Enhancing Risk Perception in Engineering Education

D% Education & 'ulture

E nhancing R isk P erception in E ngineering E ducation

Tempus CD-JEP 30095/2002

Institut National #ol"technique de $orraine France

Institut National de cole Nationale Department of lEnvironnement Earth Science Suprieure Industriel et des dIngnieurs de !niversit" of Risques Florence Ital" Bourges France France

Basics of Ris( )anagement 'ompiled *" #ro+ect Ris( ,eam )em*er Dr- .lim /ashem El Sa"ed 0E# 12234 Decem*er 5224

Acknowledgement This introductory manuscript is planned for initiating undergraduate engineering students on the principles and basics of risk assessment.

The manuscript is divided into six chapters: chapters 1 & 2 are basic definitions. The author, Dr. bdel lim !hashem, and "isk #ro$ect Team are indebted to Dr. %asser &l 'hayeb, ssisstant #rofessor, (ining, #etroleum and (etallurgical &ngineering Department, )*+& for supplying the main material for )hapters , and -. )hapters . and / are succinctness compiled from references cited at the end of the manuscript.

#urpose
The purpose of this course is to provide the students with a structured s stem for identif in! ha"ard# assessin! ris$s associated with those ha"ards# puttin! measures to contro% the unaccepta&%e ris$s and to review the contro% measures to ensure the are effective and have not introduced new ha"ards' This ca%%ed (is$ )ana!ement Process

6*+ectives
*' +ssess and ana% sis ris$ in oi% and !as production operations' 2' Discuss the advanta!es# %imitations and ran!e of app%ica&i%it of each ha"ard ana% sis method so that its se%ection and inte!ration into the overa%% process is fu%% understood presentin! a !eneric overview on the ha"ard identification' 3' ,+-.P ana% sis and its identification' /' 0earn the &asic voca&u%ar uni1ue to the ha"ard and opera&i%it in industria% p%ants' 5' (aise !enera% awareness of the need to app% ha"ard identifications techni1ue# ,+-.P' 2' 3hare $now%ed!e and e4periences on ,+-.P re%ated issues in different industria% p%ant' 5' Ena&%e students to understand the impacts of industr activities on the ,3E to discuss on professiona% %eve% the &est practica% so%utions and ma$e/advise on we%% informed decisions for industr activities' 6' ,e%p participants to 7ud!e the ,3E conse1uences of# and advise on miti!atin! measures# for industr activities'

,a*le of 'ontents
0b$ectives.................................................................................................................................., 1ist of +igures...........................................................................................................................2 1ist of Tables.............................................................................................................................3 )hapter 1: "isk Definition and ccident Theory.....................................................................4 1.1 Definitions........................................................................................................................4 1.2 5asics of "isk ssessment.............................................................................................12 1.2.1 "isk assessment process..........................................................................................1, 1., ccident Theory.............................................................................................................1. 1.,.1 'ingle factor theory.................................................................................................12 1.,.2 (ultiple factors theory............................................................................................13 1.,., Domino effect theory..............................................................................................13 1.,.- &nergy transfer theory.............................................................................................26 1.,.. The 7'ymptoms versus )auses8 theory .................................................................26 1.- 'tructure of ccidents ...................................................................................................21 1.. The "ole of 9uman &rror in ccidents.........................................................................21 1...1 The traditional concept of human error...................................................................22 1...2 )lassification of human errors................................................................................2, 1..., )lassifying active failures.......................................................................................21...- 1atent failures..........................................................................................................2/ 1.... 'trategies for reducing human error........................................................................22 1.../ ctions for overcoming active failures...................................................................22 1./ "easons for #reventing ccidents.................................................................................24 1./.1 (oral.......................................................................................................................24 1./.2 )osts........................................................................................................................24 1./., 1egislation...............................................................................................................,1 1...- ccident trends........................................................................................................,2 1.2 'ummary .......................................................................................................................,, )hapter 2: :mportance of "isk (anagement.........................................................................,2.1 :mportance......................................................................................................................,2.2 #rinciple of "isk (anagement.......................................................................................,2., 9a;ard :dentifications....................................................................................................,. 2.,.1 #revious accident reports........................................................................................,. 2.,.2 #hysical inspection of the <orkplace......................................................................,. 2.,., 5rainstorming .........................................................................................................,4 2.,.- =no<ledge of employees .......................................................................................-6 2.,.. Trade >ournals.........................................................................................................-6 2.,./ 0'9 ?0ccupational 'afety & 9a;ard dministration@ publication and safety alerts ................................................................................................................................-2.,.2 (anufacturers instruction books ............................................................................-2 2.,.3 'ample inspection <orksheet .................................................................................-3 2.- "isk &xamples in #ictures..............................................................................................-4 2.. )ommon "isks ssociated <ith Ae< #ro$ect .............................................................../ 2...3 #olitical risk.............................................................................................................3 2...16 &nvironmental risk.................................................................................................3 )hapter , :dentification of "isks............................................................................................/6 ,.1 #reliminary "isk nalysis ?#" @................................................................................../1 -

,.2 +ailure (odes, &ffect and )riticality nalysis ?+(&) @............................................/2 ,.2.1 0b$ectives and domains of applications................................................................../2 ,.2.2 #reparation for the study and the methodology of analysis..................................../, ,., 9 B0#........................................................................................................................../. ,.,.1 Chat is 9 B0#D..................................................................................................../. ,.,.2 Chen is a 9 B0# )arried 0utD............................................................................./3 ,.,., 'ome #oints to Catch during 9 B0#.................................................................../3 ,.- Chat is "isk ssessmentD............................................................................................./4 ,.-.1 1ikelihood ..............................................................................................................26 ,.-.2 )onseEuences .........................................................................................................22 ,.-., "isk matrix..............................................................................................................2,.-.. "isk management <orksheets.................................................................................2. ,.. "isk )ontrol...................................................................................................................2/ ,...1 9ierarchy of control................................................................................................22 ,...2 &limination .............................................................................................................22 ,..., 'ubstitution ............................................................................................................22 ,...- 'eparation ..............................................................................................................23 ,.... dministration ........................................................................................................23 ,.../ #ersonal protective eEuipment ?##&@......................................................................23 ,./ pply 9ierarchy of )ontrol ..........................................................................................31 ,.2 (onitoring and "evie< ................................................................................................31 ,.3 )onclusion .....................................................................................................................32 )hapter - (ethods of 'ystem nalysis..................................................................................3, -.1 :ntroduction....................................................................................................................3, -.2 (arkov )hains...............................................................................................................3-.2.1 #resentation of the #rocess......................................................................................3. -., #&T": Aet<ork..............................................................................................................32 -.- 'imulation, ?The (onte )arlo TechniEue@....................................................................33 -.. +ault Trees......................................................................................................................34 -...1 The construction of the tree.....................................................................................34 -./ )ritical nalysis of 'ystem ?'imulation@......................................................................46 -./.1 &xample 1: simulation of a )#( net<ork..............................................................46 -./.2 "esults.....................................................................................................................4, )hapter .: The #rocess of +ire "isk (anagement..................................................................4..1 (ethodology of 9a;ard :dentification...........................................................................4..2 +ire "isk ssessment.....................................................................................................4. ..2.1 The primary steps in fire risk assessment include:..................................................4. ..2.2 Type of risk assessment..........................................................................................4/ ..2., "isk management....................................................................................................4/ ..2.- "isk management for handling fire risk exposure..................................................42 ..2.. )ost Fbenefit analysis..............................................................................................42 ..2./ Development and monitoring of loss control program...........................................42 ..2.2 +ire prevention........................................................................................................43 )hapter /: 'ummary of "isk ssessment 'teps in Corkplace...............................................44 /.1 'tep 1: 1ook for the 9a;ards ......................................................................................166 /.2 'tep 2: Decide Cho (ight 5e 9armed, and 9o<.......................................................166 /., 'tep ,: &valuate The "isks nd Decide Chether &xisting #recautions re deEuate or (ore 'hould 5e Done. ......................................................................................................166 /.- 'tep -: "ecord %our +indings ....................................................................................162 .

/.. 'tep .: "evie< %our ssessment and "evise :t :f Aecessary.....................................162 cronyms..............................................................................................................................16, ppendices............................................................................................................................16. ppendix 1: 'ome :mportant #ieces of 9ealth and 'afety 1egislation.............................16. .1.1 5esides the 9ealth and 'afety at Cork ct itself, the follo<ing apply across the full range of <orkplaces:................................................................................................16. .1.2 specific regulations cover particular areas, as asbestos and lead, .......................16/ Glossary of "isk Terms......................................................................................................163

$ist of Figures
/..................................................................................................................................................1 .4................................................................................................................................................2 +igure 1: &lements of risk assessment.....................................................................................1, +igure 2: "isk assessment process...........................................................................................1+igure ,: "isk assessment methods..........................................................................................1. +igure -: Gas pipeline fire........................................................................................................1/ +igure .: 9uman +all from a ship............................................................................................1/ +igure /: +ire in an offshore oil and gas production platform.................................................12 +igure 2: )auses of <orkplace fatalities..................................................................................12 +igure 3: Domino theory illustration........................................................................................14 +igure 4: 'tructure of accident.................................................................................................21 +igure 16: )lassification of human failure...............................................................................2. +igure 11: )ost of accidents in *' ........................................................................................,6 +igure 12: :nsurance and accident costs..................................................................................,1 +igure 1,: 'lipping or tripping at <ork.....................................................................................6 +igure 1-: Getting into contact <ith ha;ardous material ?asbestos, fumes, etc. @.....................6 +igure 1.: #erforming <ork at height.......................................................................................6 +igure 1/: 9andling, transporting or supporting loads <hile suffering from sprains, strains, or pains..........................................................................................................................................1 +igure 12: 9aving long exposure to computers or other display screen eEuipment.................1 +igure 13: Corking at a noisy place: causes hearing loss or deafness.....................................1 +igure 14: #redictable or unpredictable, controlled or uncontrolled risk associated <ith natural or climate phenomena...................................................................................................2 +igure 26: 5eing exposed to vibration......................................................................................2 +igure 21: Getting hurt by electricity........................................................................................, +igure 22: Aeglecting maintenance or doing unsafe maintenance <ork..................................+igure 2,: :mproper selection of <ork eEuipment....................................................................+igure 2-: "isks resulting from transport, road traffic, road conditions...................................+igure 2.: "isk associated <ith pressure systems..................................................................... +igure 2/: "isks resulting from fire or explosions or use or storage of explosive materials or chemicals.................................................................................................................................... +igure 22: +eeling stressed by <ork........................................................................................./ +igure 23: :dentification and analysis of risk.........................................................................../6 2

126............................................................................................................................................/6 +igure 24: #reparation of the analysis....................................................................................../+igure ,6: +lo< chart of the method 9 B0#........................................................................./2 +igure ,1: +ive degree probability ?likelihood@ scale..............................................................21 +igure ,2: +our degree probability ?likelihood@ scale..............................................................21 +igure ,,: +ive degree conseEuences ?severity@ scale.............................................................2, +igure ,-: +our degree conseEuences ?severity@ scale.............................................................2+igure ,.: 4H4 risk matrix......................................................................................................2. +igure ,/: "isk matrix after applying preventive measures....................................................2/ +igure ,2: 'tochastic #rocesses...............................................................................................3+igure ,3: #arallel system of t<o components........................................................................3. +igure ,4: Graphical #resentation of the 'ystem.....................................................................3/ +igure -1: Aet<ork model of the #ro$ect.................................................................................41 +igure -2: +inal critical paths for the net<ork.........................................................................4, +igure -,: 9a;ard identification..............................................................................................4-

$ist of ,a*les

....................................................................................................................................................1 Table 1: :nspection report........................................................................................................,3 Table 2: 'ample inspection <orksheet.....................................................................................-3 Table ,: 'ample inspection of pi;;a shop................................................................................-4 Table -: (aximum daily duration per day for sound levels.....................................................2 Table .: ction and corresponding sound level........................................................................, Table /: 'ome of the physical risks originates from <ork operations.....................................3 Table 2: #" .........................................................................................................................../1 Table 3: Deviation generated by each guide <ord...................................................................// Table 4: 9 B0#...................................................................................................................../4 Table 16: "isk matrix based on conseEuences and likelihood.................................................2Table 11: &xample of risk management <orksheet.................................................................2. Table 12: #rotective reEuirement for eye, head, and footFtoe..................................................24 Table 1,: #rotective reEuirement for hand, hearing and respiratory.......................................36 3

Table 1-: Different states of the system...................................................................................3. Table 1.: "andom observations...............................................................................................42 Table 1/: )ritical :ndex of activities ?activities <ith I means that it <as on the )ritical #ath in this sample@..........................................................................................................................42

'hapter 78 Ris( Definition and .ccident ,heor"

*'* Definitions
The term 8ris$9 is used in a variet of wa s in ever da speech' :t is fre1uent% to refer to activities such as roc$-c%im&in! or da -tradin! stoc$s as 8ris$ 9; or discuss 8ris$9 of !ettin! the f%u this comin! winter' :n the case of roc$-c%im&in! and da -tradin!# 8ris$ 9 is used to mean ha"ardous or dan!erous' :n the %atter reference# 8ris$9 refers to the pro&a&i%it of a defined outcome <the chance of contractin! the f%u=' >efore &e!innin! a discussion of ris$ assessment# it is important to

provide a c%ear definition of the term 8ris$9 and some of the other termino%o! used in the ris$ assessment fie%d' ?or the purposes of this course# discussion wi%% &e %imited to the ris$ of unintended incidents occurrin! which ma threaten the safet of individua%s# the environment or a faci%it @s ph sica% assets' :n this settin!# a num&er of terms have to &e definedA /a9ards or ,hreats8 are conditions which e4ist and ma potentia%% %ead to an undesira&%e event' 'ontrols8 are the measures ta$en to prevent ha"ards from causin! undesira&%e events' Contro%s can &e ph sica% <safet shutdowns# redundant contro%s# conservative desi!ns# etc'=# procedura% <written operatin! procedures=# and can address human factors <emp%o ee se%ection# trainin!# supervision=' ,ea%thA +cute and chronic i%% hea%th caused & ph sica%# chemica% or &io%o!ica% a!ents as we%% as adverse effects on menta% hea%th' Event8 is an occurrence that has an associated outcome' There are t pica%% a num&er of potentia% outcomes from an one initia% event which ma ran!e in severit from trivia% to catastrophic# dependin! upon other conditions and add-on events' Ris(8 is composed of two e%ements# fre1uenc and conse1uence' (is$ is defined as the product of the fre1uenc with which an event is anticipated to occur and the conse1uence of the event@s outcome' Risk B Frequency C Consequence Frequenc" or li(elihood or pro*a*ilit"8 The frequency of a potentia% undesira&%e event is e4pressed as events per unit time# usua%% per ear' The fre1uenc shou%d &e determined from historica% data if a si!nificant num&er of events have occurred in the past' .ften# however# ris$ ana% ses focus on events with more severe conse1uences <and %ow fre1uencies= for which %itt%e historica% data e4ist' :n such cases# the event fre1uenc is ca%cu%ated usin! ris$ assessment mode%s' 'onsequence or severit" or gravit"8 can &e e4pressed as the num&er of peop%e affected <in7ured or $i%%ed=# propert dama!ed# amount of spi%%# area affected# outa!e time# mission de%a # do%%ars %ost# etc' (e!ard%ess of the measure chosen# the conse1uences are e4pressed 8per event9' Thus the a&ove e1uation has the units
16

8events/ ear9 times 8conse1uences/event9# which e1ua%s 8conse1uences/ ear9# the most t pica% 1uantitative ris$ measure' Hazard Effect The conse1uences# which cou%d resu%t from a ha"ard &ein! rea%i"ed ,"pes of ha9ards8: >io%o!ica% ha"ards 5acteria Environmenta% Castes &Toxic gases 3ocia% and 0oss of :ma!e 1oss of image of department or organi;ation as a result of conditions and ha;ards contained in the building ,uman :rresponsible behaviors, being careless )ana!eria% 1oss of control E%ectrica% &clectic shock could lead to fire, explosion, eEuipment failure, and people fatalities )echanica% (echanical failure could lead to eEuipment damage (adiation "adioactive ha;ards "adiation ha;ards may emanate from the use of mobile phones and interference <ith lab eEuipmentJ Chemica% +lammable and toxic materials could lead to chemical ha;ards. :nfrastructura% 'hort <indo<s, broken glass, lift problems. Economica% ny shortage in the faculty budget could lead to economical ha;ard ?ire/E4p%osion ny source of fire plus oxygen could lead to big losses. Datura% +n natura% situation a such as f%ood# hurricanes# earth1ua$e# %ands%ide "isk (atrix: "epresents the relation bet<een the probability and the severity
11

 The "esidual "isk: The residual risk after ppling the method <hich reduce the ha;ard 'ignificant: :ndicates that a 9a;ard or a "isk is anything other than trivial. significant risk is one <hich reEuires some form of positive safeguard to eliminate it or reduce it to an acceptable level. Task: n individual <ork assignment carried out by one or more persons. (is$s arise from the interaction of peop%e# e1uipment# materia%s and the wor$ environment' ?or the purposes of this practice# the can &e descri&ed as fo%%owsA Tas$-re%ated Effect# caused & the activities of peop%e in the wor$p%ace :nherent :t is an effect associated with the desi!n of the wor$p%ace# its e1uipment and its %ocation' Process-re%atedA Effect# arisin! from the process &ein! carried out# the properties of the f%uid and the process condition 3afet )easures + precautionar measures which prevents or reduces a ris$' 3afet measures can &e c%assified as ph sica%# procedura%# human# time-re%ated or contin!enc '

*'2 >asics of (is$ +ssessment

(is$ assessment is the process of !atherin! data and s nthesi"in! information to deve%op an understandin! of the ris$ of a particu%ar enterprise' To !ain an understandin! of the ris$ of an operation# one must answer the fo%%owin! three 1uestionsA *' Ehat can !o wron!F 2' ,ow %i$e% is itF 3' Ehat are the impactsF

12

Gua%itative answers to one or more of these 1uestions are often sufficient for ma$in! !ood decisions' ,owever# as mana!ers see$ more detai%ed cost/&enefit information upon which to &ase their decisions# the ma wish to use 1uantitative ris$ assessment <G(+= methods' >oth 1ua%itative and 1uantitative methods are discussed in this document' ?i!ure * &e%ow i%%ustrates the e%ements of (is$ +ssessment'

+igure 1: &lements of risk assessment )ore detai%s a&out the too%s and methods avai%a&%e for conductin! ris$ assessments# considerations for settin! up an assessment# information a&out re%evant re!u%ator re1uirements and e4amp%es of ris$ assessment app%ications wi%% &e provided' >efore initiatin! a ris$ assessment# a%% parties invo%ved shou%d have a common understandin! of the !oa%s of the e4ercise# the methods to &e used# the resources re1uired# and how the resu%ts wi%% &e app%ied'

7-5-7 Ris( assessment process

To use a s stematic method to determine ris$ %eve%s# the (is$ +ssessment Process is app%ied' This process consists of four &asic stepsA *' 2' 3' /' ,a"ard :dentification ?re1uenc +ssessment Conse1uence +ssessment# and (is$ Eva%uation

1,

The %eve% of information needed to ma$e a decision varies wide% ' :n some cases# after identif in! the ha"ards# 1ua%itative methods of assessin! fre1uenc and conse1uence are satisfactor to ena&%e the ris$ eva%uation' :n other cases# a more detai%ed 1uantitative ana% sis is re1uired' The (is$ +ssessment Process is i%%ustrated in ?i!ure 2# and the resu%ts possi&%e from 1ua%itative and 1uantitative approaches are descri&ed' There are man different ana% sis techni1ues and mode%s that have &een deve%oped to aid in conductin! ris$ assessments' 3ome of these methods are summari"ed in ?i!ure 3' + $e to an successfu% ris$ ana% sis is choosin! the ri!ht method <or com&ination of methods= for the situation at hand' ?or each step of the (is$ +ssessment Process# this part provides a &rief introduction to some of the ana% sis methods avai%a&%e and su!!ests ris$ ana% sis approaches to support different t pes of decision ma$in! within the maritime and offshore industries' ?or more information on app% in! a particu%ar method or too%# the fo%%owin! chapters wi%% identif c%ear% the steps fo%%owed for ris$ assessment' :t shou%d &e noted that some of these methods <or s%i!ht variations= can &e used for more than one step in the ris$ assessment process' ?or e4amp%e# ever tree ana% sis can &e used for fre1uenc assessment as we%% as for conse1uence assessment' ?i!ure 3 %ists the methods on% under the most common step to avoid repetitions'

+igure 2: "isk assessment process

1-

+igure ,: "isk assessment methods

*'3 +ccident Theor

The increasin! si"e and comp%e4it of industria% processes creates increased scope for ma7or disasters# %eadin! to !reat% increased pu&%ic concern a&out industria% safet ' The %ast two decades have seen a series of such disasters &oth wor%d-wide <e'!' >hopa%# 3eveso# and Chero &%= and the HI <e'!' C%apham Junction# Iin!@s Cross# Piper +%pha# ,era%d of ?ree Enterprise# 0ad&roc$ Jrove# Paddin!ton= and in E! pt <e'!' 3a%im ?urr # Hpper E! pt Train=' :n the HI# the *990 0a&or ?orce 3urve stated that there were an estimated *'2 mi%%ion accidents at wor$ where 550#000 peop%e suffered i%% hea%th caused or made worse & wor$in! conditions' :n a%% 30 mi%%ion wor$in! da s were %ost in which 20#000 peop%e were forced to !ive up wor$' :t is estimated that each ear there are 3 mi%%ion fata%ities resu%tin! from accidents or poisonin!# the ma7orit of which occur in under deve%opin!

