatory), Securemetro, Hope in Stations, Viadintel, Aeroave, Balasto artificial (Artificial Ballast), etc.

Table of Contents
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................................................... 5 1. 2. 3. Introduction and background ........................................................................................................................... 7 Definitions and assumptions............................................................................................................................ 8 Identification and classification operating costs. Output quantification ................................................... 11

3.1. 3.2. 4.1. 4.2. 4.3.

List of operating costs .................................................................................................. 11 Output calculation offered by a train in a year .............................................................. 13 Costs related to train ownership................................................................................... 16 Costs of own and external capital ................................................................................ 22 Rolling stock maintenance and cleaning costs............................................................. 25
Fixed cost of train maintenance ...................................................................................................... 26 Variable cost of train maintenance .................................................................................................. 27 Fixed workshop costs ...................................................................................................................... 28 Exterior and interior cleaning costs ................................................................................................. 29 Traction energy ............................................................................................................................... 30 Energy returned to the network ....................................................................................................... 32 Cost of energy distribution .............................................................................................................. 33 Total energy cost ............................................................................................................................. 34 Train insurance costs ...................................................................................................................... 22 Total operating cost arising from train possesion ............................................................................ 23 Train repayment .............................................................................................................................. 16

4.

Direct cost component analysis..................................................................................................................... 16 4.1.1. 4.2.1. 4.2.2. 4.3.1. 4.3.2. 4.3.3. 4.3.4. 4.4.1. 4.4.2. 4.4.3. 4.4.4.

4.4.

Energy costs ................................................................................................................ 30

4.5. 4.6.

4.7.

4.6.1. 4.6.2. 4.6.3. 4.6.4. 4.7.1. 4.7.2. 4.7.3.

Train operation personnel costs ................................................................................... 35 Marginal cost of infrastructure maintenance ................................................................ 37
Components of infrastructure use charges ..................................................................................... 37 Capacity allocation and monitoring of train movements .................................................................. 38 Movement of trains or vehicles ....................................................................................................... 38 Use of stations by passengers ........................................................................................................ 39 Distribution, sales and access control costs ................................................................................... 41 Passenger services ......................................................................................................................... 41 Infrastructure charges above marginal cost .................................................................................... 41

Indirect operating costs apart from those needed to move the train............................. 40

5.

5.1.

Sensitivity of different cost components to speed variation. Case examples .......................................... 43 5.1.1. 5.1.2. 5.1.3. 5.2.1. 5.2.2. 5.2.3.

Case example 1: high speed train ................................................................................ 44


Changes in average and maximum speeds .................................................................................... 44 Changes in travel distances (D) ...................................................................................................... 45 Variations in turnaround time (R) .................................................................................................... 47 Changes in average and maximum speed ...................................................................................... 49 Changes in travel distance (D) ........................................................................................................ 50 Changes in turnaround times (R) .................................................................................................... 51

5.2.

Case example 2: commuter train ................................................................................. 48

6. 7.

Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................................... 52 Bibliography ..................................................................................................................................................... 53

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010

1.

Introduction and background


The purpose of this study is to establish an approach to the function of rail operating direct costs for passenger transport, focusing on medium and long distance transport, and identifying inducing factors on which such costs depend; and particularly establishing the relationship between operating direct costs and train speed1. This does therefore involve identification and analysis of operating direct costs on passenger services (long distance and regional) by analyzing how they are influenced by factors such as average speed, number of stops, infrastructure features, the size of trains or route configuration. Operating direct costs will be examined excluding costs arising from infrastructure use over the marginal cost; and excluding any commercial costs related to passenger services and ticket sales, which are considered indirect cost. Cost differences exist between countries, and even in the same country costs may evolve differently over time. The study will therefore use orders of magnitude and they will only be specified when data is available from certain specific countries. As for the content of the report: a) The definitions needed to define and understand the study will be given first. b) Operating costs will be identified and classified (into direct and indirect), as well as determining the annual distance covered by each train and its production, which is the divisor of the operating cost unit. c) Thirdly, we will analyze possible factors inducing each of the items making up operating costs, and possible criteria for allocation of these costs to trains. As a fourth part, we will analyze aviation costs compared to the railway. d) Previous results are applied to a case example in order to analyze the influence of speed as well as other factors. e) We will end running the model in several cases to quantify the results, and by presenting the main conclusions.

The work is in response to the contract signed on January 20, 2010 between the Union International des Chemins de Fer (UIC) and the Fundacin de los Ferrocarriles Espaoles (FFE), the aim of which is to conduct a study entitled "Operating costs on High Speed Trains.

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010

2. Definitions

and assumptions

The costs necessary for the operation of rail services are called operating costs, including repayment of rolling stock, maintenance, sales and distribution costs, energy, infrastructure charges and capital and financial costs. Operating costs do not include infrastructure costs not covered by charges, external costs, or taxes on company profits. There are various costs related to the ticket price and passengers services on board the train or on land. These include sales commission, meals on board included in the fare, etc. These costs are not of course directly related to speed, although they could be indirectly related if speed affects the ticket price, but this direct relationship does not imply a higher cost of speed, quite the opposite, it implies greater profit, precisely because speed is partly deducted from the higher cost. This is why it has been decided to introduce a concept, direct costs, which would be the operating cost of moving the train; and which would not include items relating to passenger services and sales that would however (for the result of the operating account to be unaffected) be subtracted from income. Nor do the "direct costs" include the part of the charge that exceeds the marginal cost of infrastructure use. Costs of running empty trains are not considered, nor those related to shunting manoeuvres, which are, barring a few exceptions, very low in passenger traffic (around 2-4%) and are not substantially differently from those in aviation, which does not invalidate the comparison. Capital costs (included in operating costs) are understood to be the resulting cost needed to remunerate any economic resources used in the purchase of trains. They do therefore include financial costs (remuneration of external capital), and the remuneration of own capital with the same interest rate as external capital. This is done to make capital costs in the amount involved independent of the financial structure. It also makes it possible to put trains owned on the same level as rented trains. The unit of measurement to be used for operating cost is the Euro cent per seat-kilometre (-ct/seat-km), taking kilometre to mean those covered by the train in each commercial service. Commercial income is considered to be that received for traffic (and accessories) excluding VAT and other taxes. Abbreviations for absolute indicators are expressed in capital letters in the study for greater clarity, while those corresponding to relative indicators are expressed in lowercase letters.

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010

Description of the case example


For better monitoring of the analysis, various partial results are pinpointed for certain particular trains that can be considered as representative. Given the variety of architectures, sizes and configurations possible, nonarticulated self-propelled trains are used as reference examples (perhaps one of the most widely used architectures); and in three sizes: 100 metres, 200 metres and 300 metres long (all of them denoted by the letter T and each one with the subscript of the corresponding length.) With respect to comfort, two types are used: a single-class train with comfort for regional services (denoted by the r subscript) and another with first and second class and a cafeteria for long distance services (denoted by the subscript I). So the T2001 train is a 200 metre long train with long distance finishing and the T100r is the 100 metre train with regional confort, etc
Table 1. Relevant parameters of train types in the case example

Parameters L Mr s CC C Train length Tare (without motors) Number of seats Comfort coefficient Number of cabs lr r

Units metres (m) tons (t) s=1.7x(L-7) s=3x(L-7) seats

Train type T100l 100 160 158 1.5 2 T100r 100 160 279 1 2 T200l 200 320 328 1.5 2 T200r 200 320 579 1 2 T300l 300 320 498 1.5 2 T300r 300 320 879 1 2

Total seats/assumed seats cabs/train

Turnaround time

Minutes

40

20

40

20

40

20

Note: All data are studied for single floor, non-articulated, non-wide carbody trains

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010

Figure 1. Changes in the structure (which does not affect the result) but which is better suited to the need to analyze the effect of speed

10

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010

3. Identification

and classification operating costs. Output quantification


This chapter will list the different components of operating costs, and for each one will explain their nature, the inducing factors they depend on, the method of allocation and their relationship with speed. The seat-kilometres that each train can produce (the output) in a year are also analysed, since according to the definition of operating direct costs, it is necessary to refer to this unit, and to quantify it.

3.1.