1.

countries' .ccupationa% accidents# defined as those accidents that occur at the p%ace of wor$# are a%so of ma7or concern' Each ear *60#000 peop%e are $i%%ed as a resu%t of accidents at wor$# whi%st **0 mi%%ion are in7ured <,arms (in!dah%# *992=' +ccordin! to data co%%ected in *966 <,o os K -imo%on!# *966=# in the H3+ a fata% accident occurs ever 2 minutes# a fata% occupationa% in7ur occurs ever /2 minutes and a wor$ accident that resu%ts in an in7ur occurs ever *5 seconds' :n *992# more then 62#000 peop%e died in the H3' The fo%%owin! fi!ures show some accidents and wor$p%ace fata%ities'

+igure -: Gas pipeline fire

+igure .: 9uman +all from a ship

1/

+igure /: +ire in an offshore oil and gas production platform

.irplanes 4< 'aught *et= een 6*+ects;Equipm ent 4<

Stuc( *" )oving Falling or Stationar" 6*+ects 73<

)otor >ehicles 1?< )iscellaneous 77<

/eart .ttac(s;Stric(es 71< Slips and Falls A< %unshot @ounds 4<

+igure 2: )auses of <orkplace fatalities There are some theories concernin! the causes of accidents to !ive us an insi!ht into how we shou%d approach the tas$ of ris$ mana!ement'

*'3'* 3in!%e factor theor

This theor stems from the assumption that an accident is a resu%t of a sin!%e cause' :f this sin!%e cause can &e identified and e%iminated# the

12

accident wi%% not &e repeated' Peop%e who have even the most &asic of ris$ trainin! do not accept this theor ' EBample8 + person in a hurr wa%$s throu!h a poor% %it area and trips over a piece of wood' Single Factor ,heor" Solution8 (emove the offendin! piece of wood to so%ve the pro&%em' Realit"8 +ccidents a%wa s have more than one contri&utin! factor

*'3'2 )u%tip%e factors theor

:t sa s that an accident occurs when a num&er of factors act to!ether to cause an accident' This and simi%ar ideas are favored & most e4perienced ris$ participations EBample8 + person in a hurr wa%$s throu!h a poor% %it area and trips over a piece of wood' )ultiple Factors ,heor" Solution8 this theor wou%d re1uire answers to such 1uestion asA Eas there a necessit for the person to wa%$ in that area or was there a safer routeF :f the person was not in a hurr # wou%d he have &een more aware of their surroundin!s and avoided the woodF :f the area were &etter %it# wou%d the person have avoided the woodF Cou%d the wood have &een removedF The answer of these 1uestions shows that not on% the person is responsi&%e for the accident'

*'3'3 Domino effect theor

+ccordin! to E',' ,einrich <*93*=# who deve%oped the so-ca%%ed domino theor # 66L of a%% accidents are caused & unsafe acts of peop%e# *0L
13

& unsafe actions and 2L & 8acts of Jod9' ,e proposed a 8five-factor accident se1uence9 in which each factor wou%d actuate the ne4t step in the manner of topp%in! dominoes %ined up in a row' The se1uence of accident factors is as fo%%owsA *' +ncestr and socia% environmentA Those conditions that ma$e us ta$e or accept ris$' 2' Eor$er fau%t or Hndesira&%e ,uman Trait 8 +n!er# care%ess# tiredness# %ac$ of understandin!# un-attention' 3' Hnsafe act or condition to!ether with mechanica% and ph sica% ha"ardA Poor p%annin!# unsafe e1uipment# ha"ardous environment' /' +ccidentA The accident occurs when the a&ove events conspire <com&ine= to cause somethin! to !o wron!' 5' Dama!e or in7ur A :n7ur occurs when the person sustains dama!e'

+igure 3: Domino theory illustration .ften accidents occur without in7ur and the are referred to as near misses' +%% too often# these near misses are i!nored unti%# fi!urative% spea$in!# the %ast domino is $noc$ed over and the in7ur occurs' :n the same wa that the remova% of a sin!%e domino in the row wou%d interrupt the se1uence of topp%in!# ,einrich su!!ested that remova% of one of the factors wou%d prevent the accident and resu%tant in7ur ; with the $e domino to &e removed from the se1uence &ein! num&er 3' +%thou!h ,einrich provided no data for his theor # it nonethe%ess represents a usefu% point to start discussion and a foundation for future research' The domino theor has its merits &ut ma &e too %imited to consistent% ref%ect rea%it ' + more accurate picture of rea%it ma !ain & com&inin! the e%ements of the )u%tip%e ?actors Theor and the Domino Effect'

14

*'3'/ Ener! transfer theor

:t states that accidents are more %i$e% to happen at or durin! a transfer of ener! ' The rate of ener! re%ease is important &ecause the !reater the rate of re%ease the !reater the potentia% for dama!e' :t shou%d &e noted that this concept of identif in! ha"ards is ver %imited and not dissimi%ar to the 3in!%e ?actor theor ' ?actors other than ener! re%ease are important' Those who accept the ener! transfer theor put forward the c%aim that a wor$er incurs in7ur or e1uipment suffers dama!e throu!h a chan!e of ener! # and that for ever chan!e of ener! there is a source# a path and a receiver' This theor is usefu% for determinin! in7ur causation and eva%uatin! ener! ha"ards and contro% methodo%o! ' 3trate!ies can &e deve%oped which are preventive# %imitin! or ame%ioratin! with respect to the ener! transfer' Contro% of ener! transfer at the source can &e achieved & the fo%%owin! meansA

E%imination of the source Chan!es made to the desi!n or specification of e%ements of the wor$ station Preventive maintenance'

The path of ener! transfer can &e modified & A

Enc%osure of the path :nsta%%ation of &arriers :nsta%%ation of a&sor&ers Positionin! of iso%ators'

The receiver of ener! transfer can &e assisted & adoptin! the fo%%owin! measuresA

0imitation of e4posure Hse of persona% protective e1uipment

*'3'5 The 83 mptoms versus Causes9 theor

The 8s mptoms versus causes9 theor is not so much a theor as an admonition to &e heeded if accident causation is to &e understood' Hsua%% # when investi!atin! accidents# we tend to fasten upon the
26

o&vious causes of the accident to the ne!%ect of the root causes' Hnsafe acts and unsafe conditions are the s mptomsMthe pro4imate causesM and not the root causes of the accident'

*'/ 3tructure of +ccidents

The &e%ief that accidents are caused and can &e prevented ma$es it imperative for us to stud those factors which are %i$e% to favor the occurrence of accidents' > stud in! such factors# the root causes of accidents can &e iso%ated and necessar steps can &e ta$en to prevent the recurrence of the accidents' These root causes of accidents can &e !rouped as 8immediate9 and 8contri&utin!9' The immediate causes are unsafe acts of the wor$er and unsafe wor$in! conditions' The contri&utin! causes cou%d &e mana!ement-re%ated factors# the environment and the ph sica% and menta% condition of the wor$er' + com&ination of causes must conver!e in order to resu%t in an accident'

+igure 4: 'tructure of accident

*'5 The (o%e of ,uman Error in +ccidents

+%thou!h the ro%e that human error p%a s in accident causation has &een accepted for man ears# it is on% recent% that a %ot of concerted effort has &een put into detai%ed research into human error in accidents'

21

>e ond the technica% issues two common points emer!ed stron!% from the in1uiries into these accidents# which areA The inf%uence of human error in the chain of events %eadin! to the accident; ?ai%ures in the mana!ement and or!ani"ation of safet ' Peop%e can cause or contri&ute to accidents <or miti!ate the conse1uences= in a num&er of wa s throu!h a fai%ure a person can direct% cause an accident' ,owever# peop%e tend not to ma$e such errors de%i&erate% ' Ee are often Nset up to fai%@ & the wa that our &rain processes information & our trainin!# throu!h the desi!n of e1uipment and procedures and even throu!h the cu%ture of the or!ani"ation that we wor$ for' Peop%e can ma$e disastrous decisions even when the are aware of the ris$s' Ee can a%so misinterpret a situation and act inappropriate% as a resu%t' >oth of these can %ead to the esca%ation of an incident' .n the other hand we can intervene to stop potentia% accidents' )an companies have their own anecdotes a&out recover from a potentia% incident throu!h the time% actions of individua%s' )iti!ation of the possi&%e effects of an incident can resu%t from human resourcefu%ness and in!enuit ' The de!ree of %oss of %ife can &e reduced & the emer!enc response of operators and crew' Emer!enc p%annin! and response inc%udin! appropriate trainin! can si!nificant% improve rescue situations' *'5'* The traditiona% concept of human error Traditiona%% the promotion of safet has &een %ar!e% reactive# concentratin! on accident investi!ation with the primar aim of avoidin! repeat events' :n part this arose from too simp%e an approach to accident causation &ased on the apparent importance p%aced on the concept of a sin!%e primar cause; either an unsafe act or an unsafe condition <as a resu%t of the domino theor =' :f the former were the case# responsi&i%it was c%ear and &%ame cou%d &e apportioned' :f the %atter was the case then a technica% so%ution cou%d &e sou!ht' :n part this a%so arose from the fact that a reactive approach# &ased on a sin!%e primar cause was a%so an eas approach to hand%e' Ta$in! a 8&%ame9 approach to human error in accidents provides %itt%e of use in terms of future accident prevention' ?or e4amp%e# if one made a
22

mista$e which resu%ted in an accident and we wor$ on the &asis of a 8&%ame9 approach then there are on% three options avai%a&%e to usA Ee accept that human error is inevita&%e# shru! weir shou%ders# te%% him to &e a &it more carefu% and carr on as &efore with weir fin!ers crossed' +%ternative% # we can sa as he was responsi&%e# we shou%d discip%ine him# perhaps even sac$ him' The third option is a ha%f-wa house where& we !ive him the &enefit of the dou&t and decide that he mi!ht need retrainin!' ,owever# if a%% we have found out a&out the accident was that he was the 8cause9 we have %earnt nothin! new on which to &ase the retrainin!' Ee wi%% a%most certain% therefore &e reduced to repeatin! the trainin! which we $now has a%read fai%edO Hnfortunate% this is a prett reasona&%e description of the approach to human error in accidents that has e4isted in most industria% or!ani"ations for ears' :f accidents are to &e prevented in the future it is no use whatsoever to 8&%ame9 peop%e for their mista$es un%ess we have a detai%ed understandin! of what caused the mista$es' .n% & understandin! a%% the issues which have caused <or cou%d cause= an accident can we identif the wa to prevent future accidents *'5'2 C%assification of human errors The term Nhuman error@ is wide and can inc%ude a !reat variet of human &ehaviour' Therefore# in attemptin! to define human error# different c%assification s stems have &een deve%oped to descri&e their nature' :dentif in! wh these errors occur wi%% u%timate% assist in reducin! the %i$e%ihood of such errors occurrin!' The distinction &etween the hands on Noperator@ errors and those made & other aspects of the or!ani"ation has &een descri&ed as Nactive@ and N%atent@ fai%ures' .ctive Failures have an immediate conse1uence and are usua%% made & front-%ine peop%e such as drivers# contro% room and machine operators' These immediate% proceed# and are the direct cause# of the accident'

2,

$atent failures are those aspects of the or!ani"ation which can immediate% predispose active fai%ures' Common e4amp%es of %atent fai%ures inc%ude <,3E# *999=A Poor desi!n of p%ant and e1uipment; :neffective trainin!; :nade1uate supervision; :neffective communications; and Hncertainties in ro%es and responsi&i%ities' 0atent fai%ures are crucia%% important to accident prevention for two reasonsA *' :f the are not reso%ved# the pro&a&i%it of repeat <or simi%ar= accidents remains hi!h re!ard%ess of what other action is ta$en; 2' +s one %atent fai%ure often inf%uences severa% potentia% errors# removin! %atent fai%ures can &e a ver cost-effective route to accident prevention' *'5'3 C%assif in! active fai%ures The c%assification of active fai%ures distin!uishes &etween intentiona% and unintentiona% error' :ntentiona% errors are descri&ed as vio%ations# whi%st unintentiona% errors are c%assified as either s%ips/%apses or mista$es' These t pes of human fai%ure are shown in the dia!ram &e%ow <,3E# *999=# ?i!ure *0A

2-

9uman +ailures
Liolations 9uman &rrors

"outine 'ituational &xceptional

(istakes
"uleKbased =no<ledgeKbased

'killKbased errors
'lips of action 1apses of memory

+igure 16: )lassification of human failure Slips and $apsesA These occur in routine tas$s with operators who $now the process we%% and are e4perienced in their wor$A The are action errors which occur whi%st the tas$ is &ein! carried out; The often invo%ved missin! a step out of a se1uence or !ettin! steps in the wron! order and fre1uent% arise from a %apse of attention; .peratin! the wron! contro% throu!h a %apse in attention or accidenta%% se%ectin! the wron! !ear are t pica% e4amp%es' )ista(esA These are inadvertent errors and occur when the e%ements of a tas$ are &ein! considered & the operator' The are decisions that are su&se1uent% found to &e wron!# a%thou!h at the time the operator wou%d have &e%ieved them to &e correct' There are two t pes of Nmista$e@ <,3E# *999=# ru%e &ased and $now%ed!e &asedA (u%e &ased mista$es occur when the operation in hand is !overned & a series of ru%es' The error occurs when an in appropriate action is tied to a particu%ar event Inow%ed!e &ased errors occur in entire% nove% situations when ou are &e ond our s$i%%s# &e ond the provision of the ru%es and ou

2.

have to re% entire% on adaptin! our &asic $now%ed!e and e4perience to dea% with a new pro&%em' >iolations are an de%i&erate deviation from the ru%es# procedures# instructions and re!u%ations# which are deemed necessar for the safe or efficient operation and maintenance of p%ant or e1uipment' >reaches in these ru%es cou%d &e accidenta%/unintentiona% or de%i&erate' Pio%ations occur for man reasons# and are se%dom wi%%fu% acts of sa&ota!e or vanda%ism' The ma7orit stem from a !enuine desire to perform wor$ satisfactori% !iven the constraints and e4pectations that e4ist' Pio%ations are divided into three cate!oriesA routine# situationa% and e4ceptiona% <,3E# *999=' Routine >iolations are ones where &rea$in! the ru%e or procedure has &ecome the norma% wa of wor$in!' The vio%atin! &ehavior is norma%% automatic and unconscious &ut the vio%ation is reco!ni"ed as such# & the individua%<s= if 1uestioned' This can &e due to cuttin! corners# savin! time' or &e due to a &e%ief that the ru%es are no %on!er app%ica&%e' Situational >iolations occur &ecause of %imitations in the emp%o ees immediate wor$ space or environment' These inc%ude the desi!n and condition of the wor$ area# time pressure# num&er of staff# supervision# e1uipment avai%a&i%it # and desi!n and factors outside the or!ani"ations contro%# such as weather and time of da ' These vio%ations often occur when a ru%e is impossi&%e or e4treme% difficu%t to wor$ to in a particu%ar situation' EBceptional >iolations are vio%ations that are rare and happen on% in particu%ar circumstances# often when somethin! !oes wron!' The occur to a %ar!e e4tent at the $now%ed!e &ased %eve%' The individua% in attemptin! to so%ve a nove% pro&%em vio%ates a ru%e to achieve the desired !oa%' *'5'/ 0atent fai%ures 0atent fai%ures are the factors or circumstances within an or!ani"ation which increase the %i$e%ihood of active fai%ures' Consider some e4amp%es of %atent fai%ures in re%ation to the e4amp%e accidents !iven ear%ierA The %atent fai%ures Iin!@s Cross Hnder!round 3tation ?ire here inc%udedA Ehi%e severa% minor esca%ator fires had occurred previous% and had &een investi!ated# apparent% no one in the or!ani"ation serious%
2/

considered the fact that a ma7or esca%ator fire was a possi&i%it conse1uent% # as the in1uir states# %itt%e effective action had &een ta$en on the warnin!s provided & the minor fires' 3imi%ar% the in1uir a%so reported that there were serious f%aws in the mana!eria% and or!ani"ationa% responsi&i%ities and accounta&i%it for safet with virtua%% a%% aspects of the or!ani"ation thin$in! passen!er safet was some one e%se@s responsi&i%it ' The e4istence of these# and other simi%ar# %atent fai%ures within the 0ondon Hnder!round operation si!nificant% increased the pro&a&i%it of a ma7or esca%ator fire# with hindsi!ht it was a%most a matter of when rather than whether' :t is a%so apparent# as su!!ested a&ove# that un%ess the remedia% action ta$en encompassed these or!ani"ationa%/mana!ement %atent fai%ures# that a repeat event was %i$e% for# 1uite simp% # the ma7or inf%uencin! factors wou%d have remained in p%ace to predispose a simi%ar event'

*'5'5 3trate!ies for reducin! human error (educin! human error invo%ves far more than ta$in! discip%inar action a!ainst an individua%' There are a ran!e of measures which are more effective contro%s inc%udin! the desi!n of the e1uipment# 7o&# procedures and trainin!' *'5'2 +ctions for overcomin! active fai%ures *'5'2'* 3%ips and %apses Desi!n improvement is the most effective route for e%iminatin! the cause of this t pe of human error' ?or e4amp%e# t pica% pro&%ems with contro%s and disp%a s that cause this t pe of error inc%udeA 3witches which are too c%ose and can &e inadvertent% switched on or off; Disp%a s which force the user to &end or stretch to read them proper% ; Critica% disp%a s not in the operators fie%d of view; Poor% desi!ned !au!es;

22

 Disp%a s which are c%uttered with non-essentia% information and are difficu%t to read' *'5'2'2 )ista$es Trainin!# for individua%s and teams# is the most effective wa for reducin! mista$e t pe human errors' The ris$ of this t pe of human error wi%% &e decreased if the trainee understands the need for and &enefits from safe p%ans and actions rather than simp% &ein! a&%e to recite the steps parrot fashion' Trainin! shou%d &e &ased on defined trainin! needs and o&7ectives# and it shou%d &e eva%uated to see if it has had the desired improvement in performance' *'5'2'2 Pio%ations There is no sin!%e &est avenue for reducin! the potentia% for de%i&erate deviations from safe ru%es and procedures' The avenues for reducin! the pro&a&i%it of vio%ations shou%d &e considered in terms of those which reduce an individua%Qs motivation to vio%ate' These inc%udeA Hnder-estimation of the ris$ (ea% or perceived pressure from the &oss t adopt poor wor$ practices; Pressure from wor$-mates to adopt their poor wor$in! practices; Cuttin! corners to save time and effort *'5'2'3 +ddressin! 0atent ?ai%ures The or!ani"ation must create an environment whichA (educes the &enefit to an individua% from vio%atin! ru%es' (educes the ris$ of an operator ma$in! s%ips/%apses and mista$es' This can &e done & identif in! and addressin! %atent fai%ures' E4amp%es of %atent fai%ures inc%udeA Poor desi!n of p%ant and e1uipment; :mpractica% procedures# :neffective trainin!;

23

 :nade1uate supervision; :neffective communications; and Hncertainties in ro%es and responsi&i%ities' .ne of the principa% wa s of s stematica%% doin! this is throu!h a hea%th and safet mana!ement s stem' This is the su&7ect of the ne4t topic area in this course'

*'2 (easons for Preventin! +ccidents

There are three main reasons for preventin! accidents and i%%-hea%th# these are mora%/humane# cost and %e!is%ation' *'2'* )ora% Do-&od comes to wor$ to !et in7ured or to &ecome i%%' Do-one %i$es !ettin! in7ured or seein! their co%%ea!ues or friends in7ured in accidents' Dothin! is more important than the humane aspects of accidenta% %ossA in7ur # pain# sorrow# an!uish# %oss of &od partic%es or functions# occupationa% i%%ness# disa&i%it and death' Emp%o ers and emp%o ees have a mora% responsi&i%it to prevent accidents and i%%-hea%th at wor$'

*'2'2 Costs
Ehether or not peop%e are hurt# accidents do cost or!ani"ations mone and the actua% in7ur or i%%ness costs represent on% a sma%% part of the tota%' + recent stud & the ,3E has shown that for ever R* of insured costs <i'e' the actua% cost of the in7ur or i%%ness in terms of medica% costs or compensation costs= the uninsured <or Nhidden@ costs= varied &etween R6 and R32' This has &een traditiona%% depicted as an Nice&er!@ as the %ar!est part of an ice&er! is hidden under the sea Even a simp%e or minor accident can &e e4pensive' 3ome of the costs associated with accidents can &e 1uic$% identified such as medica% treatment# %ost wa!es and decreased productivit ' These easi% identified e4penses are often $nown as the SdirectS costs associated with accidents' 0ess evident e4penses associated with accidents are $nown as SindirectS or ShiddenS costs and can &e severa% times !reater than the va%ue of the direct costs' 0isted &e%ow are 7ust a few of the hidden costs associated with most accident'

24

*' The e4pense and time of findin! a temporar rep%acement for the in7ured wor$er# 2' Time used & other emp%o ees to assist the in7ured wor$er# 3' Time used & supervision to investi!ate the mishap# preparation of accident reports and ad7ustments made to wor$ schedu%es# /' Propert dama!e to too%s# materia%s and e1uipment# 5' De%a s in accomp%ishment of wor$ tas$ & a !roup' :ndirect cost e4ists# varies !reat% from case to case# and is often difficu%t to 1uantif ' The main point to remem&er is that accidents are much more cost% than 7ust the &asic or direct costs'

Indirect $osses 74< Fire $osses C< #ropert" Dam ages 7A<

@ages $oss 5C<

Insurance .dm instration 73<

)edical EBpenses 7C<

+igure 11: )ost of accidents in *' Ehether or not peop%e are hurt# accidents do cost or!ani"ations mone and the actua% in7ur or i%%ness costs represent on% a sma%% part of the tota%' + recent stud & the ,3E has shown that for ever R* of insured costs <i'e' the actua% cost of the in7ur or i%%ness in terms of medica% costs or compensation costs= the uninsured <or Nhidden@ costs= varied &etween R6 and R32# ?i!ure *2' This has &een traditiona%% depicted as an Nice&er!@ as the %ar!est part of an ice&er! is hidden under the sea' :n .cto&er *999 the ,3E pu&%ished new data on the costs to the HI of wor$p%ace accidents and wor$ re%ated i%%-hea%th in *995/92 which estimated thatA The costs to emp%o ers are estimated &etween R35 &i%%ion and R53 &i%%ion a ear <&etween /L and 6L of a%% !ross compan tradin! profits='

,6

 Eor$ re%ated accidents K :%%nesses cost &etween 2'*L and 2'2L of the Jross Domestic Product each ear T e1uiva%ent to &etween R*/'5 and *6'* &i%%ion'

Insurance Costs

M1

)overing :n$ury, health, damage

ill

M 3K,/

Uninsured Costs #roduct and material damage. #lant & building damage Tool & eEuipment damage. 1egal costs &xpenditure on emergency supplies. )learing site #roduction delays 0vertime <orking and temporary labour :nvestigation time. 'upervisorNs time diverted )lerical effort. +ines 1oss of expertiseFexperience

+igure 12: :nsurance and accident costs

*'2'3 0e!is%ation
.r!ani"ations have a %e!a% o&%i!ation to prevent accidents and i%%-hea%th' ,ea%th and 3afet 0e!is%ation in the HI consists of a num&er of +cts that are supported & su&ordinate %e!is%ation in the form of (e!u%ations' The principa% act is the ,ea%th and 3afet at Eor$ +ct' This +ct sets in p%ace a s stem &ased on se%f-re!u%ation with the responsi&i%it for accident contro% p%aced on those who create the ris$s in the first instance' :t a%so a%%ows for the pro!ressive rep%acement of e4istin! safet %aw so that the !enera% duties set in the act cou%d &e &ac$ed & (e!u%ations# settin! !oa%s and standards for specific ha"ards and
,1

industries' +n &reach of this statutor dut can resu%t in crimina% proceedin!s' *'5'/ +ccident trends Fatals TThe three most common causes of fata%ities to emp%o ees were fa%%s from hei!ht# &ein! struc$ & a movin! vehic%e# and &ein! struc$ & a fa%%in! o&7ect' ,owever# the causes varied from sector to sector' :n construction# most deaths were caused & fa%%s from hei!ht </2L=' :n manufacturin! and the service sector# fa%%s from hei!ht accounted for 20L and *2L of deaths respective% ' Eithin the service sector# /0L of a%% deaths were caused & &ein! struc$ & movin! vehic%es# up 33L the previous ear' Non Fatal )a+or In+uries T The four most common causes of ma7or in7uries to a%% emp%o ees were s%ips# trips and fa%%s# fa%%s from a hei!ht# &ein! struc$ & a movin! or fa%%in! o&7ect# and &ein! in7ured whi%st hand%in!# %iftin! or carr in!' ,3E fi!ures mention that an estimated 59* ma7or in7uries were caused & vio%ence at wor$# this is a reduction from the previous ear@s num&er <260= &ut sti%% represents 2 per cent of a%% ma7or in7uries e4perience & emp%o ees' D1 da" In+uries T 0iftin!# hand%in! or carr in!# s%ips# trips or fa%%s# and &ein! struc$ & a movin! or fa%%in! o&7ect were the three most %i$e% wa s in which emp%o ees were %i$e% to sustain over three da in7uries' These fi!ures a%so pic$ up the num&er of in7uries caused & vio%ence in the wor$p%ace </335= which is down on the previous ear' Ill:health T The most preva%ent forms of wor$ re%ated i%%-hea%th in the HI areA )uscu%os$e%eta% disorders T an estimated *'2 mi%%ion peop%e were affected in *995 <inc%udin! &ac$-pro&%ems K (3:= 3tress T an estimated 0'5 peop%e were affected in *995' >oth these conditions accounted for over three-1uarters of peop%e sufferin! from an i%%ness caused & their wor$' + si!nificant num&er of peop%e were sufferin! from a %ower respirator i%%ness# inc%udin! asthma <an estimated 200#000= and ear conditions# inc%udin! deafness <an estimated *50#000= which were caused & their wor$'

,2

*'5 3ummar
+ccident causation is ver comp%e4 and must &e understood ade1uate% in order to improve accident prevention' 3ince safet %ac$s a theoretica% &ase# it cannot &e re!arded as &ein! a science et' This fact shou%d not discoura!e us# as most of the scientific discip%inesMmathematics# statistics and so onMpassed throu!h a simi%ar% tentative phase at one time or the other' +ccident causation stud ho%ds !reat promise for those who are interested in deve%opin! the pertinent theor ' +t present# theories of accident causation are conceptua% in nature and# as such# are of %imited use in preventin! and contro%%in! accidents' Eith such a diversit of theories# it wi%% not &e difficu%t to understand that there does not e4isted one sin!%e theor that is considered ri!ht or correct and is universa%% accepted' These theories are nonethe%ess necessar # &ut not sufficient# for deve%opin! a frame of reference for understandin! accident occurrences'

,,

'hapter 58 Importance of Ris( )anagement

2'* :mportance
The a&sence of accidents does not necessari% mean there are no ha"ards' :t a%so does not mean that there is no ha"ard' + ris$ mana!ement process must &e adopted and repeated at re!u%ar interva%s' Ee often find that ha"ards with devastatin! conse1uences are not addressed unti% an accident has occurred' + ris$ mana!ement process shou%d adapted and repeated at re!u%ar interva% to ensure that a%% ha"ards have &een identified# the ris$s assessed and ade1uate measures to contro% those ris$s are in p%ace' :nitiation of a ris$ mana!ement pro!ram is c%ear% the responsi&i%it of mana!ement whi%st the emp%o ees@ ro%e is one of support and assistance'

2'2 Princip%e of (is$ )ana!ement

. /a9ardA :s defined as an thin! that ma cause harm# in7ur # or i%% hea%th to a person# or economic %oss of a propert Ris(8 is the chance# hi!h or %ow# that someone wi%% &e harmed & a ha"ard' 3ome countries impose that &usiness havin! five or more persons has safet po%ic statement' The fo%%owin! is an e4amp%e of statement Contro%%in! dan!er at wor$ is not different from trac$in! an other tas$A trainin! personne%# &ein! proactive <premisin!=# reco!ni"in! the pro&%em# $nowin! enou!h a&out it# decidin! what to do# and puttin! the so%ution into p%ace is a !uarantees for minimi"in! ris$s'
,-

2'3 ,a"ard :dentifications

:t is the first step in the ris$ mana!ement process' .n% peop%e with a throu!h $now%ed!e of the area# process or machine under review shou%d carr out a ha"ard identification surve ' The person de%e!ated the tas$ of ha"ard identification shou%d e4p%ore the man sources of information avai%a&%e for identif in! ha"ards within the area of their in1uir ' These ma inc%ude an of the fo%%owin!A

2'3'* Previous accident reports

(eview the histor of the area review' +n accident or near misses shou%d &e carefu%% investi!ated' +t this sta!e it is worth sortin! a%% the accidents and near misses information into a num&er of cate!ories' T pica%% these cate!ories headin! cou%d &eA 0ocation )achine Person +!e of person Time of da Da of wee$ Part of &od 3everit of in7ur .ccupation :dentif in! a trend of accidents in an of the a&ove areas ma assist the investi!ator identif the possi&%e ha"ard'

2'3'2 Ph sica% inspection of the wor$p%ace

+ ph sica% e4amination of the wor$p%ace re1uires an in1uirin! mind# %atera% thin$in!# and the a&i%it to &e remainin! open minded' :t is of %itt%e use to %oo$ at a particu%ar area and# in a perfunctor manner# dec%are it to &e ha"ard free' 2'3'2'* Juide%ines

,.

Emp%o ees and supervisors are responsi&%e for da -to-da wor$p%ace inspections to identif and e%iminate occupationa% ha"ards' Ever one must &e vi!i%ant for ph sica% deficiencies in the wor$p%ace and for unsafe wor$ practices' :f wor$p%ace parties re%e!ate their inspection responsi&i%ities entire% to the %oca% 7oint hea%th and safet committee# then the interna% responsi&i%it s stem wi%% &e undermined and pro&%ems wi%% not &e reso%ved effective% ' 2'3'2'2 T pes of safet inspections There are severa% t pes of wor$p%ace inspections essentia% for due di%i!ence' Daily walkabouts or continuous inspections are performed & emp%o ees and supervisors to chec$ for o&vious ha"ards' These inspections must &e conducted dai% &ecause hazards and unsafe conditions are continuously created <i'e' e1uipment is chan!ed# wor$ spaces are rearran!ed# parts &ecome worn# new processes are introduced=' :ncidents resu%tin! in in7ur often occur after somethin! has &een chan!ed' Spot inspections and 7o& o&servations are performed & supervisors to ensure safe wor$ practices' Specialized inspections inc%ude pre-operationa% chec$s and critica% parts inspections in e1uipment' Comprehensive planned inspections are performed month% & departmenta% <%oca%= safet committee mem&ers to audit the effectiveness of the aforementioned inspection efforts' Eritten inspection reports serve as va%ua&%e confirmation of due dili ence# that the Hniversit is ta$in! ever precaution reasona&%e to protect emp%o ees and students' :nspection reports ma &e audited & the )inistr of 0a&or' 2'3'2'2 3afet committee inspections Eor$p%ace inspections & Joint ,ea%th and 3afet Committee personne% are prescri&ed & the !ccupational "ealth and Safety #ct to he%p ensure that the interna% responsi&i%it s stem is 8a%ive9 and functionin! to maintain safet as a priorit ' Committee inspections shou%d identif safet concerns that have not &een reso%ved & emp%o ees and supervisors' The provide an opportunit to commend emp%o ees and supervisors for successfu% safet efforts' :nspections a%so confirm that ha"ard contro%s are effective and operationa%' The !ccupational "ealth and Safety #ct re1uires that Committee inspections &e conducted month% ' :f this is not practica%# then the wor$p%ace sha%% &e inspected ear% with part of the wor$p%ace &ein!

,/

inspected month% accordin! to a written schedu%e determined & the %oca% safet committee' :nspections must &e performed & wor$er mem&ers of the committee' :n some areas# a wor$er mem&er and a mana!ement mem&er ma inspect the wor$p%ace as a team' The area supervisor shou%d &e invited to participate in the inspection process' ,a"ards and unsafe wor$ practices must &e noted on the inspection form and prioriti"ed accordin! to severit of the ha"ard' 8:mmediate% dan!erous to %ife and hea%th <:D0,=9 ha"ards sha%% &e iso%ated# corrected on the spot# or wor$ must &e stopped' Eor$p%ace inspections & safet committee mem&ers shou%d identif unreso%ved hea%th and safet issues or ha"ards that mi!ht cause in7ur or i%%ness' Committee inspections are not intended to identif %ists of 8fi4it9 items' 8?i4-it9 items must &e reported dai% & a%% emp%o ees as part of their routine wor$p%ace vi!i%ance and due di%i!ence' Eor$p%ace inspections shou%d evo%ve to &ecome an efficient audit of a department@s interna% responsi&i%it s stem and its occupationa% hea%th and safet mana!ement pro!rams' +fter inspections are comp%eted# the departmenta% safet committee sha%% review their inspection reports and the actions recommended to the Chair or Department ,ead' + summar of the inspection process and safet issues identified sha%% &e inc%uded in the ne4t minutes of the %oca% safet committee' Confirmation of corrective actions is essentia%' :t ma &e appropriate to re-inspect the area of concern at a pre-set date or to discuss the action p%an for the safet issue identified' 2'3'2'/ :nspection chec$%ists Do chec$%ist can &e comp%ete enou!h to eva%uate a wor$p%ace for a%% ha"ards' The are usefu% too%s for recordin! notes a&out ph sica% or procedura% deficiencies# &ut shou%d not &ecome the focus of the wor$p%ace inspection' The focus must &e on outstandin! or new% created ha"ards and unsafe wor$ procedures' + samp%e inspection report form is appended' The +!ricu%tura% 3afet +udit Pro!ram <+3+P= from the Eor$p%ace 3afet and :nsurance >oard promotes a s stematic approach for farm safet audits' The ha"ard identification chec$%ists are usefu% too%s for wor$p%ace inspections''

,2

Table 1: :nspection report

B!I$DIN%8 R66) INS#E',ED BE D.,E .''6)#.NIED BE ,6 BE '6)#$E,ED D!RIN% ,/E INS#E',I6N8
Item No/a9ard and $ocation FInclude an" Immediate .ction ,a(enG /a9ard Rating

DE#.R,)EN, .SSI%NED ,68 F#erson to 'orrectG F6$$6@:!#8

.ction ,a(en and Date

/.H.RD #RI6RI,E R.,IN%

DIS,RIB!,I6N

*' :mmediate% dan!erous to %ife and hea%th <e'!' stop wor$= 2' ,i!h <e'!' correct within a da = 3' )edium <e'!' correct within two wee$s= /' 0ow <e'!' correct within a semester=

*' 3upervisor 9 2' Dept' Chair 9 3' 0oca% J,3C 9 /' E,3 9

Notes

,3

2'3'3 >rainstormin!
)ost pro&%ems are not so%ved automatica%% & the first idea that comes to mind' To !et to the &est so%ution it is important to consider man possi&%e so%utions' .ne of the &est wa s to do this is ca%%ed *rainstorming' >rainstormin! is the act of definin! a pro&%em or idea and comin! up an thin! re%ated to the topic - no matter how remote a su!!estion ma sound' +%% of these ideas are recorded and eva%uated on% after the &rainstormin! is comp%eted' 2'3'3'* Procedure This is a process of conductin! !roup meetin!s with peop%e who are fami%iar with the operation of the area under review# recordin! a%% ideas a thou!hts re%atin! to possi&%e ha"ards and then sortin! the resu%ts into some of priorit order' *' :n a sma%% or %ar!e !roup se%ect a %eader and a recorder <the ma &e the same person=' 2' Define the pro&%em or idea to &e &rainstormed' )a$e sure ever one is c%ear on the topic &ein! e4p%ored' 3' 3et up the ru%es for the session' The shou%d inc%udeA 0ettin! the %eader have contro%' +%%owin! ever one to contri&ute' Ensurin! that no one wi%% insu%t# demean# or eva%uate another participant or his/her response' 3tatin! that no answer is wron!' (ecordin! each answer un%ess it is a repeat' 3ettin! a time %imit and stoppin! when that time is up'

,4

/' 3tart the &rainstormin!' ,ave the %eader se%ect mem&ers of the !roup to share their answers' The recorder shou%d write down a%% responses# if possi&%e so ever one can see them' )a$e sure not to eva%uate or critici"e an answers unti% done &rainstormin!' 5' .nce ou have finished &rainstormin!# !o throu!h the resu%ts and &e!in eva%uatin! the responses' 3ome initia% 1ua%ities to %oo$ for when e4aminin! the responses inc%ude 0oo$in! for an answers that are repeated or simi%ar' Jroupin! %i$e concepts to!ether' E%iminatin! responses that definite% do not fit' Dow that ou have narrowed our %ist down some# discuss the remainin! responses as a !roup'

2'3'/ Inow%ed!e of emp%o ees

Emp%o ees shou%d &e encoura!ed to descri&e an ha"ards the are aware of' :n1uiries of this nature shou%d &e conducted in an atmosphere of Sno &%ameS where even if the emp%o ee is not doin! thin!s proper% the are not critici"ed for it' The aim is to identif and document ha"ards at this sta!e' +n authori"ed emp%o ee representative wi%% &e !iven the opportunit to attend the openin! and c%osin! conferences# and to accompan the investi!ator and the emp%o er durin! the wa%$-around inspection' The investi!ator ma a%so consu%t with a reasona&%e num&er of emp%o ees concernin! safet and hea%th matters in the wor$p%ace' Emp%o ees are protected under the +ct from discrimination & the emp%o er for e4ercisin! their safet and hea%th ri!hts' The investi!ator wi%% a%so e4p%ain the re1uirements of the Emp%o ee (i!ht-to-Inow <(TI= 3tandard' Hnder (TI# emp%o ers must esta&%ish a written comprehensive (i!ht-to-Inow pro!ram that inc%udes provisions for container %a&e%in!# materia% safet data sheets and emp%o ee trainin!' The pro!ram must contain a %ist of the ha"ardous chemica%s in each wor$ area and the means the emp%o er wi%% use to inform emp%o ees of the ha"ards of &oth ever da and non-routine tas$s'