List of operating costs


The main components of rail operating costs taken into account in this study are listed in the table below. They are arranged into functional groups (train ownership costs, maintenance, energy, operating personnel, cost of sales, customer service, general costs, etc.) The following are included separately: i) operating direct costs of moving the train, ii) commercial costs of customer services and ticket sales, and iii) other costs arising from payments for infrastructure use. They are also arranged according to the relationship of each cost with train speed, identifying those that are clearly related to speed (train costs, energy, operating personnel), those with a more diffuse relationship (rolling stock and cleaning); and those that, in principle, have no relation to speed.

11

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


Table 2. Cost component list

1 i) Operating direct costs (train movement costs) Train ownership cost

1.a 1.b 1.c

Train repayment Costs of own and external capital Train insurance Train maintenance fixed costs Workshop variable costs Workshop fixed costs Workshop maintenance variable cost Cost of exterior and interior cleaning Traction energy Energy returned to the network (negative) Auxiliary energy Train operation personnel Train manning personnel Marginal cost of infrastructure Cost for station use Distribution and sales (fixed part) Distribution and sales (variable part) Agency commission (included in ticket price) Access control Travel services (per passenger) Travel services (variable part per train) Travel assistance Travel insurance Advertising and promotion General and structural expenses Interest on working capital Bank charges and loyalty cards Station charge per passenger Security charge Fixed access charge Charge per passenger Charge per seat-km Charge for parking

2 Rolling stock maintenance and cleaning

2.a 2.b 2.c 2.d 2.e

3 Energy

3.a 3.b 3.c

Operating personnel costs Marginal cost of infrastructure

4.a 4.b 5.a 5.b 6.a

6 ii) Commercial costs of customer services Distribution (sales) and access control (not direct costs)

6.b 6.c 6.d

7 Passenger services

7.a 7.b 7.c 7.d

8 9 10

Advertising General and structural expenses Working capital costs, bank and credit charges Station and security charges

8.a 9.a 10.a 10.b 11.a 11.b 12.a

iii)Other costs for infrastructure use

11

12 Infrastructure charges above marginal cost

12.a 12.c 12.d

12

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010

3.2.

Output calculation offered by a train in a year


The breakdown of cost per unit of supply (seat kilometre) is obtained by dividing the absolute cost by: Seats on the train (s), which is data from the train. The kilometres it covers in a year.

The annual distance covered by a train depends (among other variables) on the average number of daily hours of service (Ht), this time including both travel time and turnarounds at main line stations.

Train use day hours (Ht)


The value of Ht is independent of speed, and depends on the seasonality of demand, frequency, the peak time service policy and reservation and maintenance policy.
Ht values between 6 and 8 hours per day are common for all sorts of medium and high frequency day services. We use the value Ht=7 for the case examples.

Time spent in a trip and turnaround The time employed by the train on a trip and its turnaround is:
Train trip and turnaround time (min ) = R +
Where: R is the turnaround time (minutes) D is the travel distance (km) Sav is average speed (km/h).

D 60 S av

13

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


Annual train distance covered The number of trips a train can make in an average day (in which it operates for a total of Ht hours) and the kilometres covered by the train in a year are: T D= H t 60 D 60 R+ S av

and

RA = (365 60)
Where:

S av H t D (R S av ) + (D 60)

T/D is the number of trips (in a direction) the train can make in a day RA is the annual distance covered by the train in commercial services (km) If Ht=7, the annual distance covered by the train in commercial services (km) is:

RA = 153,300

S av H t D (R S av ) + (D 60)

It can be noted that the annual distance covered, RA (km), increases almost proportionally with average speed (Sav), daily hours of use (Ht) and distance (D), and that it is reduced as the turnaround time (R) increases. Indicated below for seven hours of daily use (Ht = 7) are the annual distances covered by trains in terms of average speed for long distance (D = 500 km is used in the example) and regional (D = 200 kilometres) services. They are also calculated for different turnaround times (R) in order to explain the effect of this variable.
Table 3. Annual distances covered by a train in terms of speed and turnaround time R=90 Average speed (km/h) 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 R=60 R=30 R=45 R=30 R=15

Long distance (D=500 km) 156,429 196,538 232,273 264,310 293,197 319,375 349,209 365,000 166,630 212,917 255,500 294,808 331,204 365,000 396,466 425,833 178,256 232,273 283,889 333,261 380,532 425,833 469,286 511,000

Regional trains (D=200 km) 149,561 185,818 217,447 245,280 269,962 292,000 311,797 329,677 161,368 204,400 243,333 278,727 311,043 340,667 367,920 393,077 175,200 227,111 276,216 322,737 366,872 408,800 448,683 486,667

Notes: The results are expressed in kilometres per train per year. All calculations are made for average daily use (Ht) of 7 hours.

14

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


400,000

R=90; D=500 R=60; D=500

350,000 Y=122,844 + (56,671x Sav) (1,022.5x Sav2) Y=121,871+ (54,810 x Sav) (1,156.1 x Sav2) Y=119,154 + (49,456 x Sav) (1,398.4 x Sav2) Y=117,411 + (46,158 x Sav) (1,472.7 x 250,000 Sav2) Y=115,358 + (43,141 x Sav)- (1,468 x Sav2)

R=30; D=500 R=45; D=200

300,000

R=30; D=200 R=15; D=200

Annual distance (km)

200,000

Y=113,077 + (38,979 x Sav) (1,501.6x Sav2 )

150,000

100,000 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250

Average Speed (km/h)

Figure 2. Annual train distance covered according to its speed and turnaround time

Once the annual distance (measured in kilometres) covered by a train is known, the seat-km produced by this train in a year (which must offset the annual cost of the train) are obtained by multiplying the annual distance covered (AD) in km by the number of train seats (s):

S km t = RA s

15

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010

4. Direct
4.1.

cost component analysis

Costs related to train ownership


Relationship between train speed and its repayment cost Prior to analysing the costs related to train ownership or possession, it is necessary to specify that speed affects repayment and train possession costs per seat-km in two ways: 1. Maximum speed affects the price of the train because greater train speed means it has more power and weight and, therefore, a higher price. 2. Increased speed makes it possible to travel more kilometres per year and, therefore, reduces the cost per seat-km. Identifying costs associated with train ownership Owning a train entails three cost groups: Repayment costs Cost of capital for investment and Train insurance

These three items relate to the case in which the train is acquired in ownership, but in the case of renting, it would be equivalent to a single cost, which would be the renting payments (including the profit of the renting company, which does in turn include risk derived from lack of use). Each of these cost items will now be analyzed. 4.1.1.

Train repayment
Train repayment depends on four factors, which are: its initial value (which coincides with the purchase price); the residual value, the period of repayment; and the actual repayment criterion. The European rail system uses the straight-line repayment method with no residual value for a period of approximately 25 years, but other repayment criteria would also be acceptable, either a period of 20-30 years or a duration of 15 years with a significant residual value. The 25 year repayment method with no residual value has been used in this study (for the example).

16

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010

Price of train (initial value)


The formula for the purchase price (in 2010) of the new train (or initial value), which is estimated according to various factors (mass, power, seats, etc.), is as follows:
TP = 150 ,000 C + 26 ,500 M + 1,000 P + 25 ,000 NM + 6,000 s CC Where:
TP: Train price (in euros10) C: Number of cabs M: Empty mass (in tons) P: Continuous power (in kW) NM: Number of motors s: Number of seats CC: Comfort coefficient (e.g. 0.8 in commuter trains, 1 in regional trains and 1.5 in luxury trains)

Added to this amount, if appropriate, are surcharges for multisystems or multicurrent and for short series, which, since they are not exclusive to high speed trains, are not taken into account in this study.

Relationship between train price and speed


Of the terms that appear in the equation above, only power has a close relationship with speed (mass also has a certain relationship, since when all the other factors are the same, greater power means greater mass). Relationship between power and maximum speed It can therefore be verified empirically that the relationship between power and maximum speed satisfies, approximately, the following equation:
P= L 15 1.31 4.46 S max 215

Where: P is train power (in kW) L is train length (in m) Smax is maximum train speed (in km/h)

Even though the power required for a given maximum speed depends on the profile of the line, desirable acceleration (besides the mass) can give us alternative values.