2'3'5 Trade Journa%s

Trade 7ourna%s are often a source of information re!ardin! ha"ards encountered & others in the industr ' The can &e a source of usefu%
-6

in1uir # as mem&ers of the same industr wou%d e4pect to encounter simi%ar ha"ards' Trade 7ourna%s can offer statistica% data a&out accidents happened in the ris$ assessment fie%d' The can offer ha"ards as we%% as ha"ard areas associated with the new techno%o! and fie%ds of industr ' Each industria%# socia%# en!ineerin!# medica%# a!ricu%tura% &ranch has its own trade 7ourna%s' Consu%tin! trade 7ourna% he%p assessor to consu%t new ha"ardous materia%s e4ists in the assessed industr ' 2'3'5'* :nternationa% Journa% of +pp%ied )ana!ement and Techno%o! The on-%ine# internationa%# peer-reviewed 7ourna% :J+)T# sponsored & Ea%den Hniversit 3choo% of )ana!ement# is pu&%ished &iannua%% in )a and Dovem&er' :t is avai%a&%e on the :nternet to a%% interested parties for purposes of research and practica% app%ication' The 7ourna% we%comes ori!ina%# unpu&%ished manuscripts in the fie%d of app%ied mana!ement and techno%o! in a%% sectors of societ from scho%ars# scho%arpractitioners# and advanced !raduate students' http$%%www&i'amt&or % 2'3'5'2 Journa% of +ccident :nvesti!ation This &iannua%# interdiscip%inar 7ourna% pu&%ished & the Dationa% Transportation 3afet >oard provides for the pu&%ic e4chan!e of ideas and information deve%oped throu!h accident investi!ations at the DT3> in a%% modes of transportation' The intended audience is professiona%s in safet # accident investi!ations# en!ineerin!# and the &ehaviora% sciences' httpA//www'nts&'!ov/pu&%ictn/2005/J(D050*'htm 2'3'5'3 (is$ +na% sis Risk #nalysis( the 7ourna% of the 3ociet for (is$ +na% sis# provides a foca% point for new deve%opments in ris$ ana% sis for scientists from a wide ran!e of discip%ines' The ana% sis of ris$s is &ein! increasin!% viewed as a fie%d in itse%f# and the demand for a more order% and forma% treatment of ris$s is !reat' Risk #nalysis is desi!ned to meet these needs of or!ani"ation# inte!ration# and communication' The 7ourna% covers topics of !reat interest to re!u%ators# researchers# and scientific administrators' :t dea%s with hea%th ris$s# en!ineerin!# mathematica%# and theoretica% aspects of ris$s# and socia% and ps cho%o!ica% aspects of ris$ such as ris$ perception# accepta&i%it # economics# and ethics' +%% scientific artic%es in Risk #nalysis are fu%% peer reviewed' httpA//www'sra'or!/7ourna%'htm
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2'3'5'/ (is$# Decision and Po%ic This uni1ue pu&%ication is pu&%ished three times per ear & Cam&rid!e Hniversit Press and inc%udes &oth theoretica% and app%ied papers on decision-ma$in! whi%e under ris$' The 7ourna%Qs covera!e inc%udes technica% artic%es# comments# !uest-edited s mposia on current po%ic issues# forum pieces# commissioned surve s# &oo$ and software reviews# and news on conferences and re%ated societies around the wor%d' This pu&%ication wi%% he%p decision and ris$ researchers in statistics# economics# ps cho%o! # medicine and pu&%ic hea%th# as we%% as po%ic -ma$ers in &oth &usiness and !overnment' httpA//www'cup'or!' 2'3'5'5 (is$A ,ea%th# 3afet K Environment +s the officia% 7ourna% of the (is$ +ssessment K Po%ic +ssociation# this refereed# interdiscip%inar 1uarter% e4p%ores pu&%ic and private efforts to mana!e science and techno%o! for net reduction in the pro&a&i%it # severit # and aversive 1ua%it of hea%th# safet # and environmenta% impacts of natura% and artificia% ha"ards' + cumu%ative inde4 is provided# as we%% as an inde4 of &oo$ reviews and essa s' http$%%www&fplc&edu%risk%profrisk&htm 2'3'5'2 (is$ )ana!ementA +n :nternationa% Journa% This 7ourna% aims to !enerate ideas and promote !ood practice and to faci%itate the e4chan!e of information and e4pertise for those invo%ved in the &usiness of mana!in! ris$# across countries and across discip%ines' Perpetuit Press in 0eicester# Hnited Iin!dom# pu&%ishes the 7ourna%Qs four issues annua%% ' 3tartin! Januar 2002# free instant access to a %eadin! ris$# securit # and crime prevention a&stract data&ase--3ecurit and (is$ +&stract Data&ase--is inc%uded with ever 7ourna% su&scription' http$%%www&perpetuitypress&com% )click on *+ournals*, 2'3'5'5 Environmenta% K Eco%o!ica% (is$s 3ee /uman and Ecological Ris( .ssessment 0ournal %isted &e%ow' 2'3'5'6 +nna%s of :nterna% )edicine

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The +merican Co%%e!e of Ph sicians-+merican 3ociet of :nterna% )edicine pu&%ishes #nnals of -nternal .edicine# one of the most cited medica% 7ourna%s in the wor%d# on the second and fourth Tuesda s ever month' +CP-+3:) mem&ership or a nonmem&er su&scription is re1uired to view the 7ourna%Qs research artic%es on %ine# &ut non-technica% summaries of the artic%es are avai%a&%e to the pu&%ic& http$%%www&acponline&or %'ournals%annals% 2'3'5'6 ,ea%th# (is$ K 3ociet 3ocia% scientists# practitioners# and po%ic ma$ers who have an interest in ris$ issues re%atin! to hea%th are amon! the readership of this internationa% scho%ar% 7ourna% devoted to a theoretica% and empirica% understandin! of the socia% processes that inf%uence the wa s in which ris$s are ta$en# communicated# assessed# and mana!ed in re%ationship to hea%th and hea%th care' Pu&%ished 1uarter% & Ta %or and ?rancis Jroup 0td'# the 7ourna% we%comes contri&utions from a variet of socia% sciences discip%ines that e4amine the issues of ris$ within hea%th and hea%th care# inc%udin! economics# socio%o! # ps cho%o! # and mana!ement' 3u&mission of artic%es that e4p%ore the wa s in which ris$ was hand%ed at a variet of %eve%s--that is# in the communit # within various or!ani"ations# and at nationa% and supranationa% %eve%s--is encoura!ed' httpA//www'tandf'co'u$/7ourna%s/tit%es/*3296555'asp 2'3'5'9 ,uman and Eco%o!ica% (is$ +ssessment Journa% "uman and /colo ical Risk #ssessment is the first 7ourna% devoted to providin! a framewor$ for professiona%s researchin! and assessin! deve%opments in &oth human and eco%o!ica% ris$ assessment' The 7ourna% was created to enhance the communication and cooperation of professiona%s wor$in! on human ris$ assessment with those in the eco%o!ica% ris$ assessment domain' Jiven the rapid deve%opment in these respective discip%ines and their uni1ue potentia% inter-re%atedness# efforts to direct% enhance technica% information transfer wi%% mar$ed% &enefit each fie%d' The 7ourna% is a &imonth% # internationa%# peerreviewed pu&%ication focusin! on scientific and technica% information and critica% ana% sis' http$%%www&crcpress&com%c i0in%scart&c i1 store2wrisk3catalo 245657589 2'3'5'*0 +ournal of the #merican .edical #ssociation <J+)+=

-,

This internationa% peer-reviewed !enera% medica% 7ourna%# which &e!an pu&%ication in *663# promotes the science and art of medicine and the &etterment of the pu&%ic hea%th' + search of the J+)+ we& wi%% produce man references to hea%th-re%ated ris$# such as the topica% .cto&er 25# *999# issue on o&esit research that inc%udes information on re%ated disease ris$s' http$%%'ama&ama0assn&or % 2'3'5'** Journa% of the Dationa% Cancer :nstitute The +ournal of the :ational Cancer -nstitute( which inc%udes news artic%es# a&stracts of reports# ca%endar of events# and 7o& openin!s# is pu&%ished twice a month and is avai%a&%e on %ine & su&scription' The 7ourna%Qs ta&%e of contents and a&stracts are avai%a&%e without char!e' http$%%'nci&oup'ournals&or % 2'3'5'*2 To4ico%o!ica% 3ciences .ne of the 3ociet of To4ico%o! Qs officia% 7ourna%s and fu%% owned and financed & the societ # ;o<icolo ical Sciences pu&%ishes research artic%es *2 times a ear that are &road% re%evant to assessin! the potentia% adverse hea%th effects resu%tin! from e4posure of human or anima%s to chemica%s# dru!s# natura% products# or s nthetic materia%s' )anuscripts are pu&%ished in a%% areas of to4ico%o! # &oth descriptive and mechanistic# as we%% as interpretive or theoretica% investi!ations that e%ucidate the ris$ assessment imp%ications of e4posure to to4ic a!ents a%one or in com&ination' >e!innin! Januar *# *999# ;o<icolo ical Sciences &ecame avai%a&%e on %ine free to the pu&%ic and is pu&%ished & .4ford Hniversit Press' http$%%to<sci&oup'ournals&or %

2'3'2 .3,+ <.ccupationa% 3afet pu&%ication and safet a%erts

K ,a"ard +dministration=

)ore than three decades a!o# the !ccupational Safety and "ealth #ct of 4975 created the .ccupationa% 3afet and ,ea%th +dministration to he%p emp%o ers and emp%o ees reduce in7uries# i%%nesses# and deaths on the 7o& in +merica' 3ince then# wor$p%ace fata%ities have &een cut & 22 percent and occupationa% in7ur and i%%ness rates have dec%ined /0 percent' +t the same time# H'3' emp%o ment has dou&%ed and now inc%udes near% **5 mi%%ion wor$ers at 5 mi%%ion sites'

--

.3,+ provides nationa% %eadership in occupationa% safet and hea%th' The a!enc see$s to find and share the most effective wa s to !et resu%tsMto save %ives and prevent in7uries and i%%nesses' The messa!e is simp%eM3afet and hea%th add va%ueA to our &usiness# to our wor$p%ace# and to our %ife' ?or &usiness# protectin! wor$ers@ safet and hea%th is the ri!ht thin! to do' :t saves mone and adds va%ue to the or!ani"ation' Ehen wor$ers sta who%e and hea%th # &usinesses e4perience %ower wor$ers@ compensation insurance costs# reduced medica% e4penditures# decreased pa out for return-to-wor$ pro!rams# fewer fau%t products# and %ower costs for 7o& accommodations for in7ured wor$ers' There are a%so indirect &enefits such as increased productivit # %ower costs for trainin! rep%acement wor$ers# and decreased costs for overtime' Ever wor$p%ace is a communit ' 3afet and hea%th add va%ue to wor$p%aces & increasin! mora%e# improvin! productivit # and reducin! turnover' The &est companies &ui%d a reputation that is s non mous not on% with an e4ce%%ent product# &ut a%so an outstandin! wor$ environment where safet and hea%th is a core va%ue' Ever emp%o ee &enefits when safet and hea%th is a priorit at the wor$p%ace' Ever wor$er wants to ma$e a contri&ution throu!h his or her 7o&# et the primar purpose of wor$ is to ma$e a %ivin!' 3afet and hea%th add va%ue to the %ives of wor$ers & ena&%in! them to maintain their incomes and provide for their fami%ies' Jettin! hurt or sic$ is not 7ust ph sica%% painfu%' .n-the-7o& in7uries and i%%nesses can si!nificant% reduce income# increase stress# and hinder a fu%% fami% %ife' Esta&%ishin! a safe and hea%thfu% wor$in! environment re1uires ever emp%o er and ever wor$er to ma$e safet and hea%th a top priorit ' The entire wor$forceMfrom the CE. to the most recent hireMmust reco!ni"e the va%ue of safet and hea%th and ac$now%ed!e that this is centra% to the mission and $e to the corporate vision and identit ' .3,+ provides %eadership and encoura!ement to emp%o ers and wor$ers to he%p them reco!ni"e and rea%i"e the va%ue of safet and hea%th on the 7o&' The a!enc @s u%timate !oa% wi%% a%wa s &e to reduce in7uries# i%%nesses# and deaths to "ero' 2'3'2'* .3,+Qs histor and purpose

-.

.3,+ stands for the .ccupationa% 3afet and ,ea%th +dministration# an a!enc of the H'3' Department of 0a&or' The H'3' Con!ress passed the !ccupational Safety and "ealth #ct of 4975 <the !S" #ct=* 8Uto assure so far as possi&%e ever wor$in! man and woman in the nation safe and hea%thfu% wor$in! conditions and to preserve our human resources'9 The %e!is%ation# si!ned into %aw & President (ichard )' Di4on on Dec' 29# *950# esta&%ished .3,+ and its so%e responsi&i%it to provide wor$er safet and hea%th protection' Dear% ever one in +merica wor$s or has someone in the immediate fami% who does' Ehether ou are an emp%o er# emp%o ee# or have a fami% mem&er who wor$s# ou need to $now a&out .3,+' The more ou $now a&out .3,+# the &etter ou can protect ourse%f# our cowor$ers# or our emp%o ees and contri&ute to safe and hea%thfu% wor$in! conditions for a%% +mericans' 2'3'2'2 Ehat .3,+ doesF .3,+ uses three &asic strate!ies# authori"ed & the !ccupational Safety and "ealth #ct( to he%p emp%o ers and emp%o ees reduce in7uries# i%%nesses# and deaths on the 7o&A 3tron!# fair# and effective enforcement; .utreach# education# and comp%iance assistance; and Partnerships and other cooperative pro!rams' >ased on these strate!ies# .3,+ conducts a wide ran!e of pro!rams and activities to promote wor$p%ace safet and hea%th' The a!enc A Encoura!es emp%o ers and emp%o ees to reduce wor$p%ace ha"ards and to imp%ement new safet and hea%th mana!ement s stems or improve e4istin! pro!rams; Deve%ops mandator 7o& safet and hea%th standards and enforces them throu!h wor$site inspections# emp%o er assistance# and# sometimes# & imposin! citations# pena%ties# or &oth; Promotes safe and hea%thfu% wor$ environments throu!h cooperative pro!rams# partnerships# and a%%iances; Esta&%ishes responsi&i%ities and ri!hts for emp%o ers and emp%o ees to achieve &etter safet and hea%th conditions; 3upports the deve%opment of innovative wa s of dea%in! with wor$p%ace ha"ards; )aintains a reportin! and record$eepin! s stem to monitor 7o&re%ated in7uries and i%%nesses;

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 Esta&%ishes trainin! pro!rams to increase the competence of occupationa% safet and hea%th personne%; Provides technica% and comp%iance assistance and trainin! and education to he%p emp%o ers reduce wor$er accidents and in7uries; Eor$s in partnership with states that operate their own occupationa% safet and hea%th pro!rams; and 3upports the Consu%tation 3ervice' ===-osha-gov 2'3'2'3 Eho is not coveredF The !S" #ct does not coverA The se%f-emp%o ed; :mmediate mem&ers of farmin! fami%ies on farms that do not emp%o outside wor$ers; Emp%o ees whose wor$in! conditions are re!u%ated & other federa% a!encies under other federa% statutes' These inc%ude mine wor$ers# certain truc$ers and transportation wor$ers# and atomic ener! wor$ers; Pu&%ic emp%o ees in state and %oca% !overnments; some states have their own occupationa% safet and hea%th p%ans that cover these wor$ers' ?or more information visit httpA//www'osha'!ov or httpA//www'osha'!ov/Pu&%ications/osha2052'pdfVsearchBQa&out L20.3,+Q

2'3'5 )anufacturers instruction &oo$s

)anufactures instruction &oo$s often provide advice and warnin!s re!ardin! safet and hea%th issues' :t is important to ensure a%% instructions are understood and more important% # fo%%owed & a%% emp%o ees' )anufacturers information# inc%udin! materia% safet data sheets# shou%d a%wa s &e reviewed to ensure the products in use are the safest avai%a&%e and do not have hidden ha"ards' Ask " what if ..? :t is important to tr to anticipate how human &ehavior# p%ant# and s stem fai%ure cou%d com&ine to create a ha"ardous situation' Constant% as$ ourse%f' Ehat if UUU'F

-2

2'3'6 3amp%e inspection wor$sheet

+%wa s note detai%s of the ha"ard onto a wor$sheet' Deve%opment of a ph sica% ha"ard %ist is ver important as this forms the &asis for the ne4t step of the process' There are no standard formats used to record the data and so the fo%%owin! e4amp%e wor$sheet# Ta&%es 2 K 3 are on% for reference and ma need modification to suit nature of individua% pro7ects'

Table 2: 'ample inspection <orksheet 'ompan"8 #rinting :nspection wor$ sheet Do'* :nspected & A DateA #lant 0ar!e paper !ui%%otine Site ; location

/a9ard and source Crush from paper ho%din! &ar +mputation from &%ade due toA +ccess to &%ade from rear 3afet %atch fai%ure E%ectronic &eam not fai%in! to safet

'omments .perator and casua% passes-& need protection

:ndustria% %ift truc$

Cou%d trip over or %ose %oad Hsua%% received pa%%et if over%oaded %oads within capacit # &ut heavier %oads than the truc$s capacit arrive occasiona%% :f raised a&ove mast hei!ht ?itted with overhead %oad cou%d fa%% on operator protection Person cou%d &e struc$ Truc$ re!u%ar% T and crushed & %ift truc$ operates near operations on &indin! %ine
-3

(ear turnin! whee%s cou%d run over and crush a persons foot

Two peop%e have previous% had their feet run over whi%e ta%$in! to driver

Table ,: 'ample inspection of pi;;a shop 'ompan"8 #i99a shop :nspection wor$ sheet Do'* :nspected & A DateA #lant Pi""a oven E%ectric $nife E%ectric meat s%ic$er Site ; location

/a9ard and source Possi&%e &ums when ta$in! food out' Possi&%e e%ectrocution form cuttin! cord Possi&%e e%ectrocution Cuttin! ha"ard

'omments ,as happened fre1uent% ' 3hou%d use !%oves' Cou%d connect throu!h remote contro%%ed device <(CD= Hse (CDA test re!u%ar% Hse stee% mesh cuttin! !%oveK safe wor$ practices'

2'/ (is$ E4amp%es in Pictures

Pision is the most effective sense for peop%e to memori"e and remem&er thin!s' Therefore# here &e%ow are some ris$ pictures that ena&%es the student to &e fami%iar with dai% and operationa% ris$'

-4

+igure 1,: 'lipping or tripping at <ork

+igure 1-: Getting into contact <ith ha;ardous material ?asbestos, fumes, etc. @

+igure 1.: #erforming <ork at height

.6

+igure 1/: 9andling, transporting or supporting loads <hile suffering from sprains, strains, or pains

+igure 12: 9aving long exposure to computers or other display screen eEuipment

+igure 13: Corking at a noisy place: causes hearing loss or deafness.

.1

+igure 14: #redictable or unpredictable, controlled or uncontrolled risk associated <ith natural or climate phenomena.

+igure 26: 5eing exposed to vibration Hsin! hand powered hand too%s# e1uipment or processes causin! handarm vi&ration s ndrome that impair &%ood circu%ation# dama!e to the nerves and musc%es# and of a&i%it to !rip thin!s proper% ' Ta&%e / shows the ma4imum time to &e e4posed to sound dependin! on the sound intensit ' Ta&%e 5 shows the action and the correspondin! sound %eve% for each action' :t is c%ear that peop%e wor$s in a ver nois factor has to use ear protectors if the wor$ed more than 6 hours per da ' +%so# peop%e wor$s in an airport have to use ear protector a%% the time to save their hearin! nerves' Table -: (aximum daily duration per day for sound levels Duration per Da" /ours 6 2
.2

Sound $evel dB 90 92

/ 2 * 3// */2 *//

95 *00 *05 *05 **0 **5

Table .: ction and corresponding sound level .ction 0eaves rust%in! Ehispers Guiet (adio Conversation >us Traffic Per Dois ?actor 0oud (oc$ >and Thresho%d of pain Jet airp%ane from 30 m Sound level dB *0 20 /0 20 50 90 **0 *20 */0

+igure 21: Getting hurt by electricity

.,

+igure 22: Aeglecting maintenance or doing unsafe maintenance <ork

+igure 2,: :mproper selection of <ork eEuipment

+igure 2-: "isks resulting from transport, road traffic, road conditions

.-

+igure 2.: "isk associated <ith pressure systems

+igure 2/: "isks resulting from fire or explosions or use or storage of explosive materials or chemicals (is$s due to radioactive materia%sA Non:ioni9ing radiation <u%travio%et radiations from the sun= can dama!e s$in# %aser <can cause &urns and dama!e e es=; Ioni9ing radiations natura%% occurrin! radiations from radon !as or radiations from radio!raph or thic$ness measurin! !au!es ?ee%in! stressed & wor$ <adverse reaction peop%e have to e4cessive pressure or other t pes of demand p%aced on them=' 3tress is identified & definin! the ha"ard &ehind it'

..