17

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


The "theoretical" power for each of the trains in the case example is the one that figures in the table.
Table 4. Relationship between power and speed

Type of train

Train length, L (m) 100

Power (kW) Maximum train speed (km/h)


1 .31 P = 0 .39 ( 4 .46 S max )

160 1,462

200 1,959

250 2,624

300 3,332

T100l

T100r T200l T200r T300l

100 200 200 300

1 .3 P = 0 .39 ( 4 .46 S max )

1,462 3,183 3,183 4,903

1,959 4,264 4,264 6,569

2,624 5,711 5,711 8,799

3,332 7,252 7,252 11,173

( ) P = 0 .86 (4.46 S ) P = 1 .32 (4 .46 S )


1.31 P = 0 .86 4.46 S max 1.31 max 1 .31 max 1 .31 P = 1 .32 4 .46 S max

T300r

300

4,903

6,569

8,799

11,173

Relationship between mass and speed


The mass of the empty train can be broken down into two parts: The mass part that does not depend on the motors (as if all vehicles were trailing railcars that we will call Mr), and The mass part that depends on the motors, which we call Mm.

So: M = M r + M m The empty mass without considering the mass of the motors (Mr) depends essentially on the size and railway architecture (for a non articulated train with distributed power, consider M r (t ) = 1.6 L , where L is the length in train metres). As regards the mass derived from the motors, we can assume as guidance the average value of 10 kg/kW. The mass of the empty train is therefore: M = M r + M m = (1.6 L) +
Where: Mm: Motor mass (t) Mr: No load tare or non motorized mass (t) L: trains length (m) P: Power in kW

10 P 1,000

18

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


To calculate the number of motors, on the other hand, it can be assumed that the power of each motor is 2,000 kW, and the number of motors is therefore as follows: NM = P 2,000

Where: NM: number of motors (motors per train) P: power (kW)

For the six types of trains in the case example, the total mass (empty train) is as shown in the table:
Table 5. Total mass according to train type

Meaning Units Generic formula Maximum train speed (Smax) T100l T100r T200l T200l T300l T300r

Total train mass (M) Tons

M = M r + M m = (1.6 L ) +
160 km/h 194 194 391 391 589 589 200 km/h 199 199 402 402 605 605

10 P 1,000
300 km/h 213 213 432 432 651 651

250 km/h 206 206 417 417 627 627

19

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


The relationship between train price and speed is the result of substituting mass and power values in the train price formula with functions related to speed.

TP = (150,000 C) + (26,500 M ) + (1,000 P) + (25,000 NM ) + (6,000 s CC)


Substituting values in the formula:

L 15 1 1 . 31 TP = (150 , 000 C ) + 26 , 500 (1 . 8 L ) + 4 . 46 S max 100 215 1 . 31 (L 15 ) 4 . 46 S max L 15 1 . 31 25 , 000 + 1, 000 4 . 46 S max + 215 215 + (6 , 000 s CC ) =

) +

1 + 2 , 000

Simplifying and grouping together terms (for C=2 y CC=1)


1 .31 = 300 ,000 + ( 47 ,700 L ) + (6,000 s ) + 6,04125 (L 15 ) 4 .46 S max

)]}

The results for different train sizes are as follows:


Table 6. Train price in terms of speed

Speeds studied (km/h) T100l


1.31 TP = 5,962,900+ 2,253 S max

160 7,701,335

200 8,291,584

250 9,082,239

300 9,923,765

)] )] )]

T100r

1.31 TP = 5,879,200+ 2,253 S max

7,617,635

8,207,884

8,998,539

9,840,065

T200l

1.31 TP = 11,732,900+ 4,903 Smax

15,516,098

16,800,603

18,521,236

20,352,572

T200r

1.31 TP = 11,559,200+ 4,903 Smax

)] )] )]

15,342,398

16,626,903

18,347,536

20,178,872

T300l

1.31 TP = 17,502,900+ 7,553 Smax

23,330,861

25,309,623

27,960,232

30,781,379

T300r

1.31 TP = 17,239,200+ 7,553 Smax

23,067,161

25,045,923

27,696,532

30,517,679

Prices in euros 2010

20

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


35000000 35,000,000
T 100 l T 100 r
30,000,000 30000000

T 200 l

T 300 l T 300 r
Y= 706 + (431,686 x Sav) + (62,822 x Sav2)

T 200 r T 300 l T 300 r

Y=706 + (431,686 x Sav) + (62,822 x Sav2) 25,000,000 25000000

Train price ( per k/h)

20,000,000 20000000

T 200 l T 200 r
Y=107+ (939,459xSav) + (136,709 x Sav2)

Y=107 + (939,459 x Sav ) + (136,709 x Sav2) 15,000,000 15000000

10,000,000 10000000

T 100 l
Y = 207 + (106 x Sav) + (210,597 x Sav2 )

T 100 r
Y=207 +(106x Sav) + (210,597x Sav2 ) 5,000,000 5000000

160 160

200 250 200 250 Average speed (km/h)

300 300

Figure 3. Train price in terms of speed

The annual train repayment cost corresponds to the following formula:


Re payment =
Where: TP: Train price () RV: Repayment Value () YR: Years repayment For a particular representative case: RV=0 TY=25 and considering straight-line repayment

TP RV YR

Re payment =

TP 0 = 0.04 TP 25

21

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010

4.2.

Costs of own and external capital


The cost of capital is the sum total of own and external capital, but as mentioned, this assumes that all capital is external. Assuming interest rate "r" for annual interest, the cost for the year "Y" is as follows
Cost of capital = Current value x r = (train price-accumulated repayment rate) x r

TP RV CC = r TP Y YR
If: r=0.06; RV=0; YR=25

TP FC = 0.06 TP Y 25

If in the average year Y=12.5, the cost of capital would be:


TP FC = 0.06 TP 12.5 = 0.06 0.5 TP = 0.03 TP 25

4.2.1.

Train insurance costs


The cost of own damage and third party damage insurance can be calculated as a percentage of the train value, whether it is taken out externally (in the form of a premium), or if it is in a self-insurance scheme (being counted as provisions" in this case). If "i" is the percentage of insurance (or provisions) with respect to the price of the train, the annual cost will be:

IC = i TP
Assuming that i=0.02, we have:

IC = 0.02 TP

22

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


4.2.2.

Total operating cost arising from train possesion


Absolute cost per train and year
By adding up the three items of cost arising from train possession, the cost of this item in an average year would be:
RV 1 TP TP RV TC = + [r 0 , 5 TP ] + i TP = TP YR YR + (0 , 5 r ) + i

If: RV= 0; r = 0.06; YR= 25; i=0.02 We have:

1 0 TC = TP + (0.5 0.06) + 0.02 = TP [0.04 + 0.03 + 0.02] = 0.09 TP 25 It can then be assumed that with the hypotheses outlined the average annual cost of train possession is 9% of its value. And by substituting in the value of the train, this is:

TC = 0.09 [(150,000 C) + (26,500 E) + (1,000 P) + (25,000 M ) + (6,000 s CV ]


We have varying speeds in the case example and the different train types studied show the following annual possession cost.
Table 7. Train possession cost per train and year

Speeds studied (km/h) T100l T100r T200l T200r T300l T300r

160 693,120 685,587 1,396,449 1,380,816 2,099,778 2,076,045

200 746,243 738,710 1,512,054 1,496,421 2,277,866 2,254,133

250 817,402 809,869 1,666,911 1,651,278 2,516,421 2,492,688

300 893,193 885,606 1,831,731 1,816,098 2,770,324 2,746,591

[ ( TC = 0.09 [5,879,200+ (2,253 S TC = 0.09 [11 ,732,900+ (4,903 S TC = 0.09 [11 ,559,200+ (4,903 S TC = 0.09[17,502 ,900+ (7,553 S TC = 0.09 [17,239,200+ (7,553 S

1.31 TC = 0.09 5,962,900+ 2,253 S max 1.31 max

)] )]

1.31 max

1.31 max

)] )]

1.31 max

1.31 max

)] )]

Note: Results are expressed in Euros a year for each single train

23

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010

Relative possession cost per seat kilometre


The relevant cost is not the absolute cost, but the relative cost per seat-km. By dividing, for each type of train, the annual train possession cost by the seat-km it offers, we get the train possession operating cost per seat-km indicated in the table:
OC = TC s RA 100

Where: OC: relative possession cost per seat-km (-ct/seat-km) s: Number of seats TC: Absolute annual train possession cost (/year) RA: Annual distance covered by the train in commercial services (km/year) By substituting the train value, we have:

RV 1 TP + (0.5 r ) + i OC = YR [(150,000 C ) + (26,500 E ) + (1,000 P ) + (25,000 M ) + (6,000 s CV )] S av H D s (365 60 ) (R S av ) + (D 60 )

The results for trains in the case example are as follows:


Table 8. Train possession operating cost per seat kilometre

Speeds studied (km/h)


1.31 5,962,900 + 2,253 S max = 158 RA

160

200

250

300

T100l

OC100l

) ) )

1.190

1.081

1.001

0.961

T100r

OC100 r = OC 200l OC200r

1.31 5,879,200 + 2,253 S max 279 RA

0.650

0.591

0.545

0.596

T200l

1.31 11,732,900 + 4,903 S max = 328 RA 1.31 11,559,200 + 4,903 S max = 579 RA 1.31 17,502,900 + 7,553 S max 498 RA

0.440

1.055

0.984

0.950

T200r

) ) )

0.253

0.577

0.535

0.515

T300l

OC300l = OC 300 r

1.151

1.047

0.978

0.946

T300r

1.31 17,239,200 + 7,553 S max = 879 RA

0.631

0.572

0.532

0.513

Results in Euro cents per seat kilometre

24

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


1,25 1.25

100 m. L.D.
1,2 1.2 1,15 1.15

Train possession operating cost per seat.km (-ct/seat.km)

100 m. R.
1,1 1.1 1,05 1.05

100 m. L.D. 200 m. L.D. 300 m. L.D.


200 m. L.D.

11
0,95 0.95 0,9 0.9 0,85 0.85 0,8 0.8 0,75 0.75 0,7 0.7 0,65 0.65 0,6 0.6 0,55 0.55 0,5 0.5

200 m. R.

300 m. L.D.

300 m. R.

100 m. R. 200 m. R. 300 m. R.

0.45 0,45
0,4 0.4 0,35 0.35

160

200

250

300

300

Speed (km/h)

Figure 4. Absolute train possession cost (-ct/train.km)

For the same type of train (long distance or regional), it can be seen that costs are lower (for any speed) the larger the size of the train. It can also be seen, and is therefore more relevant, that the train possession cost per seat-km cost drops significantly with increasing speed, and this happens for all kinds and lengths of the train.

4.3.

Rolling stock maintenance and cleaning costs


Maintenance costs for vehicles include both preventive and corrective maintenance, and other maintenance works such as interior and exterior cleaning and repair, supplies of consumables and repairing acts of vandalism. These are operations of a diverse nature that are sometimes different workers on the same train, requiring both the use of devoted to this work (workshops, warehouses, pits, examination washes) as well as personnel, spare parts and consumables paper, etc.). performed by fixed facilities facilities, train (water, sand,

A part of the costs are fixed, and are independent of train routes and, of course, the time taken to perform them. Costs for workshop building and maintenance, monitoring and security, and the overall costs of the maintainer (management, documentation, etc.) can therefore be considered (in general) to be fixed.

25

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


4.3.1.

Fixed cost of train maintenance


This includes fixed costs arising from maintenance of each train in the fleet. It includes the cost of management personnel, accounting, documentation, the technical office, etc.
Where CF is the annual fixed cost per linear train metre, we have:

cf =

CF L s RA

Where: cf: annual fixed cost divided by seat-km (-ct/seat-km) CF: Fixed maintenance cost per linear train metre (/m.year) L: length of the train (m) s: number of train seats (seats) RA: Annual distance covered by the train (km/year) Assuming an approximate value of C =1,175 per linear metre and year, and the following values: L = 200 m, s = 350 seats, RA = 500.103 km /year this will give an annual fixed cost per train metre:

cf =

1,175 200 100 = 0.13 -ct/seat-km 350 500 10 3

26

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


4.3.2.

Variable cost of train maintenance


Another part of costs correspond to the replacement of items that wear out through use. In the long run, this consumption of materials and labour requirements correspond (in order of importance) to worn wheels, shoes, pantographs, disc brakes and axles. These costs are reduced on high speed lines (due to their higher radii of curvature, less use of air brakes and a lower number of catenary conductor cables), so that the correlation of economic costs associated with the average speed of trains shows a reduction in costs when the average speed of trains increases. A more significant reduction has been observed, especially in the case of pantographs, when changing from conventional lines to high speed ones.
cv = CV L s

Where: cv: variable cost of maintenance per seat-km (-ct/seat-km) CV: variable cost of train maintenance per linear metre and per kilometre covered (ct/m-km) L: train length (m) s: train seats (seats/train) For a typical value of CV = 0.98 -ct per linear metre and per kilometre, with values of: L=200 ml s=350 seats

cv =

0.98 200 = 0.56 -ct/seat-km 350

27

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


4.3.3.

Fixed workshop costs


The fixed cost of the workshop includes its repayment, cost of capital and operating cost. For each train, this depends on its length and the number of kilometres. The variable cost of workshop maintenance includes electricity, water and other charges for workshop management. For each train this depends on its length and the distances covered between workshop entries. The impact of workshop cost can be assumed to be:
ct = CT RR L s

Where: CT: is the workshop maintenance cost per linear train metre and per kilometre covered between inspections (RR) (/m-km) RR: kilometres covered between inspections (km) L: train length (m) s: train seats (seats/train) For a typical value of CT=175.10-7 /m-km, and for: RR=6,000 km L=200 m s=350 seats We obtain the following value:

1.75 10 7 6,000 200 ct = = 0.06 ct / seat.km 350

28

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


4.3.4.

Exterior and interior cleaning costs


"Cleaning costs" cover the costs of cleaning work and interior and exterior preparation of the train for each journey made. It depends on the gross area of the train (which is in turn directly related to its length). Interior train cleaning takes place for each journey. We can assume a cost per seat kilometre of:
NC =

(L cc )
Ds

Where: NC, means Cleaning Cost per seat-km (c/s.km) L, means train length (m) cc, is the cleaning cost per train metre (depends on the type of service)(/m) D, means Route Distance (km) s: train seats (seats/train) For a usual value of cc=1.33 /m, and for the following values L=200 m; D=475 km; s=350 seats we obtain the following result:

nc =

200 1.33 266 = = 0.16 - ct/seat-km 475 350 166.250

Values of NC=1.33 /linear train metre are common in medium and long distance services. For each of the trains in the example, therefore, the cost per seat kilometre is as shown in the table. As can be seen in the table, the cost per kilometre does not depend on speed, but (and to a great extent) on the trains route lenth.
Table 9. Cost of cleaning train per seat kilometre

Cleaning cost per train metre (cc) Units T100l T100r T200l T200r T300l T300r m 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33

N of seats (s)

Train length (L) m 100 100 200 200 300 300

Route Distance (D) km 500 250 500 250 500 250

Cleaning cost (NC) -ct/seat-km 0.1684 0.1907 0.1622 0.1838 0.1602 0.1816

seats 158 279 328 579 498 879

Results in Euro cents per fleet train and journey per seat-kilometre

29

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010

4.4.

Energy costs
The economic cost of energy comprises: Charges for energy consumed (which is generally measured at the substation entrance). Payments (negative) received from energy returned at the substation. Distributor charges linked to energy supply management. The latter may or may not be the infrastructure manager, which may, where applicable, hire a marketing body outside the rail system.

It is understood that the charge for the maintenance of electrical installations (substations and catenary) is included in the marginal cost for the use of infrastructure and that it will therefore be different for diesel and electric traction trains. 4.4.1.

Traction energy
The cost of traction energy and auxiliary power forms can be obtained by multiplying the amount of energy consumed at the substation by the unit price of imported energy. Energy imported at the substation is energy imported from the pantograph multiplied by the coefficient of losses occurring between substation and pantograph entrance, i.e. at the substation itself and in the catenary.

30

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


The cost of energy can therefore be expressed as follows:
EC s = E s M EPs M = E PM EPS M

Where:

ECs Cost of energy consumed on entering the substation (-ct/train-km)


E sM Energy imported on entering the substation (kWh/ train-km) EPs M Energy price per km (-ct/kWh)

EPM Pantograph imported energy (kWh/train-km)


Ratio of energy imported on entering the substation to pantograph imported energy
=
E sM E pM

The cost of energy per seat-km therefore being

ec =

ECS 1 = EPM EPSM s s

where: ec: cost of energy imported per seat-km (-ct/seat-km) The value = 1.03 can be adopted for AC current and = 1.11 for DC current.