+igure 22: +eeling stressed by <ork

2'5 Common (is$s +ssociated with Dew Pro7ect

The fo%%owin! %ists common ris$s that most pro7ects wi%% encounter; the form a startin! point for deve%opin! a cata%o! of ris$s' ,owever# the %ist is not e4haustive; most pro7ect mana!ers wi%% find severa% more ris$s that the can add# and pro7ect e4perience wi%% tend to increase this num&er' Ehen ou are assessin! the ris$s for our pro7ects# a%wa s refer to a %ist such as this' .therwise# ou run the pro7ect mana!ement ris$ that not a%% pro7ect ris$s are identified'

=&5.1 Staff risks

Ie staff wi%% not &e avai%a&%e when needed' Ie s$i%% sets wi%% not &e avai%a&%e when needed' 3taff wi%% &e %ost durin! the pro7ect'

=&5.2 Equipment risks

(e1uired e1uipment wi%% not &e de%ivered on time# +ccess to hardware wi%% &e restricted' E1uipment wi%% fai%'

=&5.3

!ient risks

C%ient resources wi%% not &e made avai%a&%e as re1uired'

./

 C%ient staff wi%% not reach decisions in a time% manner' De%ivera&%es wi%% not &e reviewed accordin! to the schedu%e' Inow%ed!ea&%e c%ient staff wi%% &e rep%aced & those %ess 1ua%ified'

=&5." Sc#pe risks

(e1uirements for additiona% effort wi%% surface' Chan!es of scope wi%% &e deemed to &e inc%uded in the pro7ect' 3cope chan!es wi%% &e introduced without the $now%ed!e of pro7ect mana!ement'

=&5.5 $echn#!#%& risks

The techno%o! wi%% have technica% or performance %imitations that endan!er the pro7ect' Techno%o! components wi%% not &e easi% inte!rated' The techno%o! is new and poor% understood'

=&5.' (e!i)er& risks

3 stem response time wi%% not &e ade1uate' 3 stem capacit re1uirements wi%% e4ceed avai%a&%e capacit ' The s stem wi%% fai% to meet functiona% re1uirements

=&5.* +h&sica! risks

The office wi%% &e dama!ed & fire# f%ood# or other catastrophe + computer virus wi%% infect the deve%opment s stem' + team mem&er wi%% stea% confidentia% materia% and ma$e it avai%a&%e to competitors of the c%ient' Contaminants ori!inates from wor$ operations

.2

2'5'6 Po%itica% ris$

Jovernmenta% intervention :nf%ationar /def%ationar po%ices Chan!es in %e!is%ation# sanctions

2'4-3 Financial ris(

:nade1uate inf%ation forecasts :ncorrect mar$etin! decision +vai%a&i%it of mone on time

2'5'*0 Environmenta% ris$

Eor$ and surroundin! environment Environmenta% re!u%ation Table /: 'ome of the physical risks originates from <ork operations #rocess ,"pes /ot operations Ee%din! Chemica% reactions 3o%derin! )e%tin! >urnin! $iquid operations Paintin! De!reasin! C%eanin! Shaping operations 'ontaminant ,"pe Jases <!= Particu%ates <p= <dusts# fumes# mists= 'ontaminant EBamples Chromates <p= -inc# )an!anese and compounds <p= Car&on mono4ide <!= ?%uorides <p= Pin % ch%oride <!= >en"ene <v= 3u%furic acid <m= , dro!en ch%oride <!=

Papors <v= Jases <!= )ists <m=

.3

Cuttin! Jrindin! Dri%%in!

Dusts <d=

+s&estos Hranium -inc

Therefore# it is ver essentia% for wor$ p%aces or pro7ects to identif ha"ards and ris$s as a first step in ris$ assessment process' The fo%%owin! chapter show in detai%s the methods used to identif ha"ards for ris$ assessment procedures'

.4

'hapter 1 Identification of Ris(s

The techni1ues for identif in! ,a"ards and (is$s - for findin! out what t pes of ha"ards e4ist in a certain p%ant- are often confused with the methods and techni1ues for ris$ ana% sis; the fo%%owin! fi!ure represents the difference &etween the two cate!ories' The %eft-hand side of the fi!ure shows methods of ris$ and ha"ard identifications# whi%e the ri!ht hand side shows methods of ris$ ana% sis' The traditiona% methods for identification of ha"ards was to &ui%d up <or to di! down= the p%ant and see what happens# unti% an error or a ris$ occurs# we can sa that we didnQt $now that the ris$ e4ists' This is not a &ad method if the si"e of the accident is %imited# &ut it is not satisfactor when the %imits of the accidents are ver wide'
0bvious 'ee Chat 9appens )heck 1ists #" +(&) 9 B0# etc. 0bvious &xperience

":'=

+ault Trees (arkov )hains #&T": Aet<ork Aet<ork nalysis 'imulation

+igure 23: :dentification and analysis of risk Chec$ %ists are often used to identif ha"ards &ut their disadvanta!e is that items# which are not on the %ist# are not mentioned and our minds are c%osed to what is on the %ist' :ndeed# chec$%ists ma &e satisfactor if there is %itt%e or no innovation of ris$s and a%% the ha"ards have &een met &efore'

/6

?or this reason the process industries have come to prefer the more creative or open-ended techni1ue such as ,+-.P and ?)EC+' +fter we have identified the ha"ards# we have to decide how far to !o in removin! them or protectin! peop%e and propert ' 3ome of the methods used are %isted on the ri!ht hand side of ?i!ure 26' 3ometimes there is a cheap and o&vious wa of removin! the ha"ard# and sometimes it is %ess eas to decide' Ee can then tr to wor$ the pro&a&i%it of an accident and the e4tent of the conse1uences and compare them with a tar!et or criterion'

3'* Pre%iminar (is$ +na% sis <P(+=

The Pre%iminar (is$ +na% sis is a practica% method for the ana% sis of the dan!erous e%ements of a s stem; it consists of a ta&%e of e%ements associated with the impact of each e%ement on the s stem# as a sort of %istin!# or chec$ ta&%es# Ta&%e 5' Table 2: #"
3 stem or su&s stem (estaurants Phase ?ood preparation Dan!erous e%ements .i% .ven ,eaters Events causes dan!erous situation Contact &etween oi% and heat source Dan!erous situation >e!innin! of fire Events causes potentia% accidents Do e4tin!uisher Potentia% accidents ?ire Conse1uences Comp%ete destruction of the restaurant Jravit Per hi!h Preventati ve measures 3prin$%es and fire e4tin!uish er

The main aim of the method is to identif the different dan!erous materia%s presented in the s stem and to watch out for a%% e%ements# their capa&i%it of initiatin! an accident accordin! to their e4istence or mistreatin!' :n order to identif the dan!erous e%ements and the dan!erous situations# the ana% st is he%ped & chec$%ists of these e%ements or their dan!erous situations' These chec$%ists shou%d &e adapted for each case and made accordin! to simi%ar situations or in a wa that serves the re1uired stud or the re1uired ana% sis' The Co%umns of Jravit and Conse1uences# !ive the ana% st the chance to %ist hierarchica%% the ris$s encountered in site# whi%e the co%umns Preventative )easures and +pp%ication of )easurements# and drive the wa for prediction and detection of the ris$s in order to &e minimi"ed or e%iminated' These co%umns indicate the measures se%ected in specific sites in order to show out their capacit of their efficienc in the s stem'
/1

This stud # as the name sa s# permits the ana% st to have a pre%iminar view of the ris$s and the dan!erous situations e4istin! in the s stem' :ts o&7ective main% is the %istin! of the &i! pro&%ems encountered in the s stem without the detai%s of each ris$' This ana% sis is usua%% fo%%owed & another t pe of ris$ identification actin! as a midd%e wa &etween no identifications and a detai%ed identification of ris$s at a certain site'

3'2 ?ai%ure )odes# Effect and Critica%it +na% sis <?)EC+=

Dated ear%ier in the *920Qs in the aeronautics industr # the method of ?)EC+ had &een app%ied successfu%% in the nuc%ear# chemica%# and the petro%eum industr ' ?or the time &ein!# it is the method most% app%ied in a%% industries for the identifications of ris$s' :ts success re%ies on the ease of use that necessitates a !ood $now%ed!e of its theor and manipu%ations' The method of ?)EC+# consider s stematica%% # each one of the components of the s stem in terms of operatin! modes and modes of fai%ure' Causes of these fai%ures are %isted# the conse1uences of each fai%ure on the s stem# the environmenta% impact# etc' :n order to comp%ete the stud # two other factors are added which are the Pro&a&i%it and the Jravit of each mode of fai%ure# so this com&ination ma$es it possi&%e to ana% "e critica%% the mode of fai%ure and the component<s= associated with it' :f the s stem has a ver &i! num&er of components# a !%o&a% ?)EC+ is made and after# each component of the !%o&a% stud wi%% &e studied in detai%s and so on'

3'2'* .&7ectives and domains of app%ications

The ?)EC+ is a too% for the prevention of accidents; it is used !enera%% at the sta!e of desi!n of a new process' :n !enera%# we can reco!ni"e two t pes of this stud A ?)EC+ in )anufacturin!' ?)EC+ in Processin!' The ?)EC+ in manufacturin! is concentrated on the optimi"ation of the re%ia&i%it ' :t is !enera%% &ased on historica% data# and it permits the
/2

desi!ner to define the actions necessar and the dan!ers surroundin! this t pe of desi!n' The ?)EC+ in processin! serves as a method ofA )eans of production <machines# production %ines# etc'=' The se1uence of the operation of production# either manua%% or automatica%% of a certain product# treatment of information# etc' The method of ?)EC+ is a techni1ue that eases the critica% e4amination of the pro7ected process# it ana% ses the 1uantit and the 1ua%it of the process with the estimation of its critica%it and it is accomp%ished at the sta!e of desi!n and a%on! the %ine of production' +t the sta!e of the stud # the ris$ associated with the used techno%o! mi!ht &e 1uantified' :t is assumed that the ana% sis is revised in the phase of production and the e4p%oitation of the product' The stud is made throu!hout the process of )anufacturin! in its different sta!es'

3'2'2 Preparation for the stud and the methodo%o! of ana% sis
?or the preparation of the stud # certain steps has to &e made in order to start# these different steps are shown in ?i!ure 22'

/,

Desi!n Pro7ect

(e!u%ar (e1uest of the +na% sis

Definition of the .&7ectives

E4amp%eA W :mprovin! the (e%ia&i%it W :mprovin! the +vai%a&i%it

Team Eor$

?rom different Domains

Path# Duration# and De%a of the +na% sis

X3 )onths

Decomposition of the Process

W Definition of Each process W Decomposition into 3u&-processes

Co%%ection of Data

W Data >an$s W Production ?i%es of 3imi%ar Pro7ects

+na% sis

+igure 24: #reparation of the analysis

/-

3'3 ,+-.P
?or certain procedures# and in particu%ar# in the industr that invo%ves the production of the usa!e of chemica% products# the P(+ is not suita&%e# and it is prefera&%e to ma$e what is ca%%ed# the inf%uence of deviations with respect to nomina% va%ues' These different deviations in ph sica% parameters# !uide the stud of the ,+-.P'

3'3'* Ehat is ,+-.PF

+s &een mentioned &efore# ,+-.P is a method of ris$ identification; it is the a&&reviation to ,+-ard and .Pera&i%it stud ' :t is the method recommended for the identification of ris$s and ha"ards# which prevent efficient operation' ,+-.P is a techni1ue which provides opportunities for peop%e to %et their ima!inations !o free and thin$ of a%% possi&%e wa s in which ha"ards and operatin! pro&%ems mi!ht arise &ut# to reduce the chance that there is somethin! that is for!otten# it is done s stematica%% ' Each path and each sort of ha"ard is &ein! considered in turn' The stud is carried out & a team so that the can stimu%ate each other and &ui%d upon each otherQs ideas' + path for this purpose# is one 7oinin! two main items# for e4amp%e# we mi!ht start with the %ine %eadin! from the feed tan$ throu!h the feed pump to the first feed heater' + !uide series of $e words are app%ied to this %ine in turn' These !uide words areA D.DE ).(E .? 0E33 .? P+(T .? ).(E T,+D .T,E( T,+D

D.DE for e4amp%e# means an forward f%ow or reverse f%ow when there shou%d &e forward f%ow# so we as$A Cou%d there &e no f%owF :f so# how cou%d it ariseF Ehat are the conse1uences of no f%owF +re the conse1uences ha"ardous or do the prevent efficient operationF :f so# can we prevent no f%ow & chan!in! the desi!nF
/.

These 1uestions are t pica% 1uestions in the case of the !uide word D.DE# simi%ar 1uestions cou%d &e as$ed in case of ).(E .?# and so on for a%% !uide words' Table 3: Deviation generated by each guide <ord D.DE Do forward f%ow when there shou%d &e# :'e' no f%ow or reverse f%ow ).(E .? )ore of an re%evant ph sica% propert than there shou%d &e# e'!' hi!her f%ow# hi!her temperature# hi!her pressure# etc' 0E33 .? 0ess of an re%evant ph sica% propert than there shou%d &e# e'!' %ower f%ow# %ower temperature# %ower pressure# etc' P+(T .? Part of composition of s stem different from what it shou%d &e# e'!' chan!e in ratio of components# component missin!# etc' ).(E T,+D )ore components present in the s stem than shou%d &e# e'!' e4tra phase# impurities# etc' .T,E( Ehat e%se can happen apart from norma% T,+D operation# e'!' upratin!# %ow rate# maintenance# etc' Ta&%e 6 e4p%ains the main deviations associated with each !uideword# whi%e ?i!ure 30 shows the f%ow chart of the method in !enera%' The !uides word .T,E( T,+D is app%ied after a%% other !uide words and it means other t pes of pro&%ems that cou%d arise in mind and hasnQt &een mentioned & an other !uide word' :n !enera%# it@s the other causes of ha"ards that haven@t &een mentioned et'

//

3tart

3e%ec t Deviation# e'!' more f%ow

)ove on to another deviation

Do

:s more f%ow possi&%eF Yes

:s it ,a"ardeousF Yes Ehat c han!e wi%% te%% himF

Do

Consider other c auses of more f%ow

Do

Ei%% the .perator $nowF Yes Ehat c han!e in P%ant or in method wi%% prevent the deviation or stop its c onse1uenc es

:s the c ost 7ustifiedF Yes +!ree c han!e<s=

Do

Consider other c han!es or a!ree to ac c ept ha"ard

?o%%ow up to verif ac tion

End Fig.1. Flow chart of the method HAZOP

+igure ,6: +lo< chart of the method 9 B0#

/2

3'3'2 Ehen is a ,+-.P Carried .utF

+ ,+-.P cannot &e carried out &efore the %ine dia!ram of the process is comp%eted <process and instrumentation f%ow dia!ram=' :t shou%d &e carried out as soon as possi&%e thereafter' :f an e4istin! p%ant is &ein! studied# the first step is to &rin! the %ine dia!ram up-to-date or chec$s that it is up-to-date' Carr in! out a ,+-.P on an incorrect %ine dia!ram is use%ess' The ,+-.P on a %ar!e pro7ect ma ta$e severa% months even with 2 or 3 teams wor$in! in para%%e% on different sections of the p%ant' :t is thus necessar to eitherA ,o%d up detai%ed desi!n and construction unti% the ,+-.P is comp%ete or# +%%ow detai%ed desi!n and construction to !o ahead and havin! the ris$ of modif in! the detai%ed desi!n or even a%ter the p%ant when the resu%ts of the ,+-.P are $nown'

3'3'3 3ome Points to Eatch durin! ,+-.P

:t is possi&%e for a team to !et carried awa & enthusiasm and insta%% e4pensive e1uipment to !uard a!ainst un%i$e% ha"ards' The team %eader can counter this & as$in! how often the ha"ard wi%% occur and how serious the conse1uences wi%% &e' 3ometimes he ma su!!est a fu%% ha"ard ana% sis# &ut more often he can &rin! a pro&%em into perspective & 7ust 1uotin! a few fi!ures or as$in! a team mem&er to do so' The team consists main% of en!ineers# the %i$e hardware so%utions# &ut sometimes a hardware so%ution is impossi&%e or too e4pensive and we have to ma$e a chan!e in methods or improve the trainin! of the operators' 3o so%utions are most% %i$e to &e throu!h either hardware chan!es# or software chan!es# which is usua%% %ess e4pensive' :n man p%ants# the ,+-.P is considered unsuita&%e for sma%% modifications' :t is difficu%t to assem&%e a ,+-.P team for ever chan!e of a va%ve' ,owever# man accidents have occurred &ecause sma%% modifications had unforeseen side effects' The shou%d &e thorou!h% pro&ed &efore the are authori"ed' )an t pes of !uide sheets are avai%a&%e for he%pin! peop%e to do so'

/3

+ ,+-.P is not a su&stitute for $now%ed!e and e4perience' :t is not an oven that consumes %ine dia!rams and produces %ists of modifications' :t is mere% harnesses the $now%ed!e and e4perience of the team in a s stematic and concerted wa ' >ecause the desi!ns are so comp%icated# the team cannot app% their $now%ed!e and e4perience without this scratch for their thin$in!' :f the team %ac$s $now%ed!e and e4perience# the ,+-.P wi%% produce nothin! worthwhi%e' Ta&%e 9 shows a sma%% e4amp%e of the app%ication of ,+-.P throu!h a chec$%ist' Table 4: 9 B0#
E%ement Dame .ven E%ement ?unction Coo$in! Dan!erous Deviation ,i!h Temperature Possi&%e Cause Defected thermostat Conse1uences ?ire )ethod of Detection +%arm Person Corrective +ction 3top and reparation .&servation

3'/ Ehat is (is$ +ssessmentF

+ ris$ assessment is nothin! more than a carefu% e4amination of what# in our wor$# cou%d cause harm to peop%e# so that ou can wei!h up whether ou have ta$en enou!h precautions or shou%d do more to prevent harm' The aim is to ma$e sure that no one !ets hurt or &ecomes i%%' +ccidents and i%% hea%th can ruin %ives# and affect our &usiness too if output is %ost# machiner is dama!ed# insurance costs increase# or ou have to !o to court' You are %e!a%% re1uired to assess the ris$s' The important thin!s are whether a ha"ard is si!nificant# and whether ou have it covered & satisfactor precautions so that the ris$ is sma%%' You need to chec$ this when ou assess the ris$s' ?or instance# e%ectricit can $i%% &ut the ris$ of it doin! so in an office environment is remote# provided that N%ive@ components are insu%ated and meta% casin!s proper% earthed (is$ assessment is the process of eva%uatin! a ha"ard to determine the %eve% of action re1uired to reduce a ris$ to an accepta&%e %eve%' Ehen eva%uatin! the ris$s imposed & a ha"ard one shou%d consider &oth the %i$e%ihood and conse1uences of the event happin!' Jud!in! how %i$e% it is that somethin! wi%% happen or what its potentia% conse1uences mi!ht &e is %i$e predictin! the future' You cannot &e ra%% sure; ou can ma$e a S&est estimateS on the &asis of the information avai%a&%e' >ecause it is so unpredicta&%e it is &etter to &e conservative in our 7ud!ment'

/4

3'/'* 0i$e%ihood
This is defined as the chance of an event actua%% occurrin!' :n the conte4t of ris$ mana!ement the event referred to is an event# which ma cause in7ur or harm to a person' Ehen ma$in! an assessment of %i$e%ihood# ou must esta&%ish which of the fo%%owin! cate!ories most c%ose% descri&es the %i$e%ihood of the ha"ardous event occurrin!' Per %i$e% 0i$e% Hn%i$e% ,i!h% un%i$e% cou%d happen fre1uent% cou%d happen occasiona%% cou%d happen# &ut on% rare% cou%d happen &ut pro&a&% never wi%%

Ehen eva%uatin! the %i$e%ihood of an accident# a factor that wi%% modif the %i$e%ihood cate!or # is e4posure' E4posure is a measure of how often or how %on! a person is actua%% e4posed to a ha"ard' 3ome e4amp%es areA Per rare one per ear or %ess (are a few times per ear Hnusua% one per month .ccasiona% once per wee$ ?re1uent dai% Continuous constant :t is a common mista$e to p%ace too much emphasis on the miti!atin! effects of a %ow e4posure %eve%' Just &ecause a person is not e4posed to a ha"ard ver often# does not a%wa s mean we can ta$e fewer precautions' The certaint or %i$e%ihood of an accident happenin! is more important than how often a person is e4pected to a ha"ard' ?i!ures 3* and 32 show the de!ree of two t pes of pro&a&i%it sca%es used in ris$ assessment EBample + power press is a common machine in a wor$shop' :n essence the stored ener! in a rotatin! f% whee% is instantaneous% connected to a cran$shaft# via a $e ' The cran$shaft drives a ram from its restin! position at the top of its stro$e# down to the &ottom of its stro$e# where it punches a ho%e in a piece of meta% ca%%ed a &%an$' Ehen the ram has
26

comp%eted its punchin! operation on the &%an$# it returns to its restin!p%ace at the top of the stro$e' The operator removes the &%an$ and rep%aces it with a new &%an$' Description 'ertain >er" $i(el" $i(el" )a" /appen !nli(el" $i(elihood 4 ? 1 5 7

+igure ,1: +ive degree probability ?likelihood@ scale Description 'ertain $i(el" )a" /appen !nli(el" $i(elihood ? 1 5 7

+igure ,2: +our degree probability ?likelihood@ scale The desi!n of the machine is such that if a fau%t deve%ops in the $e # the press wi%% une4pected% operate and comp%ete a stro$e' :f at this point in time the operator has his fin!ers under the ram whi%st chan!in! the &%an$# the norma% resu%t is a serve crush or amputation in7ur ' The operator wou%d e4pect to have his fin!ers in the dan!er "one for on% a sp%it second each time the press c c%es' There are no !uards or devices that can prevent the machine from c c%in! once a $e fau%t has
21

deve%oped' Jood maintenance wi%% reduce the num&er of $e fau%ts happenin! &ut the can never e%iminate them tota%% ' ?or this e4amp%e %et@s assume that maintenance has reduced the ris$ of the press ma%functionin! to once in 5 mi%%ion operations' +t first !%ance it seems we need to do nothin! further to reduce the ris$' C%oser e4amination wi%% revea% that operators of presses often e4ceed 20 operations per minute' Hsin! 20 operations per minute for this e4amp%e and * fau%t ever 5 mi%%ion operations we fined thatA 20 operation/min 4 20 min/hour 4 6 hrs/da 4 5 da s/wee$ 4 3/'52 wee$s B 5 mi%%ion operations' This indicates that a press operator is at ris$ of havin! an accident ever 3/'52 wee$s' The e4posure to ris$ is Sver rareS however the S%i$e%ihoodS of the accident happenin! is a%most certain if a $e fau%t deve%ops' Contro% measures must &e put in p%ace to reduce the %i$e%ihood of this accident occurrin! &ecause it is unaccepta&%e for an or!ani"ation to have a serious accident ever 3/ wee$s' The %ocation of a ha"ard can affect the %i$e%ihood of the accident happenin!' ?or e4amp%e# an e4posed P &e%t drive %ocated ad7acent to a wa%$wa where persons cou%d easi% come into contact with the nip points wou%d have a hi!her %i$e%ihood ratin! than if the same drive arran!ement were %ocated in a position form which persons were %ocated in a position from which persons were e4c%uded' Ehen we assess S%i$e%ihoodS it shou%d &e remem&ered we are on% assessin! the possi&i%it of an accident happenin!' +s part of our assessment of %i$e%ihood we must ta$e into consideration how often and for how %on! the person is at ris$# however this is of %esser importance than the certaint of an accident occurrin!'