Energy consumption (in the pantograph) for a train with a mass of M tons running at an average speed of Sav km/h can be estimated as2:
2 E PM = 5 .867 10 7 S av 2 .787 10 5 S av + 2 .163 10 2 M

[(

) (

So for the case in which the price of imported energy is E p S = 9 -ct/kWh, loss

coefficient = 1.03 and the train has a mass of M = 412 tons and a capacity of s = 350 seats
2 ec = 5.867 10 7 S av 2.787 10 5 S av + 2.163 10 2 M 1.03 9

[(

) (

1 350

-ct /s-km and for different average speeds the following are obtained for Sav=100 km/h, ec=0.269638 -ct/s-km for Sav=150 km/h, ec=0.334459 -ct/s-km for Sav=200 km/h, ec=0.431290 -ct/s-km for Sav=250 km/h; ec=0.560132 -ct/s-km

Garca lvarez, A. (2010): Energa y emisiones en el transporte por ferrocarril, Fundacin de los Ferrocarriles Espaoles Madrid.

31

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


4.4.2.

Energy returned to the network


The (negative) cost of energy returned is obtained by multiplying the amount of energy returned (kWh) at the substation by the unit price. The unit price received by the energy returned can be assumed to be equal to the price of the energy consumed by a multiplier , which is usually less than or equal to
1 rec = E p x EPS M
Where: rec: cost of energy returned (-ct/seat-km)
E p x amount of energy returned (kWh/km)

1 ) s

loss factor between substation and pantograph


EPS M : price of imported energy (-ct/kWh)

: coefficient of the price of energy exported/price of imported energy


s: number of train seats

Energy exported for a train with a mass of M tons running at an average speed of Sav km/h can be estimated as 3:

[( 1 .760 10

2 S av 1 .760 10 6 S av + 400 M

) (

So for the train in the above case and assuming that = 1


2 rec = 1.760 10 8 S av 1.760 10 6 S av + 0.004 412

[(

1 1 (9 1) 1.03 350

and for different speeds for Sav=100 km/h, rec=-0.03752 -ct/seat-km for Sav=150 km/h, rec=-0.03435 -ct/seat-km for Sav=200 km/h, rec=-0.03028 -ct/seat-km for Sav=250 km/h, rec=-0.02530 -ct/seat-km

Garca lvarez, A. (2010): Energa y emisiones en el transporte por ferrocarril, Fundacin de los Ferrocarriles Espaoles Madrid.

32

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


4.4.3.

Cost of energy distribution


The cost of electric energy distribution is assumed proportional to the cost of imported energy.

ced = ec
Where: ced: Cost of electric energy distribution per seat and kilometre (-ct/seat-km)

energy distribution coefficient


For a typical value of = 0.015 , the cost of energy distribution will be ced = 0.015 ec In the above case:

for S av = 100 km / h, ced = 0.015 0.269638 = 0.004045 -ct/seat-km for S av = 150 km / h, ced = 0.015 0.334459 = 0.005017 -ct/seat-km for S av = 200 km / h, ced = 0.015 0.431290 = 0.006469 -ct/seat-km for S av = 250 km / h, ced = 0.015 0.560132 = 0.008402 -ct/seat-km

33

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


4.4.4.

Total energy cost


The total energy cost will be obtained by adding the cost of traction energy and auxiliary power forms consumed per seat-km, subtracting the cost of energy returned to the network and adding the distribution cost.
So for the train in the above case and assuming that = 1

tec = ec rec + ec
i.e.

tec = (1 + ) ec rec
And with the above assumptions regarding consumption as a function of mass and speed:

1 1 1 tec = (1 + ) E pM EPS M E PS EPS M s s

1 1 tec = (1 ) EPS M E PM EPS M E PS s

In the above case:

for S av = 100 km / h, tec = 0.269638 0.03752 + 0.004045 = 0.236161 -ct/seat-km for S av = 150 km / h, tec = 0.334459 0.03435 + 0.005017 = 0.305122 -ct/seat-km for S av = 200 km / h, tec = 0.43129 0.03028 + 0.006469 = 0.407479 -ct/seat-km for S av = 250 km / h, tec = 0.560132 0.0253 + 0.008402 = 0.543232 -ct/seat-km

34

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010

4.5.

Train operation personnel costs


Personnel providing services in the operation (either belonging to the operators company or via service companies hired) can be classified into two main groups: Personnel providing ground services: this may in turn be operating personnel (e.g. personnel for reception and welcoming at stations, information and ticket sales, after-sales service), or indirect personnel (dedicated to administration or commercial activities). Personnel providing services on board the train: this is the case of personnel for train operation, ticket inspection and those serving passengers on board.

With respect to ground personnel, no relationship has been appreciated in principle between their costs and the speed of trains: or the number of people needed or the unit cost related to speed, and so these costs can be considered to be independent of speed. With personnel working on board the trains, there is a clear link between their costs and the average speed of the trains on which they work. This personnel does in fact have a fixed working timetable (typically 40 hours a week or 1,880 hours a year), and if the trains move more quickly, employees who travel on the trains will cover more kilometres in the same time, thereby reducing the number of people required to offer the same service and, therefore, the labour cost per unit of supply.

35

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


LC (/person) is the annual cost to the company of a worker (with subscript "d" if it is a driver, and subscript "a" if it is accompanying personnel). J is the number of days a year he/she works and H the number of working hours a day (with the same subscripts). The personnel cost will therefore be

1 LCd LCa SC = in -ct/seat-km J H S + J H S d av a a av 100 d


If: SC is the personnel cost in -ct/seat-km

LCd : annual cost to the company of a driver (/person) J d : number of days a year the driver works (days/year) Hd : hours a days the driver actually operates the train (days/year) S av : average speed (km/h) LCa : annual cost to the company of accompanying personnel (/person) J a : number of days a year each accompanying person works on the train (days/year) H a : hours a day each accompanying person works on the train (hours/day)
With the following representative values:

LCd = 40,000 /year LCa = 30,000 /year J d = J a = 210 days H d = 4 hours a days H a = 4.5 hours a day
Cost per seat-km:

40,000 30,000 1 1 1 1 SC = 210 4 S + 210 4.5 S 100 = 47.61 S av + 31.75 S av = 79.36 S av av av


So for an average speed of 100 km/h:
SC = 79 .36 (100 )
1

= 0 .7936 -ct/seat-km

With an average speed of 200 km/h:


SC = 79 .36 (200 )
2

= 0 .3968 -ct/seat-km

36

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


2500 2000 V alor relativo Relative value 1500 1000 500 0 0 50 100 km/h
Figure 5. Relation between train operation costs and inspection/supervision costs in various trains and the average train speed

Personal Driving personnel conduccin

Personal Supervision intervencion personnel y SSB

150

200

4.6.
4.6.1.

Marginal cost of infrastructure maintenance


Components of infrastructure use charges
Charges made to trains for infrastructure use can be divided in the most general case into two parts: 1. The marginal cost of infrastructure use. 2. Other charges above the marginal cost of infrastructure. From the standpoint of analysing costs necessary to move the train, we only consider marginal infrastructure costs to be relevant in accordance with Directive 2001/14/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 February 2001 (Article 7, third paragraph), and which are in addition related to train characteristics and speed. Thus, according to the wording of this provision: Without prejudice to paragraphs 4 or 5 or to Article 8, the charges for the minimum access package and track access to service facilities shall be set at the cost that is directly incurred as a result of operating the train service. Mark-ups are related to macroeconomic policy, with the operator's capacity to pay, infrastructure financing strategy, etc. They have nothing to do with the speed of the train. It is noteworthy that high speed trains have more capacity to pay and are therefore usually charged a higher fee above the marginal cost, but this need not necessarily be so. Article 8 of Directive 2001/14/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 February 2001 includes an exception to the pricing principle: "The level of charges must not, however, exclude the use of infrastructure by market

37

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


segments which can pay at least the cost that is directly incurred as a result of operating the railway service, plus a rate of return which the market can bear. To estimate the part of the charge that corresponds to the marginal cost of infrastructure use, we have used the system of charges applied by the GIF in Spain in 2005, the design of which paid maximum attention to the causal link between cost produced and the charge made. Monetary amounts have been updated, changing from 2005 to 2010 prices to be comparable with the other items. 4.6.2.

Capacity allocation and monitoring of train movements


This fee affects the cost of preparing the plan and operating programs into which each of the paths requested are located on the train meshes, as well as the costs of issuing the necessary documentation and of managing and monitoring train movements.
The fee for processing each path requested by those obliged to pay will be: Commercial services and shunting with distances of more than 10 km, 7.36 Shunting with distances of less than or equal to 10 km, 9.26

7.36 100 sD
where: s: number of equivalent train seats D: train distance covered

4.6.3.

Movement of trains or vehicles


This fee affects those obliged to pay the variable costs of operating the infrastructure for the movement of each train, and does therefore constitute the bulk of the marginal cost The fee is as follows: For every 1,000 fictitious km-tons moved, 0.64; Fictitious tons will be determined according to the formula provided in UIC 714 R for the classification of lines according to their level of traffic and will be applied to the technical specifications for rolling stock used. In this formula, coefficient Kt for vehicles with power distributed into 50% or more of their axles will have a value of 1.2. For guided, trailing axles, a reduction coefficient of 0.9 will be applied.

38

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


In the case that concerns us we can assume an increase in the percentage of dynamic stress and the SV coefficient in UIC 714 R, according to the following table:
Sv 60 70 90 1 1.05 1.15

For every 1,000 dynamic tons-km moved:: axles with a dynamic stress that is less than 80% of the admitted level, 0.17; axles with dynamic stress from 80% to 90% of the admitted level, 0.27; axles with a dynamic stress from 90% to 100% of the admitted level, 0.37; For every pantograph-km in collection, 0.06.

All of this leads to a cost per seat-km of:

0.64 100 6 M [(0.004 S av ) 0.83] [0.005 S av ] + 0.7 + 1,000 s s

Where: M: train mass (t) s: equivalent train seats

S av : average train speed (km/h)


4.6.4.

Use of stations by passengers


The charge for the use of stations applies to passengers using the rail transport service, depending on the distance covered and the category of station at which the journey starts or ends. The amount of the charge will be obtained by applying the amounts listed below by: the number of passengers who have contracted the rail transport service, starting or ending their trip at that station. On journeys of over 250 km: For category 1 stations, 0.84; for category 2 stations; 0.52, for category 3 stations, 0.04. On journeys of between 126 and 250 km: for category 1 stations, 0.46, for category 2 stations, 0.33; for category 3 stations, 0.04. On journeys of between 80 and 125 km: for category 1 stations, 0.20; for category 2 stations, 0.15; for category 3 stations, 0.04. On journeys of less than 80 km: for category 1 stations, 0.08; for category 2 stations, 0.06; for category 3 stations, 0.02.

39

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


For long distances (D>250 km) we will assume that per passenger it is:

0.84 + 0.84 = 1.68


and per seat-km

1.68 100 lf D
where: lf: is the load factor (passengers/seat-km) For values of: lf = 0.75 passengers/seat-km D = 500 km

1.68 1.68 100 = 100 = 0.448 lf D 0.75 500 -ct/seat-km

4.7.

Indirect operating costs apart from those needed to move the train
Within operating costs, there are some (as mentioned above) that are not required to move the train, and whose amount has nothing to do with speed or other operating parameters. In some cases, these are costs incurred to extend the service (this is the case with restaurant costs and on board services), but which may be added to the basic service in any speed range; in other cases they are costs related to ticket distribution and sale (obviously independent of train movement) whose amount is linked to the type of sales system, the extent of the sales network, the cost of the ticket, etc. In other cases it does in short involve operator costs that respond to the aim of the Administration or infrastructure manager to take a part of the income and/or potential profit to achieve a more equitable distribution of profits (this is the case with charges above marginal cost, taxes, premiums, etc.). What all these costs have in common is that they are not essential for the production of transport services and are therefore, for what concerns us here, independent of speed. It can certainly be observed that the absolute value of these costs will often be greater in high speed services, but they do not depend on speed, but rather on the fact that the speed makes it possible to charge higher prices for transport and (thanks to the reduction in costs it brings) also offers greater profits. This means that these trains are often burdened with a mark-up that is above the marginal cost of infrastructure maintenance; that premiums or specific taxes are charged by the Administration; that distribution costs linked to the cost of the ticket are higher and, in short, that significant amounts of money are often devoted to on board services to make it possible to charge more for some tickets.

40

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


4.7.1.

Distribution, sales and access control costs


Distribution, sales and access control costs include the following items: Distribution and sale of tickets on own networks and stations Agency commission (on the part that is included in the ticket price) Costs of train access control Costs of the computer system and its maintenance and operation.

Capital costs, bank charges and credit card sales can also be bracketed under this heading. As can be seen, these costs are unrelated to speed and are often proportional to the ticket price. This is the case, for example, with the agency commission included in the ticket price and commissions at ticket offices for sales. Although they are billed in this way, there is nevertheless an intrinsic relationship between these costs and the ticket price (in fact, both tend to be increasingly independent). 4.7.2.

Passenger services
The following items are included within passenger services: On board passenger services (restaurant, newspapers, etc.). Ground Services (specific waiting halls, support to disabled people, parking exemptions, etc.). Passenger assistance (transfers, connections, losses, etc.). Passenger Insurance

The cost of some of these services is sometimes included in the ticket and sometimes not. When it is not included in the ticket, the expense generated is not considered an operating cost since the customer pays for it directly; but when it is included in the ticket price it can be an operating cost, although for the purpose of analysis and for the reasons stated, it seems more appropriate to deduct it from income. 4.7.3.

Infrastructure charges above marginal cost


Charges above the marginal cost of infrastructure maintenance correspond to the capacity to pay or the expectation of extraordinary operator profit above what is reasonable in the sector of activity concerned. These mark-ups are operator costs and income for the infrastructure manager, but are not essential to move the train, in some cases they may even exceed the total infrastructure maintenance cost (fixed and variable). Depending on the cases they may be linked to a share in income, profits, a charge per seat-km offered, an additional cost per train-kilometre or, in short, other types; but they all exceed the marginal cost that movement produces for the infrastructure.

41

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


This cost cannot of course be considered a necessary cost to move the train, and corresponds to the added value the operator may obtain. In many cases it only applies to high speed trains, which do in this way pay more than conventional trains, but it does not correspond to the speed itself, but to the fact - as stated several times - that higher speed trains produce higher income and profits and do therefore have greater capacity to pay and can help cover the fixed costs of infrastructure maintenance and even other costs. For the purposes of this analysis, therefore, these fees or charges are considered to be items that may be deducted from income, rather than being added to costs.

42

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010

5. Sensitivity

of different cost components to speed variation. Case examples


As can be seen, each of the operating cost components has a different relationship with the train's average speed: Some costs are independent of speed Other costs rise with increasing speed Other costs fall with increasing speed

Even in those that vary (rising or falling) with increasing speed, the variation depends on many factors, such as mass, seats, service type, etc. Furthermore, the influence of each cost component in total costs is also different in each case. This makes it impossible to give the same result on the variation in costs when speed changes, either in the form of a formula or in the form of elasticity for specific values. However, it would seem advisable to develop some specific cases to have an idea of the specific cost variations and of each of their components when speed changes. Two case examples have therefore been selected: one corresponding to a high speed train, and another to a commuter train. In each one of them the characteristics of the route, rolling stock technology, seat density have all been kept constant. Average and maximum speed have been changed in constant steps (along with, of course, the parameters of the train affected by this change, such as power, mass, and the acquisition cost of the train). Route length, train size and turnaround time have also been changed independently to analyse sensitivity to each of these factors. For each case, the evolution of costs (broken down into their components) when speed changes are shown on a graph.

43

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010

5.1.

Case example 1: high speed train


For the case example of a high speed train, a length of 200 metres has been selected with 328 equivalent seats, 440 loaded train tons, 8 motors, 40-minute turnaround time and 400 km travel distance. Maximum and average speeds have been gradually changed. We obtain the different cost components in five groups: 1. Costs related to train ownership; 2. Rolling stock and cleaning costs; 3. Energy costs; 4. Operating personnel costs; and 5. Infrastructure use costs covering the marginal cost

5.1.1.