3'/'2 Conse1uences
Conse1uences is a measure of the e4pected severit shou%d an accident occur' Ehen assessin! the conse1uences of an accident# the most severe cate!or one cou%d reasona&% e4pect to resu%t from that accident shou%d &e se%ected' The conse1uences of an event can &e cate!ori"ed as fo%%owsA

22

?ata% )a7or :n7uries )inor De!%i!i&%e in7uries

death norma%% irreversi&%e in7ur of dama!e to hea%th re1uirin! e4tended time off wor$ to effect &est recover ' t pica%% a reversi&%e in7ur or dama!e to hea%th needin! severa% da s awa from wor$ to recover' (ecover wou%d &e fu%% and permanent' wou%d re1uire first aid and ma need the emained of the wor$ period or shift off &efore &ein! a&%e to return to wor$'

?i!ure 33 &e%ow shows the conse1uences ratin! forA in7ur # asset dama!e and environmenta% dama!e )onseEuence :n$ury (ultiple fatalities sset Damage &nvironmental Damage "ating

&xtensive damage, (assive leakFspill, shut do<n, or loss of public concern plant Aonconformance <ith regulations

. , 2 1

'ingle fatality, or (a$or damage, or permanent disability partial shutdo<n 'erious in$ury (inor in$ury 'light in$ury

1ocali;ed damage, or 1ocali;ed leakFspill, partial shutdo<n or partial shutdo<n (inor damage, or #ublic concern <ith parts replacement no lasting effect 'light damage, no &ffect contained lost time locally

+igure ,,: +ive degree conseEuences ?severity@ scale :f the position of the dan!er to the conse1uences in the event of an accident happenin! then the added conse1uences must &e ta$en into consideration and the conse1uence ratin! increased' Ehen ma$in! a ris$ assessment a%% aspects of %i$e%ihood and conse1uences shou%d &e ta$en into consideration' The interre%ated parameters of %i$e%ihood and conse1uences can easi% &e presented on the simp%e matri4 shown &e%ow' 'onsequences
2,

Rating

#ersonnel #ropert" Damage Fatalities Serious )inor Slight EBtensive )a+or )inor Slight

Environmental Damage )assive Be"ond regulations No lasting effect 'ontained locall" ? 1 5 7

+igure ,-: +our degree conseEuences ?severity@ scale

3'/'3 (is$ matri4

:f we consider the %i$e%ihood of an accident whi%st drivin! a car and the conse1uences# statistica%% it is hi!h% un%i$e% that we wi%% have an accident and the worst conse1uence wou%d &e a fata%it ' ?rom the matri4 &e%ow we can see that the ris$ is in the medium ran!e which means that we ma$e efforts to reduce the ris$ of an accident & such means as driver trainin!# road mana!ement and vehic%e desi!n' Table 16: "isk matrix based on conseEuences and likelihood $i(elihood 0i$e% Hn%i$e% ,i!h ,i!h )edium )edium ,i!h )edium )edium 0ow

'onsequences ?ata%it )a7or in7uries )inor in7uries De!%i!i&%e in7uries

Per %i$e% ,i!h ,i!h ,i!h )edium

,i!h% un%i$e% )edium )edium 0ow 0ow

Events or situations assessed as ver %i$e% with fata% conse1uences are most serious <hi!h ris$=; those assessed as hi!h% un%i$e% with ne!%i!i&%e in7uries are the %east serious <%ow ris$='

2-

Ehen deve%opin! ris$ contro% strate!ies an item with a hi!h ratin! shou%d &e addressed first' Hsin! the a&ove matri4 it wou%d &e norma% to deve%op a %ist of ha"ards with hi!h% rated ris$ at the top of the %ist' )ana!ement wou%d then &e e4pected to determine at what point it wou%d &e reasona&%e to ta$e no further action'

+igure ,.: 4H4 risk matrix

3'/'5 (is$ mana!ement wor$sheets

There are no standard formats used to record the data in connection with ris$ mana!ement assessments' The e4amp%es !iven are on% for reference and ma need modification to suit the nature of individua% pro7ects' +%wa s use a (is$ mana!ement wor$sheet for s stematic recordin!' +n e4amp%e of ris$ mana!ement wor$sheet is shown in ta&%e **' Table 11: &xample of risk management <orksheet
P%ant ris$ ,ana%ement w#rksheet

2.

Compan A J,T printin! ,a"ard identification

3ite/ %ocationA paper store / 5 Jones 3t' 0i$e%ihood Per %i$e% 0i$e% Hn%i$e% ,i!h% un%i$e% Per %i$e% Conse1uence ?ata%it )a7or in7uries )inor in7uries De!%i!i&%e in7uries )a7or in7ur (is$ ratin! ,i!h )edium 0ow ,i!h

DateA 02/0*/95 Contro% action *' :nitiated 2' :mp%emented 3' (eviewed *' 2' Z 3' Z

Crush from !ui%%otine paper ho%din! &ar +mputation from !ui%%otine &%ade due toA E%ectrocution ha"ard from $nife E%ectrocution ha"ard from meat s%icer Cuttin! ha"ard from meat s%icer

Hn%i$e% Hn%i$e% 0i$e%

?ata%it ?ata%it )inor in7ur

,i!h ,i!h )edium

Z Z

Z Z Z

Z Z

3'5 (is$ Contro%

Contro% means the measures to &e ta$en to e%iminate or reduce the ris$ to an accepta&%e %eve%' Ehen a ris$ assessment has identified a ha"ard as havin! unaccepta&%e ris$s we have to put in p%ace contro% measures to e%iminate the ris$ or reduce the ris$ to an accepta&%e %eve%'
'everity '', '2 '1 #1 cceptable #2 #, ##robability
'c 1

'c 1

*nacceptable

+igure ,/: "isk matrix after applying preventive measures

2/

3'5'* ,ierarch of contro%

,ierarch of contro% means the order in which contro%s shou%d &e considered when se%ectin! methods of contro%%in! a ris$' Contro% measures can &e sorted into a num&er of cate!ories with the most effective %isted at the top' The %ist of cate!ories is co%%ective% $nown as a Shierarch of contro%S' Ehen se%ectin! appropriate measures to contro% a ris$ we shou%d se%ect a contro% measure from as hi!h on the hierarch of contro% %ist as practica&%e' The hierarch of contro% %ist usua%% comprisesA E%imination 3u&stitution :so%ation En!ineerin! Contro%s +dministrative contro%s Provide persona% protective e1uipment <PPE=

3'5'2 E%imination
The most satisfactor method of dea%in! with a ha"ard is to e%iminate it' .nce the ha"ard has &een e%iminated the potentia% for harm has !one' EBample The dan!ers associated with transportin! of an e4p%osive materia% ca%%ed ammonium nitrate fue% oi% <+nfo= are $nown and documented' +nfo is made & simp% mi4in! ammonium nitrate with fue% oi% <diese%=' >oth constituents are safe in iso%ation &ut when mi4ed the &ecome unsta&%e' The dan!ers of %on! distance transport can &e removed & not mi4in! the component parts unti% the are on site' > this simp%e e4pedient we have e%iminated the ha"ard'

3'5'3 3u&stitution
This invo%ves su&stitutin! a dan!erous process or su&stance with one that is not as dan!erous' This ma not &e as satisfactor as e%imination as there ma sti%% &e a ris$ <even if it is reduced=' EBample

22

)an chemica%s can &e su&stituted for other safer chemica%s# which perform in the same manner &ut do not have the same dan!ers e'!' water &ased paints rather than those that contain %ead'

3'5'/ 3eparation
This means separate or iso%ate the ha"ard from peop%e' This method has its pro&%em in that the ha"ard has not &een removed' The !uard or separation device is a%wa s at ris$ of &ein! removed or circumvented' EBample + !uard is p%aced over a piece of movin! machiner ' :f the !uard is removed for maintenance and not rep%aced peop%e are a!ain at ris$'

3'5'5 +dministration
+dministrative so%utions usua%% invo%ve modification of the %i$e%ihood of an accident happenin!' (educin! the num&er of peop%e e4posed to the dan!er and providin! trainin! to those who are e4posed to the ha"ard can do this' EBample The dan!ers of e%ectricit are we%% $nown and on% trained and %icensed peop%e are a%%owed to wor$ on e%ectrica% e1uipment' Ee can appreciate that the e%ectrician is sti%% at ris$# &ut there trainin! is such that the ris$ are reduced to an accepta&%e %eve%' +dministrative so%utions a%so inc%ude dan!er si!ns and written s stems of wor$ such as those for wor$in! in confined spaces and %oc$ out spaces and %oc$ out procedures'

3'5'2 Persona% protective e1uipment <PPE=

Provision of persona% protective e1uipment shou%d on% &e considered when a%% other contro% methods are impractica%# or to increase contro% when used with another method hi!her up in the hierarch of contro%' EBample

23

To remove the possi&i%it of a person droppin! somethin! on their foot in a wor$shop situation wou%d &e impractica&%e# as it wou%d invo%ve securin! ever mova&%e o&7ect %ar!e enou!h to do dama!e if it fe%% on a personQs foot' The practica&%e so%ution is to provide ever person at ris$ with safet footwear' Contro% are not mutua%% e4c%usive# severa% in the hierarch ma &e needed to o&tain the %eve% of contro% necessar ' Table 12: #rotective reEuirement for eye, head, and footFtoe
WH ! " # #

E e
Ehere machines or operations present a dan!er from f%un! o&7ects# direct or ref%ected &ri!htness# ha"ardous %i1uids# or in7urious radiation. Jo!!%es# fu%% face shie%ds# safet !%asses# sideshie%ds# we%ders@ %enses <shou%d meet standards='

,ead
Ehere there is dan!er from impact and penetration from fa%%in! or f% in! o&7ects or from %imited e%ectric shoc$. 3afet hats fu%% &rim# &rim%ess# %imited vo%ta!e protection# no vo%ta!e protection# <shou%d meet standards='

?oot/Toe
:n areas where there is a potentia% for foot or toe in7uries.

$%P & OF P!O' $ C$IO"

FI$$I"( ! )UI! ' * "$& &U(( &$ # ! CO!#&

Comforta&%e fit <not interfere with movement=' Date issued# reissued# t pe issued# instructions !iven <need to wear# c%eanin! needs# maintenance# conservation#

Comforta&%e# proper fit' Date issued# t pe issued# instructions !iven <need to wear# maintenance# discip%inar
24

:mpact and compression resistance# metatarsa% protection# puncture resistance# e%ectrica% ha"ard resistance# conductive <shou%d meet standards=' Proper fit' Date issued# amount reim&ursed# instructions !iven <need to wear# maintenance# discip%inar action='

+A*I"A' $IO"& " # #

discip%inar action# fittin!=' Pisua% acuit # depth perception'

action='

Table 1,: #rotective reEuirement for hand, hearing and respiratory

WH ! " # #

,and
Dan!er of cuts# or from hand%in! corrosives# so%vents# or other chemica%s.

,earin!
Doise e4posure that e1ua%s or e4ceeds 65 d>+ in an 6-hour time-wei!hted period.

(espirator

$%P & OF Cotton/%eather !%oves; P!O$ C$IO" !aunt%ets; heatresistant !%oves; &arrier creams; chain mai% !%oves; ha% !%oves; ru&&er !%oves' <3hou%d meet standards='

:n areas that present a %imited &reatha&%e environment or the possi&i%it of an o4 !en-deficient environment or air contamination' ?u%% muffs# disposa&%e +ir-purif in! p%u!s# 3wedish woo%# respirators# chemica% non-disposa&%e cartrid!e respirators# p%u!s' <3hou%d meet air-supp%ied standards=' respirators# com&ination respirators# se%f contained &reathin! devices' <3hou%d meet standards=' Proper fit# correct t pe for noise e4posure' +udiometric e4am# date issued# instructions !iven <need to wear# effects of noise# c%eanin!# conservation# fittin!# discip%inar action'= 3i!nificant fittin! re1uirements' Date issued# reissued# t pe issued# instructions !iven <respirator ha"ards present; functions; fit testin!; proper uti%isation# c%eanin! and maintenance; conservation# discip%inar action=' Pu%monar function'

FI$$I"( ! )UI! ' * "$& &U(( &$ # ! CO!#&

Proper fit' Date issued# reissued# t pe issued# instructions !iven# <need to wear# maintenance# conservation# discip%inar action'=

+A*I"A'

+udiometric

36

$IO"& " # #

<&ase%ine and annua%='

3'2 +pp% ,ierarch of Contro%

:t is crucia% to app% the contro% measure from as hi!h on the hierarch of contro% %ist as practica&%e' :f we !o &ac$ to the power press e4amp%e in S(is$ assessmentS mentioned ear%ier we cou%d e4amine the steps we shou%d ta$e to contro% the ris$ of an operator havin! an accident whi%st %oadin! the press' The contri&ution to industr of the power press is so !reat that to e%iminate them comp%ete% from the wor$in! environment wou%d not &e practica&%e' 3ince power presses were first invented in the ear% part of this centur # desi!ners have not &een a&%e to e%iminate the ha"ard of an une4pected stro$e' >ased on the evidence and current $now%ed!e# e%imination of the ha"ard is not practica&%e' Ee cou%d then %oo$ to su&stitution to reduce the ris$' Ee cou%d su&stitute a power press for a h drau%ic press or a dri%%in! machine' >oth of these a%ternatives are too s%ow to &e via&%e a%ternatives in most cases' 3eparatin! the operator and the ha"ard is possi&%e in most cases if we use an automatic feed and a !uard to e%iminate persons from the dan!er area' This method is effective# &ut wi%% not app%ica&%e to a%% cases' +dministration shou%d &e our ne4t a%ternative' This wou%d invo%ve trainin! the operator to remove the wor$-piece and p%ace a new &%an$ in the machine without puttin! their fin!ers in a position where the cou%d &e crushed in the event of a ma%function of the press e'!' > usin! a push stic$ or simi%ar' Persona% protective e1uipment ma not a%wa s &e app%ica&%e' :n fact it shou%d &e the aim of the or!ani"ation to remove the necessit for persona% protective e1uipment' +cceptin! a so%ution too %ow on the hierarch of contro% %ist is a common fai%in!# which must &e avoided'

3'5 )onitorin! and (eview

31

(eview is an important aspect of an ris$ mana!ement process' :t is essentia% to review what has &een done to ensure that the contro%s put in p%ace are effective and that the have not introduced new ha"ards' EBample +n a!ricu%tura% machine was found to &e ha"ardous and a !uard was su&se1uent% fitted round the movin! parts' This !uard e4c%uded persons from the dan!er area; however# due to the nature of the environment it was found that chaff &ui%t up &ehind the !uard' :f a review had not &een carried out of the new !uard after it had &een in service for a short whi%e# the chaff in con7unction with the movin! parts ma have caused a fire' The %esson to &e %earnt here is that however the initia% ris$ mana!ement process was done# there is a%wa s the possi&i%it that somethin! wi%% &e over%oo$ed and not addressed in the initia% sta!es' The review s stem a%%ows further modifications to &e carried out'

3'6 Conc%usion
,a"ard identification# ris$ assessment# contro% and review are not a tas$ that is comp%eted and then for!otten a&out' ,a"ard identification shou%d &e proper% documented even in the simp%est of situations' 3amp%e wor$ sheets to assist in this process are ver usefu%' (is$ assessment shou%d inc%ude a carefu% assessment of &oth %i$e%ihood and conse1uence' Contro% measures shou%d conform to the recommendations of the hierarch of contro%' The ris$ mana!ement process is an on !oin! activit which shou%d inc%ude re!u%ar reviews of a%% aspects of or!ani"ations activities inc%udin! the purchase of new p%ant and consuma&%es# safet e4istin! p%ant# s stems of wor$ inc%udin! administrative initiatives such as evacuation# fire and vio%ence in the wor$p%ace strate!ies'

32

'hapter ? )ethods of S"stem .nal"sis

/'* :ntroduction
+s %on! as we identified the Dan!er<s=# concernin! a specific s stem# it wou%d &e necessar to start ana% "in! the s stem with these dan!er<s= in order to find out the pro&a&%e (is$<s= associated and to tr to reduce it or to e%iminate it -if it is possi&%e-' 3evera% methods e4ist for the ana% sis of s stems# each have advanta!es and disadvanta!es# a%thou!h we tried to cover up a%% avai%a&%e methods# some other methods are &e ond this course# such as
3,

the method of ?u"" 3ets for the ana% sis of s stems which resem&%es to sma%% e4tents the method of )onte Car%o simu%ation# &ut &ased on another mathematica% &ase and not &ased on statistica% data' Each of the method has more or %ess fre1uent app%ication in some fie%ds of the 3ecurit of functions' :n order to satisf the needs of an s stem# one method or more shou%d &e used to reach out for a comp%ete ris$ ana% sis stud '

/'2 )ar$ov Chains

The fundamenta% characteristic of a )ar$ov chain is that the s stem of interest is conditiona% on% on its current situation' 3ince pure static s stems rare% e4ist# the )ar$ov chains are used to present d namic s stems o&servin! its stochastic states# ?i!ure 35'
3tate

Time

+igure ,2: 'tochastic #rocesses The )ar$ov chains is &ased on the !raphica% representation of the studied process# so in order to e4p%ain the different steps of the stud # we wi%% consider a s stem of two para%%e% components# ?i!ure 36'

3-

C*

C2

+igure ,3: #arallel system of t<o components

/'2'* Presentation of the Process

The constructor of the s stem stated that in this s stem# an one of the two components cou%d supp% the fu%% demand at the e4ist; with priorit that C2 is the first% repaired' The ana% sis of this s stem with the )ar$ovian processes consists of identif in! the different states of the s stem durin! its e4p%oitation' These different states are %isted in Ta&%e */' Table 1-: Different states of the system.
'7 * * 0 0 '5 * 0 * 0 Success * * * 0 States E* E2 E3 E/

3tate of Eor$in! Comp%ete ?ai%ure

The construction of the !raphica% representation of the s stem starts with the presentation of each state of the s stem with a circ%e# ?i!ure 39' The ne4t step is to find out the &ehavior of the s stem from one state to anotherA The state of perfect wor$in! E* ma &e transferred to the state E2 or E3 with the error C2 or C* respective% ' The state E2 ma &e transferred to the state of comp%ete fai%ure E/ throu!h the error C* or throu!h the reparation C2' The state E3 cou%d a%so &e transformed into tota% fai%ure throu!h P* or reparation E* throu!h C*'
3.