Changes in average and maximum speeds


It can be seen that when average and maximum speeds increase, so direct costs fall, with the resulting equation:
2 -ct/seat-km Total direct cos ts = 5.5273814 (0.0192545 S av ) + 0.0000427 S av

where:

S av : average speed (km/h)


Two types of relationships can be seen in the amounts that make up the total cost: A direct one (more speed means more cost), which affects energy costs and the costs of using infrastructure and stations An inverse one related to other costs, and according to which decreasing marginal costs exist as speed increases. This rule affects the costs of train ownership, maintenance and operating personnel.

Table 10. Changes in direct costs when average and maximum speeds change over long distances Speed (km/h) Costs Unit 100 150 200 250 300 Train ownership cost Rolling stock maintenance and cleaning cost Energy cost Operating personnel cost Marginal cost of infrastructure Operating direct costs (train movement costs)
-ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km

15.842 0.6668 0.2054 0.7936 0.8050 40.551

12.585 0.6658 0.2743 0.5291 0.8152 35.430

11.195 0.6653 0.3794 0.3968 0.8335 33.947

10.552 0.6650 0.5248 0.3174 0.5605 34.231

10.284 0.6648 0.7146 0.2645 0.8970 35.696

44

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010

Operating direct costs (Long distance train; D=400 km; R=40 min)
4,50 4.50 4,00 4.00
3.50 3,50 Operating Direct Costs = 5.5273814 - (0.0192545 x Sav) + (0.0000427 x S2av)

-c t/s e a t-k m

3.00 3,00 2.50 2,50 2.00 2,00 1.50 1,50

Marginal Cost of Infrastructure = 0.7505 + (0.0005 x Sav)


Operating Pe rsonnel Cost = 0.9683 (0 .0025 x Sav)

Energy Cost = -0.0878 + (0.0025 x Sav ) Rolling Stock Maintenance and Cleaning Cost = 0.667464 (0.000009 x Sav)

1,00 1.00
0.50 0,50 0.00 0,00 Train Ownership Cost =1.7351 (0.0026 x Sav )

100

150

200

250

300

Speed (km/h)
Figure 6. Changes in direct costs when average and maximum speeds change over long distances

5.1.2.

Changes in travel distance (D)


Changes in travel distance have been calculated for an average speed of 200 km/h, and a turnaround time of 40 min. It can be seen that when travel distance increases, so total direct costs fall, with the resulting equation:

Total direct costs = 5.2009557 (0.0067934 D) + (0.0000057 D 2 ) -ct/seat-km

Where: D: travel distance (km)


Table 11. Changes in direct costs when travel distance changes (D) Travel distance (km) Costs Unit 300 350 400 450 Train ownership cost Rolling stock maintenance and cleaning cost Energy cost Operating personnel cost Marginal cost of infrastructure Operating direct costs (train movement costs)
-ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km

500 1.0635 0.6648 0.3794 0.3968 0.7204 3.2251

1.2128 0.6661 0.3794 0.3968 1.0220 3.6774

1.1595 0.6657 0.3794 0.3968 0.9143 3.5159

1.1195 0.6653 0.3794 0.3968 0.8335 3.3947

1.0884 0.6650 0.3794 0.3968 0.7707 3.3005

45

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


Two types of cost evolution can be distinguished, depending on their sensitivity to travel distance changes: A constant one related to those costs that are not sensitive to travel distance changes. These are: personnel operating costs and energy costs. An inverse one, which are costs that decrease when travel distance increases. These costs are: costs for using infrastructure and stations, maintenance and cleaning, and train ownership costs.
Operating direct costs (Long distance train; Sav=200 km/h; R=40 min)
2 4,00 Operating Direct Costs = 5.2009557- (0.0067934 x D) + (0.000005 x D ) 4.00

3,50 3.50 3,00 3.00 - c t /s e a t - k m


2.50 2,50 2.00 2,00 Marginal Cost of Infrastructure = 1.4498 (0.0015 x D) Operating Personnel Cost = 0.3968 Energy Cost = 0.3795 Rolling Stock Maintenance and Cleaning Cost = 0.66810 (0.00001 x D)

1.50 1,50

1.00 1,00 0.50 0,50 0.00 0,00 Train Ownership Cost = 1.4245 (0.0007 x D)

300

350

400

450

500

Travel distance (km) Travelling Distance (km)


Figure 7. Changes in direct costs when travel distances change over long distances

46

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


5.1.3.

Changes in turnaround times (R)


Changes in turnaround times have been calculated for an average speed of 200 km/h, and a travel distance of 400 km. When turnaround times increase, so total direct costs increase, being the resulting equation:

Total direct costs = 3.1143975+ (0.0070095 R) -ct/seat-km


Where: R: turnaround time (min)
Table 12. Changes in direct costs when turnaround times change ( R) Turnaround time (min) Costs Unit 20 30 40 50 Train ownership cost Rolling stock maintenance and cleaning cost Energy cost Operating personnel cost Marginal cost of infrastructure Operating direct costs (train movement costs)
-ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km

60 1.2595 0.6656 0.3794 0.3968 0.8335 3.5349

0.9796 0.6651 0.3794 0.3968 0.8335 3.2545

1.0496 0.6652 0.3794 0.3968 0.8335 3.3246

1.1195 0.6653 0.3794 0.3968 0.8335 3.3947

1.1895 0.6654 0.3794 0.3968 0.8335 3.4648

As can be seen, three types of costs exist, depending on their sensitivity to turnaround time changes: A direct one, which are costs that increase when turnaround times increase. These are: costs for infrastructure use and train ownership costs. A constant one, which are those costs that are not sensitive to changes in turnaround times (since the latter do not form part of the calculation of the former). These are personnel operating costs and energy costs. An indirect one, which is related to the falling cost of train ownership when turnaround time increases (economies of scale occur).

47

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010

Operating direct costs (Long distance train; Sav= 200km/h; D=400 km)
4,00 4.00 3,50 3.50 3,00 3.00
Marginal Cost of Infrastructure = 0.8336 Operating Personnel Cost = 0.3968 Energy Cost = 0.3795 Rolling Stock Maintenance and Cleaning Cost = 0.66487 + (0.00001 x R)

Operating Direct Costs = 3.1143975 + (0.0070095 x R)

-c t/s e a t-k m

2.50 2,50

2,00 2.00
1.50 1,50 1.00 1,00

0,50 0.50
0.00 0,00

Train Ownership Cost = 0.8397 +(0.007 x R)

20

30

40

50

60

Tournaround time (min) Turnaround time (min)


Figure 8. Changes in direct costs when turnaround times change over long distances

5.2.

Case example 2: commuter train


For the case example of a commuter train, with a length of 100 m, 279 equivalent seats, 333 loaded train tons, 8 motors, 30 km travel distance, 7 minutes turnaround time and 7 hours service a day, maximum and average speeds have been gradually changed. We therefore obtain the different cost components in five groups: costs related to train ownership, rolling stock and cleaning costs, energy costs, operating personnel costs and infrastructure use costs above marginal cost.

48

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010

5.2.1.

Changes in average and maximum speeds


It can be seen that when average and maximum speeds increase, so direct costs fall, with the resulting equation:
2 Total direct cos ts = 7.0479542 0.073326 S av + 0.0003145 S av

) (

c / seat.km

Where:

S av : average speed (km/h)


Table 13. Changes in direct costs when average and maximum speeds change Speed (km/h) Costs Unit 60 70 80 90 Train ownership cost Rolling stock maintenance and cleaning cost Energy cost Operating personnel cost Marginal cost of infrastructure Operating direct costs (train movement costs)
-ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km

100 1.1162 0.4071 0.1203 0.7936 0.4188 2.8562

1.5343 0.4083 0.1022 1.3227 0.4179 3.7855

1.3811 0.4079 0.1056 1.1337 0.4178 3.4463

1.2684 0.4075 0.1098 0.9920 0.4180 3.1959

1.1828 0.4073 0.1146 0.8818 0.4183 3.0051

Operatingdirect direct costs cost (Commuter train; D= 30 km; R=7 min) Operating (Commuter train; D=30 km; R=7 min)
4,00 4.00 3,50 3.50 3,00 3.00
+ (0.00002 x Sav) Operating Pe rsonnel Cos t = 0.0729 (0.0131 x S Energy Cos av) t = -0.0744 + (0.0005 x Sav) Rolling Stock M aintenance and Cleaning Cost =0.40994 (0.00 003 x S ) av Marginal C ost of Infr astructure = 0.41637

Operating Direct Costs = 7.0479542 (0.073326 x Sav) + (0.0003145 x S2av)

-c t/s e a t-k m

2.50 2,50

2,00 2.00
1.50 1,50 1.00 1,00

0,50 0.50 0,00 0.00

Train Ownership Cost = 2.1241 (0.0103 x Sav)

60

70

80

90

100

Speed (km/h)
Figure 9. Changes in direct costs when speed times change over long distances

49

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


5.2.2.