 ?ina%% # the state E/ is transferred to E3 throu!h reparation C2 that is the priorit of reparation' Each of these transformations %isted a&ove is ca%%ed transition# which is represented !raphica%% with an arrow from the state of departure to the state of arrivin!# ?i!ure 39' ?or each transition of the state E i to the state E7# we wi%% associate it with an inde4 of transition 0 i7# which is defined as the pro&a&i%it of the transition from state E i to state E7 durin! the period &etween t and t[\t# assumin! that we are now at time t'
P* #5

E*
#7 #5 P* P2

E/

E2
#7 P2

+igure ,4: Graphical #resentation of the 'ystem ?or an process# it doesnQt e4ist in a simp%e e1uation to estimate the transformation and on% the simu%ation throu!h )onte Car%o techni1ues is feasi&%e' +%so# &ecause the process is )ar$ovian# a%% the inde4es of transition are constants and the ana% tica% treatment is re%ative% simp%e' The constanc of the inde4 of transition app%ies to a%% the phenomena# which have an e4ponentia% nature' The )ar$ovian processes proceed in a certain manner that needs no memor A the pro&a&i%it of the transformation of E i to E7# doesnQt depend on time &ut on% on the presence of the state E i' This propert is fundamenta% for the )ar$ovian processes'

3/

.n% in the case of ver sma%% !raphs# the uti%i"ation of specific software is avai%a&%e for the eva%uation and the ana% sis of the )ar$ovian state and the re%ia&i%it of the s stem'

/'3 PET(: Detwor$

The Petri Detwor$s are !raphica% oriented# which ma$es the core of a hi!h% advanced mathematics' The Detwor$ is constructed of P%aces# Transitions and +rcs# ?i!ure /0' P%aces are represented !raphica%% with circ%es; the p%aces cou%d &e mar$ed & one or more sma%% coins' Transitions are represented !raphica%% with ri!ht se!ments# so the transitions have two possi&%e states <va%id or not va%id=' The +rcs are represented & arrows; the arcs are of two t pes either &ein! the %in$ &etween a p%ace and a transition <arc upstream=# or &ein! the %in$ &etween a transition and a p%ace <arc downstream='
Coins :nhi&iteur +rc Transition +va% +rcs +mont +rc

I)7 J)5
)essa!es

P%aces
.

+igure -6: #&T": net<orks These entities represent !raphica%% the state of the networ$' :n order to simu%ate the &ehavior of the s stem# the static representation of the s stem chan!es as the evo%ution of the s stem !oes on' This action is reserved for the mar$in! of the s stem with the coins# as the coins are moved from one p%ace to another# this represent the chan!es in the s stem' :n order to find a va%id state of the s stem# an transition must

32

have at %east one coin in each of its amount p%aces' Therefore# it mi!ht &e drew# and this drew consists of drawin! a coin in each of its amount p%aces and puttin! one in its avai% p%aces' The resu%t wi%% &e a new mar$in! of the networ$ that represents a new state of the s stem' +ccordin! to their ori!in# the Petri networ$s fo%%ow se1uentia%% the different states of the s stem under consideration# and so we can have the fo%%owin! resu%ts of such ana% sisA Detai%ed ana% sis of the &ehavior of the s stem' :dentification of the states from a !raphica% point of view' :dentif in! the non-accessi&%e states' :dentif in! the &%oc$in!# causes of de%a # etc' :dentif in! the conf%icts &etween different states' The uti%i"ation of the Petri networ$s for the identification of different states of the s stem in order to !enerate the e1uiva%ent )ar$ov processes is one of the ver common methods of s stem ana% sis in the fie%d of 3ecurit of ?unction'

/'/ 3imu%ation# <The )onte Car%o Techni1ue=

Eithin operations research# simu%ation t pica%% invo%ves the construction of a mathematica% mode%' (ather than direct% descri&in! the overa%% &ehavior of the s stem# the simu%ation mode% descri&es the operation of the s stem in terms of individua% events of the individua% components of the s stem' :n particu%ar# the s stem is divided into e%ements whose &ehavior cou%d &e predicted' The interre%ationship &etween e%ements is a%so &ui%t into the mode%' +fter constructin! the mode%# it is then activated <& !eneratin! input data= to simu%ate the actua% operation of the s stem over time and record its &ehavior' > repeatin! this for the various a%ternative desi!n confi!urations and comparin! their performances# the most promisin! confi!uration can &e identified' 3imu%ation mode%s are often used to ana% "e a decision under uncertaint that is a pro&%em in which the &ehavior of one or more e%ement of the mode% can &e represented & a pro&a&i%it distri&ution' This t pe of simu%ation is ca%%ed )onte Car%o )ethod' >ecause of

33

statistica% errors# it is impossi&%e to reach optimum with a simu%ation of )onte Car%o# &ut it shou%d &e at %east e4pected to &e c%ose to optima% if the simu%ated e4periment is &ui%t proper% '

:f the &ehavior of an e%ement cannot &e predicted e4act% # !iven the state of the s stem# it is &etter to ta$e random o&servations from the pro&a&i%it distri&ution functions invo%ved than to use avera!es to simu%ate this performance' To choose a pro&a&i%it distri&ution function that represents the data# it is rather recommended to use a pro&a&i%it distri&ution function that &est fits the mode% rather than usin! histo!rams of the data co%%ected in the past' This is usua%% prefera&%e &ecause it wou%d seem to come c%oser to the prediction of future &ehavior of the data rather than reproducin! a certain &ehavior over a certain period in the past'

/'5 ?au%t Trees

The method of ?au%t Trees for the s stem ana% sis is the method hi!h% recommended in static -or semi static- s stems' The method is a%so !rouped under the name of the defau%ts tree or the causeQs tree' The causes-tree is the tree more and more correct% app%ied in terms of mathematics and correspond more to the dia!ram of causesconse1uences' This method is a deductive method# which means that it starts with an effect and tries to find its causes# or its e%ements# and this mi!ht &e# the reason for its hi!h popu%arit '

/'5'* The construction of the tree'

The &e!innin! of the construction is & indicatin! the error that cou%d happen; this error wi%% &e the head of the tree' :t is worth mentionin! that the choice of the error depends %ar!e% on the ana% sis of the s stem and the stud of its components' The construction of the tree cou%d &e thou!ht of as a tas$ consistin! of different stepsA
34

a' Decomposition of 3 stem; the decomposition is the ph sica% ana% sis of the s stem' +%thou!h the used criterion varies from one s stem to another# the used criteria cou%d &e one of the fo%%owin!A Techno%o!ica% Criteria# for e4amp%e an automatic a%arm is insta%%ed in the s stem )aintenance Criteria# for e4amp%e a part of the s stem is rep%aced s stematica%% ' &' :dentifications of Components; :t is necessar to identif each component of the s stem# its operation and its modes of fai%ure' c' (econstitution of the s stem with its components; which means the composition of the s stem in !ood function with the defined components' d' Phases; the so-ca%%ed phases are the modes of operation of the s stem# for e4amp%e# for a p%ane; the modes of operation are Ta$in!-off# ?% in!# and 0andin!' e' >oundar Conditions; 3 stem@s &oundaries have to &e we%% defined in re%ation with its surroundin! environment' f' , pothesis; what $ind of h pothesis is app%ied on the s stem and its operations' !' :nitia% Conditions; with the mentioned h pothesis# it is the state in which we wi%% start to stud the s stem' h' Definition of Hndesired Error <Event= i' Decomposition of the Events; this is done & simp% as$in! the 1uestion# what are the past events that cou%d %ead to the currentF 7' ?inishin! the Construction; it is important to mention that at such a moment# it is important to consider the current components as e%ementar ones# as we can sti%% decompose each e%ement to its components indefinite% '

/'2 Critica% +na% sis of 3 stem <3imu%ation=

/'2'* E4amp%e *A simu%ation of a CP) networ$
:n order to i%%ustrate the method of )onte Car%o for the simu%ation of Hncertain Detwor$ times# a sma%% pro7ect has &een studied carefu%% # and an identification of its networ$ has &een drawn# ?i!ure /*# the networ$

46

consists of *0 activities# +ct'* ''' act'*0# the activities re%ationships are i%%ustrated accordin! to %o!ica% re%ations &etween each node and the other' Directions of arrows indicate the %o!ica% path of f%ow &etween nodes whi%e the re%ative %en!th of arrows has no actua% imp%ications on the period of each activit '

4 3

C A 72 K

+igure -1: Aet<ork model of the #ro$ect The activities of the networ$ are $nown to have a random distri&ution which is &ounded &etween two definite times# a minimum time and a ma4imum time' :n order to simu%ate this networ$ and to find the Critica% Path of the pro7ect# which is the path of activities that shou%d !ain ma4imum attention to the mana!er and that the de%a in that path cou%d de%a the who%e pro7ect# the >ounded )onte Car%o 3imu%ation is used as fo%%owsA The activities are arran!ed in a ta&%e with its minimum and ma4imum time# Ta&%e *5' (andom o&servations are samp%ed accordin! to the fo%%owin! approach Sample time 2 minimum time > rand )ma< time0 min time,

41

 *00 samp%es for each activit are done <presented here are on% *0 samp%es=' ?or each one of the *00 samp%es# a different networ$ is constructed with the samp%ed times' ?or the *00 !enerated networ$s# the Critica% Path has &een ca%cu%ated and identified' ?ina%% # the critica% inde4es of each activit are ca%cu%ated as the ratio &etween the num&er of ten on the critica% path and the tota% num&er of samp%es <*00 samp%es=' Ta&%e *2' Table 1.: "andom observations
+ct' )in )a4 *-2 6 *0 *-3 5 5 *-/ 5 9 2-5 5 5 3-2 / 2 3-5 6 *0 3-5 ** *3 /-5 *0 *2 5-6 2 6 5-9 2 6 2-6 2 / 5-6 0 2 5-*0 3 5 6-*0 2 / 9-*0 0 3 Tota% 52 92 s* 9#5 2#3 6#/ 2#5 /#9 9#0 **#/ *0#6 2#* 5#/ 2#/ *#9 /#2 2#2 0#3 s2 6#2 5#* 6#* 5#* /#2 9#9 *2#6 **#3 2#/ 2#/ 2#* 0#5 3#5 3#2 0#2 s3 6#* 5#0 6#3 5#3 /#3 9#9 *2#9 *0#2 5#* 5#* 2#5 *#2 3#5 2#2 2#5 s/ 6#3 5#5 5#5 5#5 5#5 9#* **#2 *0#2 2#5 5#6 2#3 *#5 3#5 3#9 2#2 s5 6#/ 2#/ 6#2 2#9 5#5 6#/ *2#9 *0#6 2#/ 6#0 2#6 0#5 /#6 3#2 2#5 s2 6#9 5#2 5#5 5#3 5#* 9#3 *2#5 **#* 5#0 2#9 3#3 0#/ /#0 2#5 2#6 s5 6#0 5#5 5#/ 2#* 5#3 6#5 *2#6 *0#2 2#9 2#5 2#9 0#2 /#2 2#2 *#5 s6 9#5 2#5 5#* 5#2 5#/ 6#3 *2#2 *0#3 5#0 2#5 2#/ *#2 /#3 3#0 *#2 s9 9#5 2#5 5#5 5#9 5#3 9#* **#5 **#2 5#9 2#* 2#5 0#2 3#0 2#2 0#5 s*0 6#5 5#0 5#5 5#6 /#3 9#6 **#2 **#6 2#6 2#3 2#2 *#0 3#* 3#5 *#6 )ean 6#6 5#9 5#6 5#9 5#0 9#2 *2#3 *0#6 2#6 2#9 2#2 *#0 3#9 2#9 *#2 62#6 3TD 0#20 0#5* 0#/5 0#56 0#5/ 0#20 0#2/ 0#55 0#50 0#25 0#32 0#2* 0#20 0#29 0#92

Table 1/: )ritical :ndex of activities ?activities <ith I means that it <as on the )ritical #ath in this sample@.

+ct'

)in )a4

s*

s2

s3

s/

s5

s2

s5

s6

s9

s*0

Critica% :nde4 /0L 50L 0L /0L 0L 50L 0L 0L 50L

*-2 *-3 *-/ 2-5 3-2 3-5 3-5 /-5 5-6

6 5 5 5 / 6 ** *0 2

*0 5 9 5 2 *0 *3 *2 6

W W W W W W W W

W W W W W W

W W W W

42

5-9 2-6 5-6 5-*0 6-*0 9-*0

2 2 0 3 2 0

6 / 2 5 / 3

W W

W W W

30L 0L 0L 0L 50L 30L

/'2'2 (esu%ts +ccordin! to the critica% inde4es %isted in Ta&%e *2# we can identif two pro&a&%e critica% Paths# <*-3-5-6-*0=# with a pro&a&i%it of 50L# and another <*-2-5-9-*0= with a pro&a&i%it ran!es &etween 30L and /0L in some activities' 3o the fina% Detwor$ with the most pro&a&%e Critica% Path is i%%ustrated in ?i!ure /2'

4 3

C A 72 K
+ctivit with 0L Pro&a&i%it +ctivit with 30L or /0L Pro&a&i%it +ctivit with 50L Pro&a&i%it

+igure -2: +inal critical paths for the net<ork

4,

'hapter 48 ,he #rocess of Fire Ris( )anagement

The process of ris$ mana!ement invo%ves the four steps shown in the fo%%owin! dia!ram# ?i!ure /3 T the four steps are underta$en in a c c%e unti% an accepta&%e %eve% of ris$ is achieved'

Ha,ard Identification

!isk Assessment

!isk Control

*onitoring !e-iew

+igure -,: 9a;ard identification +n industria% fire or e4p%osion can &e defined as a characteristic of a s stem p%ant or process that represents a potentia% for unp%anned event %eadin! to undesira&%e %oss conse1uences' The $e words in this definition are undesira&%e conse1uences Shazard identificati#nS is the process of reco!ni"in! ha"ards that can pose si!nificant undesira&%e % oss conse1uences' ,a"ard identification shou%d &e a continuous activit in the eva%uation of new materia%s# p%ant additions# and production modifications'

5'* )ethodo%o! of ,a"ard :dentification

4-

*' 2' 3' /' 5' 2' 5' 6' 9'

En!ineerin! chec$%ist' ,a"ard indices' ,a"ard and opera&i%it stud ,a"op' Pre%iminar ha"ard ana% sis P,+' ?ai%ure mode and effect ana% sis ?E)+' ?au%t tree ana% sis ?T+' Event tree ana% sis ET+' Cause conse1uence ana% sis' (e%ia&i%it ana% sis'

5'2 ?ire (is$ +ssessment

5'2'* The primar steps in fire ris$ assessment inc%udeA
:dentif in! the event se1uence that cou%d %ead to si!nificant %oss' Guantification of the fire ris$ <i'e pro&a&i%it of fire event occurrences and %oss conse1uences=' Deve%opment and eva%uation of a%ternative fire prevention and/or fire protection strate!ies <i'e recommendation= to reduce fire ris$' Guantified measurement of the chan!e of fire ris$ <i'e' differences in pro&a&i%it and/or conse1uences=' ?ire (is$ B pro&a&i%it of occurrence 4 %oss conse1uences )ethods of assessing the pro*a*ilit" value of fire event occurrence8 7: 6*+ective estimation8 Pa%id and app%ica&%e data on %oss event fre1uencies then the pro&a&i%ities can &e e4tracted from that source' >ut due to comp%e4it and Parit of heav industries va%id and app%ica&%e data are scare' 5: Su*+ective estimation8 +vai%a&%e %oss trendin! information E1uipment fai%ure' ,uman error' :!nition source' 0oss contro% e%ements'

4.

 Dama!e a&i%it factor' The ph sica% intensit of fire-e4p%osion %oss scenarios are 1uantified in terms of the e4pected ener! re%eased' a' ,eat e4posures' &' 3mo$e and /or corrosive !as contamination c' E4p%osion &%ast over pressure T etc' d' +rea invo%ved e' Duration' Direct %oss of fire event a' Dama!e to &ui%din! &' Dama!e to e1uipment' c' Dama!e to products' d' Etc' Direct %oss of fire event a' >usiness interoperations' &' 0ia&i%it for in7ur or death' c' Environmenta% contamination' d' Dama!e to compan ima!e' e' Etc'

5'2'2 T pe of ris$ assessment

Depends on8 a- Comp%e4it of the operation' &- Time and cost %imitation' (outine code comp%iance can &e conducted & usin! simp%e chec$%ist' Dew techno%o!ies or hi!h ha"ard operations re1uire app%ication of more detai%ed ris$ assessment and decision ana% sis methods'

5'2'3 (is$ mana!ement

R) means8 *' Esta&%ishin! accepta&%e %eve% of ris$' 2' )ethod of hand%in! identified ris$s'

4/

Ris( decision L ma(ing process *ased on *' 2' 3' /' 5' 2' 5' 6' Profit <competitive mar$et position=' Protection of compan assets <ma7or %oss e4p'= Continued compan operation <&usiness interruption=' Communit !ood we%% <em&arrassment=' 0e!a% re1uirements <%ia&i%it # &ui%din! code# etc=' :nsurance compan re1uirements' Environmenta% concerns' Continued !rowth <e4pansion='

:f the ris$ is accepta&%e is accepta&%e# no immediate action is re1uired# &ut monitorin! for chan!es which cou%d increase the ris$ must &e done' :f the ris$ is unaccepta&%e then decision must &e made a&out how to dea% with the ris$'

5'2'/ (is$ mana!ement for hand%in! fire ris$ e4posure

*' 2' 3' /' 5' (is$ avoidance & non-participation of ris$ operation' (is$ transfer & purchasin! insurance to cover potentia% %oss' (is$ financin! se%f-insurance' +%ternate ris$ transfer arran!ement' (is$ reducin! & providin! %oss contro% improvement' (is$ mana!ement pro!ram that inc%udes com&ination of the a&ove'

5'2'5 Cost /&enefit ana% sis

Eva%uate the cost of fire prevention and protection a%ternative which inc%ude a- Desi!n &- :nsta%%ation' c- 3 stem maintenance d- Trainin! e4penses'

5'2'2 Deve%opment and monitorin! of %oss contro% pro!ram

0oss contro% improvements at industria% faci%ities inc%ude the deve%opment and monitorin! of comprehensive %oss contro% pro!rams' Eritten documentation shou%d &e provided for these pro!rams and up dated periodica%% ' ,he fire loss control program should define specific o*+ectives

42

regarding8 *' Personne% safet ' 2' Propert conservation' 3' Environmenta% impact' /' )inimi"in! interrupt to p%ant production' $oss control program documentation should include a through description of8 *' En!ineerin! desi!n' 2' +pp%ied en!ineerin! standards' 3' +dministrative contro%'

5'2'5 ?ire prevention

There are severa% methods to &e emp%o ed throu!h desi!n# operationa% contro%s# operator trainin!# and maintenance to prevent fire from startin!' 5'2'5'* +utomatic fire detection and suppression ?i4ed fire protection s stems and e1uipment insta%%ed that rapid a%% detect# suppress and contro% fires that do occur' 5'2'5'2 Protection for structures and e1uipment ?ire protection standard for passive and active measures which wi%% &e used to protect operations# structures and e1uipment in the event that fire is not rapid a%% e4tin!uished' 5'2'5'3 )anua% protection Provision of manua% fire fi!htin! capa&i%ities is as a &ac$ up to active and passive fi4ed protection s stem inc%udin! fire department# pre-fire p%annin!# and periodica% emer!enc dri%%s' 5'2'5'3 +udit pro!ram Description of the %oss prevention and auditin! procedures for new faci%it processes# p%ant modifications# se%f-inspection and maintenance activities'

43

+n effective fire protection pro!ram must inc%ude a%% ma7or en!ineerin! discip%ines as we%% as ris$ mana!ement# safet # securit production# maintenance'

'hapter C8 Summar" of Ris( .ssessment Steps in @or(place

3TEP *A 0oo$ for the ha"ards 3TEP 2A Decide who mi!ht &e harmed and how 3TEP 3A Eva%uate the ris$s and decide whether the e4istin! precautions are ade1uate or whether more shou%d &e done 3TEP /A (ecord our findin!s 3TEP 5A (eview our assessment and revise it if necessar Don@t &e overcomp%icated' :n most firms in the commercia%# service and %i!ht industria% sectors# the ha"ards are few and simp%e' Chec$in! them is common sense# &ut necessar ' You pro&a&% a%read $now whether# for e4amp%e# ou have machiner that cou%d cause harm# or if there is an aw$ward entrance or stair where someone cou%d &e hurt' :f so# chec$ that ou have ta$en what reasona&%e precautions ou can to avoid in7ur ' :f ou are a sma%% firm and ou are confident ou understand what@s invo%ved# ou can do the assessment ourse%f < ou don@t have to &e a hea%th and safet e4pertO=' :f ou are a %ar!er firm# ou cou%d as$ a responsi&%e emp%o ee# safet representative or safet officer to he%p ou' :f ou are not confident# !et he%p from a competent source' >ut remem&er - ou are responsi&%e for seein! it is ade1uate% done' 3 ,a"ard and (is$ - don@t %et words in this !uide put ou offO ,a"ard means an thin! that can cause harm <e'!' chemica%s# e%ectricit # wor$in!