Changes in travel distance (D)


Changes in travel distance have been calculated for an average speed of 80 km/h, and a turnaround time of 7 min.

Total direct costs = 5.3228670 (0.1102415 D) + 0.0012768 D 2


Where: D: travel distance (km)

-ct/seat-km

Table 14. Changes in direct costs when travel distance changes (D) Travel distance (km) Costs Unit 10 20 30 40 Train ownership cost Rolling stock maintenance and cleaning cost Energy cost Operating personnel cost Marginal cost of infrastructure Operating direct costs (train movement costs)
-ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km

50 1.1480 0.4009 0.1098 0.9920 0.3026 2.9535

1.8704 0.4407 0.1098 0.9920 0.9948 4.4078

1.4189 0.4158 0.1098 0.9920 0.5622 3.4989

1.2684 0.4075 0.1098 0.9920 0.4180 3.1959

1.1932 0.4034 0.1098 0.9920 0.3459 3.0444

Operating direct costs (Commuter train; Sav=80 km/h; R=7 min)


5,00 5.00 4,50 4.50 4,00 4.00 3,50 3.50

Operating Direct Costs = 5.3228670 (0.1102415 x D) +(0.0012768 x D2)

-c t/s e a t-k m

3,00 3.00 2,50 2.50


2.00 2,00

Marginal Cos t of Infrastr

ucture = 1. 0049

(0.0016 x

D)

Operating Personnel Cost = 0.9921 Energy Cost = 0.1098 Rolling Stock Ma intenance and Cl eaning Cost = 0.4 413

1,50 1.50
1.00 1,00

(0.00009 x D)

0,50 0.50
0.00 0,00

Train Ownership Cost = 1.881 (0.0167 x D)

10

20

30

40

50

Travelling distance(km) (km) Travel distance


Figure 10. Changes in direct costs when travel distance times change over long distances

50

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010


5.2.3.

Changes in turnaround times (R)


Changes in turnaround times have been calculated for an average speed of 80 km/h, and a travel distance of 30 km. It can be seen that when turnaround times increase, so total direct costs increase, with the resulting equation:

Total direct cos ts = 2.8942859 + (0.0430942 R )


Where: Total direct costs (c/seat-km) R: Turnaround time (min)

-ct/seat-km

Table 15. Changes in direct costs when turnaround times change (R) Turnaround time (min) Costs Unit 5 6 7 8 Train ownership cost Rolling stock maintenance and cleaning cost Energy cost Operating personnel cost Marginal cost of infrastructure Operating direct costs (train movement costs)
-ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km -ct/seat-km

9 1.3544 0.4077 0.1098 0.9920 0.4180 3.2821

1.1824 0.4074 0.1098 0.9920 0.4180 3.1097

1.2254 0.4075 0.1098 0.9920 0.4180 3.1528

1.2684 0.4075 0.1098 0.9920 0.4180 3.1959

1.3114 0.4076 0.1098 0.9920 0.4180 3.2390

Operating direct costs (Commuter train; Sav=80 km/h; D=30 km)


3,50 3.50 3,00 3.00
2.50 2,50

Operating Direct Costs = 2.8942859 + (0.043094 x R)

Marginal Cost of Infrastructure = 0.4180 Operating Personnel Cost = 0.9921 Energy Cost = 0.1098 Rolling Stock Maintenance and Cleaning Cost = 0.40693 + (0.00001 x R)

-c t/s e a t-k m

2,00 2.00 1,50 1.50


1.00 1,00

0,50 0.50
0.00 0,00

Train Ownership Cost = 0.9675 + (0.043 x R)

Tournaround time (min) Turnaround time (min)


Figure 11. Changes in direct costs when turnaround times change over long distances

51

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010

6. Conclusions
In the light of the study it can be stated that railway operating costs have the following key features: 1. There is an important part of operating costs incurred by trains that are not necessary to move the train, and which either correspond to additional passenger services (restaurant services), commissions and ticket sale costs, or taxes or infrastructure use charges above the marginal cost. These costs are not inherent in the service or necessary for its provision and are not therefore dependent on speed. Operating costs necessary to move trains are reduced (overall) with speed. There are many cost items that are independent of speed, but an increase in speed involves an increase in the annual distance covered by trains and a consequent reduction in depreciation and financial costs (much higher than the additional costs, if any, that the train has in increasing speed). Energy costs and a part of rolling stock maintenance costs (those connected to monitoring, control and signalling equipment) may also increase slightly, but other maintenance cost items are reduced (workshop costs, wear to wheels, brake shoes and pantographs). Personnel costs are also reduced, since at higher speeds the same people cover more kilometres in their working time.

2.

3. There is a slight reduction in cost per seat-kilometre when the train distance covered is increased. This is due to the effect of turnaround time at main stations that affects depreciation and train capital costs, reducing the hours the train is actually used. "Economy of distance" is also due, to some extent, to personnel changeover times. The impact per kilometre of the marginal costs of using main stations is also reduced when distance is increased. 4. There are "economies of size" for the train, i.e. fewer costs per seatkilometre are produced the bigger the train. This is because the train cost includes some fixed components that are independent of size, and which result in depreciation and financial costs. Furthermore, personnel operating costs depend very little on the size of the train and their costs are independent of size, resulting in lower costs on bigger trains. Finally, energy costs are lower when train size increases, because both the mass per seat is reduced and the cross section of the train (and hence pressure drag), is the same for any train size, unit cost being reduced accordingly.

52

Relationship between rail service operating direct costs and speed2010

7. Bibliography
Cillero Hernndez, A.; Bouzada Outeda, P.; Garca lvarez, A.; Martn Caizares, M.P. (2009): Incrementos de recorrido en el transporte por longitud de caminos, operacin y gestin; Enertrans Monographs (n 7) Garca lvarez, A. (2006): Explotacin econmica y regulacin del transporte de viajeros por ferrocarril, Fundacin de los Ferrocarriles Espaoles, Madrid. Garca lvarez, A. y Minayo de la Cruz, Francisco. (2009): Relacin entre la alta velocidad ferroviaria y los costes operativos no energticos. Fernndez Rodrguez, Z. (1997): Los costes y la eficiencia empresarial. Variables explicativas, Fundacin Argentaria, Madrid. Filippi, M. and Maggi, R. (1992): The Cost Structure of the Swiss private Railways, in the International Journal of Transport Economics, vol. 39. Forkenbrok, D. (2001): Comparison of external costs of rail and truck freight transportation, Transportation Research, part A 35, 2001. Fridh, O. (2006): Modelling operational costs of a future high-speed train, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Stockholm, Sweden. H. Serist and A.P.J. Vepslinen (1997): Airline cost drivers: cost implications of fleet, routes and personnel policies, in the Journal of Air Transport management, vol 3, no. 1.

53

INTERNATIONAL UNION OF RAILWAYS (UIC) 16 rue Jean Rey - F-75015 PARIS Tel: +33 (0)1 44 49 20 20 Fax: +33 (0)1 44 49 20 29 PASSENGER DEPARTMENT - HIGH SPEED ACTIVITY Legal deposit: December 2010 ISBN: 978-2-7461-1966-6 www.uic.org

Warning No part of this publication may be copied, reproduced or distributed by any means whatsoever, including electronic, except for private and individual use, without the express permission of the International Union of Railways (UIC). The same applies for translation, adaptation or transformation, arrangement or reproduction by any method or procedure whatsoever. The sole exceptions - noting the author's name and the source -are "analyses and brief quotations justified by the critical, argumentative, educational, scientific or informative nature of the publication into which they are incorporated" (Articles L 122-4 and L122-5 of the French Intellectual Property Code). International Union of Railways (UIC) - Paris, 2010

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