44

from %adders# etc= ris$ is the chance# hi!h or %ow# that some&od wi%% &e harmed & the ha"ard'

2'* 3tep *A 0oo$ for the ,a"ards

:f ou are doin! the assessment ourse%f# wa%$ around our wor$p%ace and %oo$ afresh at what cou%d reasona&% &e e4pected to cause harm' :!nore the trivia% and concentrate on si!nificant ha"ards# which cou%d resu%t in serious harm or affect severa% peop%e' +s$ our emp%o ees or their representatives what the thin$' The ma have noticed thin!s# which are not immediate% o&vious' )anufacturers@ instructions or data sheets can a%so he%p ou spot ha"ards and put ris$s in their true perspective' 3o can accident and i%%-hea%th records'

2'2 3tep 2A Decide Eho )i!ht >e ,armed# and ,ow

Don@t for!etA Youn! wor$ers# trainees# new and e4pectant mothers# etc who ma &e at particu%ar ris$ C%eaners# visitors# contractors# maintenance wor$ers# etc who ma not &e in the wor$p%ace a%% the time )em&ers of the pu&%ic# or peop%e ou share our wor$p%ace with# if there is a chance the cou%d &e hurt & our activities' /

2'3 3tep 3A Eva%uate The (is$s +nd Decide Ehether E4istin! Precautions +re +de1uate or )ore 3hou%d >e Done'
Consider how %i$e% it is that each ha"ard cou%d cause harm' This wi%% determine whether or not ou need to do more to reduce the ris$' Even after a%% precautions have &een ta$en# some ris$ usua%% remains' Ehat ou have to decide for each si!nificant ha"ard is whether this remainin! ris$ is hi!h# medium or %ow' ?irst# as$ ourse%f whether ou have done a%% the thin!s that the %aw sa s ou have !ot to do' ?or e4amp%e# there are %e!a% re1uirements on

166

prevention of access to dan!erous parts of machiner ' Then as$ ourse%f whether !enera%% accepted industr standards are in p%ace' >ut don@t stop there - thin$ for ourse%f# &ecause the %aw a%so sa s that ou must do what is reasona&% practica&%e to $eep our wor$p%ace safe' Your rea% aim is to ma$e a%% ris$s sma%% & addin! to our precautions as necessar ' :f ou find that somethin! needs to &e done# draw up an Naction %ist@ and !ive priorit to an remainin! ris$s which are hi!h and/or those which cou%d affect most peop%e' :n ta$in! action as$ ourse%fA a= Can : !et rid of the ha"ard a%to!etherF &= :f not# how can : contro% the ris$s so that harm is un%i$e% F :n contro%%in! ris$s app% the princip%es &e%ow# if possi&%e in the fo%%owin! orderA Tr a %ess ris$ option Prevent access to the ha"ard <e'!' & !uardin!= .r!ani"e wor$ to reduce e4posure to the ha"ard :ssue persona% protective e1uipment Provide we%fare faci%ities <e'!' washin! faci%ities for remova% of contamination and first aid= :mprovin! hea%th and safet need not cost a %ot' ?or instance# p%acin! a mirror on a dan!erous &%ind corner to he%p prevent vehic%e accidents# or puttin! some non-s%ip materia% on s%ipper steps# are ine4pensive precautions considerin! the ris$s' +nd fai%ure to ta$e simp%e precautions can cost ou a %ot more if an accident does happen' 5 >ut what if the wor$ ou do tends to var a %ot# or ou or our emp%o ees move from one site to anotherF :dentif the ha"ards ou can reasona&% e4pect and assess the ris$s from them' +fter that# if ou spot an additiona% ha"ards when ou !et to a site# !et information from others on site# and ta$e what action seems necessar ' >ut what if ou share a wor$p%aceF Te%% the other emp%o ers and se%f-emp%o ed peop%e there a&out an ris$s our wor$ cou%d cause them# and what precautions ou are ta$in!' +%so# thin$ a&out the ris$s to our own wor$force from those who share our wor$p%ace' >ut what if ou have a%read assessed some of the ris$sF :f# for e4amp%e# ou use ha"ardous chemica%s and ou have a%read assessed the ris$s to hea%th and the precautions ou need to ta$e under the Contro% of 3u&stances ,a"ardous to ,ea%th (e!u%ations <C.3,,=# ou can consider them Nchec$ed@ and move on'
161

2'/ 3tep /A (ecord Your ?indin!s

:f ou have fewer than five emp%o ees ou do not need to write an thin! down# thou!h it is usefu% to $eep a written record of what ou have done' >ut if ou emp%o five or more peop%e ou must record the si!nificant findin!s of our assessment' This means writin! down the si!nificant ha"ards and conc%usions' E4amp%es mi!ht &e NE%ectrica% insta%%ationsA insu%ation and earthin! chec$ed and found sound@ or N?ume from we%din!A %oca% e4haust venti%ation provided and re!u%ar% chec$ed@' You must a%so te%% our emp%o ees a&out our findin!s' 3uita&%e and sufficient - not perfectO (is$ assessments must &e suita&%e and sufficient' You need to &e a&%e to show thatA + proper chec$ was made You as$ed who mi!ht &e affected You dea%t with a%% the o&vious si!nificant ha"ards# ta$in! into account the num&er of peop%e who cou%d &e invo%ved The precautions are reasona&%e# and The remainin! ris$ is %ow' 2 Ieep the written record for future reference or use; it can he%p ou if an inspector as$s what precautions ou have ta$en# or if ou &ecome invo%ved in an action for civi% %ia&i%it ' :t can a%so remind ou to $eep an e e on particu%ar ha"ards and precautions' +nd it he%ps to show that ou have done what the %aw re1uires' There is an e4amp%e at the end of this !uide# which ou ma find he%pfu% to refer to# &ut ou can ma$e up our own form if ou prefer' To ma$e thin!s simp%er# ou can refer to other documents# such as manua%s# the arran!ements in our hea%th and safet po%ic statement# compan ru%es# manufacturers@ instructions# our hea%th and safet procedures and our arran!ements for !enera% fire safet ' These ma a%read %ist ha"ards and precautions' You don@t need to repeat a%% that# and it is up to ou whether ou com&ine a%% the documents# or $eep them separate% '

2'5 3tep 5A (eview Your +ssessment and (evise :t :f Decessar

162

3ooner or %ater ou wi%% &rin! in new machines# su&stances and procedures that cou%d %ead to new ha"ards' :f there is an si!nificant chan!e# add to the assessment to ta$e account of the new ha"ard' Don@t amend our assessment for ever trivia% chan!e# or sti%% more# for each new 7o&# &ut if a new 7o& introduces si!nificant new ha"ards of its own# ou wi%% want to consider them in their own ri!ht and do whatever ou need to $eep the ris$s down' :n an case# it is !ood practice to review our assessment from time to time to ma$e sure that the precautions are sti%% wor$in! effective% '

.cron"ms
+C.P +(+(s >,,(+ >,,(+ CE(C0+ CE(C0+ C)T C.C C.PC C.PC C.3,, C(E C(.ET DKD D.E H'3' D3E+( B +pproved Codes of Practice B +pp%ica&%e or (e%evant and +ppropriate (e1uirements B >ase%ine ,uman ,ea%th (is$ +ssessment B >ase%ine ,uman ,ea%th (is$ +ssessment B Comprehensive Environmenta% (esponse# Compensation# and 0ia&i%it +ct B Comprehensive Environmenta% (esponse# Compensation# and 0ia&i%it +ct B Corrosion )ana!ement Techno%o! B Chemica% of Concern B Chemica% of Potentia% Concern B Chemica% of Potentia% Concern B Contro% of 3u&stances ,a"ardous to ,ea%th (e!u%ations B Center for (is$ E4ce%%ence B Communit (euse .r!ani"ation of East Tennessee B Decontamination and Decommissionin! B Department of Ener! B Dan!erous 3u&stances E4p%osive +tmosphere (e!u%ation

16,

EE/C+ E0C( E) EP+ H'3' E3K, ETTP EHEJ ??+ ,+-+D ,+-.P ,E+3T ,: ,3KE :+)3 :(:3 0)E3 )K: ),. DP0 .3P PPE P(J (+> (+J3 (+:3 (+T0 (C(+ (J.

B En!ineerin! Eva%uation/Cost +na% sis B E4cess 0ifetime Cancer (is$ B Environmenta% )ana!ement B Environmenta% Protection +!enc B Environmenta% 3afet and ,ea%th B East Tennessee Techno%o! Par$ B End Hse Eor$in! Jroup B ?edera% ?aci%ities +!reement B ,a"ard +na% sis B ,a"ard .pera&i%it B ,ea%th Effects +ssessment 3ummar Ta&%e B ,a"ard :nde4 B ,ea%th# 3afet and Environment B :nte!rated +sset )ana!ement 3 stem B :nte!rated (is$ :nformation 3 stem B 0oc$heed )artin Ener! 3 stems# :nc' B )ana!ement and :nte!ration B )anua% ,and%in! .perations B Dationa% Priorities 0ist B .peration 3 stem Performance B Persona% Protective E1uipment at Eor$ B Pre%iminar (emediation Joa% B (is$ +dvisor >oard B (is$ +ssessment Juidance for 3uperfund B (is$ +ssessment :nformation 3 stem B (is$ +ssessment Technica% 0ead B (esource Conservation and (ecover +ct B (emedia% Joa% .ption
16-

(?: (C(+ B ?aci%it :nvesti!ation

(:/?3 ()+ (.D 3.P TDEC TG) 9

B (emedia% :nvesti!ation/?easi&i%it 3tud B (is$ )ana!ement +na% sis B (ecord of Decision B 3tandard .peratin! Procedure B Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation B Tota% Gua%it )ana!ement

.ppendices
+ppendi4 *A 3ome :mportant Pieces of ,ea%th and 3afet 0e!is%ation
+'*'* >esides the ,ea%th and 3afet at Eor$ +ct itse%f# the fo%%owin! app% across the fu%% ran!e of wor$p%acesA
*' )ana!ement of ,ea%th and 3afet at Eor$ (e!u%ations *999A re1uire emp%o ers to carr out ris$ assessments# ma$e arran!ements to imp%ement necessar measures# appoint competent peop%e and arran!e for appropriate information and trainin!' 2' Eor$p%ace <,ea%th# 3afet and Ee%fare= (e!u%ations *992A cover a wide ran!e of &asic hea%th# safet and we%fare issues such as venti%ation# heatin!# %i!htin!# wor$stations# seatin! and we%fare faci%ities' 3' ,ea%th and 3afet <Disp%a 3creen E1uipment= (e!u%ations *992A set out re1uirements for wor$ with Pisua% Disp%a Hnits <PDHs=' /' Persona% Protective E1uipment at Eor$ (e!u%ations *992A re1uire emp%o ers to provide appropriate protective c%othin! and e1uipment for their emp%o ees' 5' Provision and Hse of Eor$ E1uipment (e!u%ations *996A re1uire that e1uipment provided for use at wor$# inc%udin! machiner # is safe'

16.

2' )anua% ,and%in! .perations (e!u%ations *992A cover the movin! of o&7ects & hand or &odi% force' 5' ,ea%th and 3afet <?irst re1uirements for first aid' +id= (e!u%ations *96*A cover

6' The ,ea%th and 3afet :nformation for Emp%o ees (e!u%ations *969A re1uire emp%o ers to disp%a a poster te%%in! emp%o ees what the need to $now a&out hea%th and safet ' 9' Emp%o ers@ 0ia&i%it <Compu%sor :nsurance= +ct *929A re1uire emp%o ers to ta$e out insurance a!ainst accidents and i%% hea%th to their emp%o ees' Some important pieces of health and safet" legislation *0' (eportin! of :n7uries# Diseases and Dan!erous .ccurrences (e!u%ations *995 <(:DD.(=A re1uire emp%o ers to notif certain occupationa% in7uries# diseases and dan!erous events' **' Doise at Eor$ (e!u%ations *969A re1uire emp%o ers to ta$e action to protect emp%o ees from hearin! dama!e' *2' E%ectricit at Eor$ (e!u%ations *969A re1uire peop%e in contro% of e%ectrica% s stems to ensure the are safe to use and maintained in a safe condition' *3' Contro% of 3u&stances ,a"ardous to ,ea%th (e!u%ations 2002 <C.3,,=A re1uire emp%o ers to assess the ris$s from ha"ardous su&stances and ta$e appropriate precautions' +'*'2 specific re!u%ations cover particu%ar areas# as as&estos and %ead# */' Chemica%s <,a"ard :nformation and Pac$a!in! for 3upp% = (e!u%ations 2002A re1uire supp%iers to c%assif # %a&e% and pac$a!e dan!erous chemica%s and provide safet data sheets for them' *5' Construction <Desi!n and )ana!ement= (e!u%ations *99/A cover safe s stems of wor$ on construction sites'

16/

*2' Jas 3afet <:nsta%%ation and Hse= (e!u%ations *99/A cover safe insta%%ation# maintenance and use of !as s stems and app%iances in domestic and commercia% premises' *5' Contro% of )a7or +ccident ,a"ards (e!u%ations *999A re1uire those who manufacture# store or transport dan!erous chemica%s or e4p%osives in certain 1uantities to notif the re%evant authorit ' *6' Dan!erous 3u&stances and E4p%osive +tmospheres (e!u%ations 2002A re1uire emp%o ers and the se%f-emp%o ed to carr out a ris$ assessment of wor$ activities invo%vin! dan!erous su&stances'

162

%lossar" of Ris( ,erms

(is$ )ana!ement Poca&u%ar Guidelines for Use in Standards
(adapted form IEC, International Electrochemical Commission)

Introduction
+%% t pes of underta$in! are faced with situations <or events= that constitute opportunities for &enefit or threats to their success' .pportunities ma &e rea%i"ed or threats averted & effective mana!ement' :n certain fie%ds# f%uctuation as representin! opportunit for !ain as we%% as potentia% for %oss' Conse1uent% # the ris$ mana!ement process is increasin!% reco!ni"ed as &ein! concerned with &oth the positive as we%% as the ne!ative aspects of these uncertainties' This Juide dea%s with ris$ mana!ement from &oth the positive and ne!ative perspectives' :n the preparation or revision of a standard that inc%udes ris$ mana!ement aspects; first considerations shou%d &e !iven to the definitions within this Juide' :t aims to provide &asic voca&u%ar to deve%op common understandin! amon! or!ani"ations across countries' ,owever# it ma &e necessar to deviate from the e4act wordin! to meet the needs of a specific domain' :n this case# the rationa%e for deviation shou%d &e made c%ear to the reader' :n the safet fie%d# ris$ mana!ement is focused on prevention and miti!ation of harm' This Juide is !eneric and is compi%ed to encompass the !enera% fie%d of ris$ mana!ement' The terms are arran!ed in the fo%%owin! order' a= >asic terms - ris$ - conse1uence - pro&a&i%it - event - source - ris$ criteria - ris$ mana!ement - ris$ mana!ement s stem &= Terms re%ated to peop%e or or!ani"ations affected & ris$ - sta$eho%der - interested part - ris$ perception - ris$ communication c= Terms re%ated to ris$ assessment - ris$ assessment - ris$ ana% sis - ris$ identification 163

- source identification - ris$ estimation - ris$ eva%uation d= Terms re%ated to ris$ treatment and contro% - ris$ treatment - ris$ contro% - ris$ optimi"ation - ris$ reduction - miti!ation - ris$ avoidance - ris$ transfer - ris$ financin! - ris$ retention - ris$ acceptance
This Juide provides standards writers with !eneric definitions of ris$ mana!ement terms' :t is intended as a top-%eve% !eneric document in the preparation or revision of standards that inc%ude aspects of ris$ mana!ement' The aim is to promote a coherent approach to the description of ris$ mana!ement activities and the use of ris$ mana!ement termino%o! ' :ts purpose is to contri&ute towards mutua% understandin! ris$ mana!ement practice'

6vervie= of ris( management terms and definitions

The re%ationships &etween the terms and definitions for ris$ mana!ement are shown in ?i!ures * to 3' (is$ mana!ement is part of the &roader mana!ement processes of or!ani"ations' (is$ mana!ement depends on the conte4t in which it is used' The words used in each conte4t ma var ' Ehere ris$-mana!ement-re%ated terms are used in a standard# it is imperative that their intended meanin!s within the conte4t of the standard are not misinterpreted or misunderstood' +ccordin!% # this Juide provides definitions for the various meanin!s that each term is %i$e% to have without !ivin! definitions that ma contradict each other' :ncreasin!% # or!ani"ations uti%i"e ris$ mana!ement processes in order to optimi"e the mana!ement of potentia% opportunities' This differs from the ris$ assessment process# where ris$ is ta$en as producin! on% ne!ative conse1uences' ,owever# since the &usiness communit increasin!% adopts the &roader approach to ris$# this Juide see$s to address &oth situations' The definitions in this Juide are &roader in concept than those in !iven in +nne4 +'

,erms and Definitions

1-7 Basic terms
3.1.1 risk com&ination of the pro*a*ilit" <3'*'3= of an event <3'*'/= and its consequence <3'*'2=
D.TE * The term9ris$9 is !enera%% used on% when there is at %east possi&i%it of ne!ative conse1uences' D.TE 2 :n some situations# ris$ arises from the possi&i%it of deviation from the e4pected outcome or event'

164

3.1.2 consequence outcome of an event <3'*'/=

D.TE * There can &e more than one conse1uence from one event' D.TE 2 Conse1uences can ran!e from positive to ne!ative' ,owever# conse1uences are a%wa s ne!ative for safet aspects' D.TE 3 Conse1uences can &e e4pressed 1ua%itative% or 1uantitative% '

3.1.3 probability e4tent to which an event <3'*'/= is %i$e% to occur

The mathematica% definition of pro&a&i%it is 8a rea% num&er in the sca%e 0 to * attached to a random event' :t can &e re%ated to a %on!-run re%ative fre1uenc of occurrence or to a de!ree of &e%ief that an event wi%% occur' ?or a hi!h de!ree of &e%ief# the pro&a&i%it is near *'9 D.TE 2 ?re1uenc rather than pro&a&i%it ma &e used in descri&in! ris(' D.TE 3 De!rees of &e%ief a&out pro&a&i%it can &e chosen as c%asses or ran$s such as M rare/un%i$e% /moderate/%i$e% /a%most certain# or M incredi&%e/impro&a&%e/remote/occasiona%/pro&a&%e/fre1uent'

3.1.4 event occurrence of a particu%ar set of circumstances

D.TE * The event can &e certain or uncertain' D.TE 2 The event can &e a sin!%e occurrence or a series of occurrences' D.TE 3 The pro*a*ilit" associated with the event can &e estimated for a !iven period of time'

3.1.5 source item or activit havin! a potentia% for a consequence <3'*'2=

D.TE :n the conte4t of safet # source is a ha"ard <refer to anne4 +='

3.1.6 risk criteria terms of reference & which the si!nificance of ris( <3'*'*= is assessed
D.TE (is$ criteria can inc%ude associated cost and &enefits# %e!a% and statutor re1uirements# socio-economic and environmenta% aspects# the concerns of sta(eholders# priorities and other inputs to the assessment'

3.1.7 risk management coordinated activities to direct and contro% an or!ani"ation with re!ard to ris( <3'*'*=
D.TE (is$ mana!ement !enera%% inc%udes ris( assessment# ris( treatment# ris( acceptance and ris( communication'

3.1.8 risk management system set of e%ements of an or!ani"ation@s mana!ement s stem concerned with mana!in! ris( <3'*'*=
D.TE * )ana!ement s stem e%ements can inc%ude strate!ic p%annin!# decision ma$in!# and other processes for dea%in! with ris$' D.TE 2 The cu%ture of an or!ani"ation is ref%ected in its ris$ mana!ement s stem'

116

1-5 ,erms related to people or organi9ations affected *" ris(

stakeholder an individua%# !roup or or!ani"ation that ma affect# &e affected & # or perceive itse%f to &e affected & # a ris( <3'*'*=
D.TE * The decision-ma$er is a%so a sta$eho%der' D.TE 2 3ta$eho%der inc%udes &ut has a &roader meanin! than interested part"-

3.2.2 interested party person or !roup havin! an interest in the performance or success of an or!ani"ation
EZ+)P0E3 Customers# owners# peop%e in an or!ani"ation# supp%iers# &an$ers# unions# partners# or societ ' D.TE + !roup can comprise an or!ani"ation# a part thereof# or more than one or!ani"ation'

3.2.3 risk perception wa in which a sta(eholder <3'2'*= views a ris( <3'*'*=# &ased on a set of va%ues or concerns
D.TE * (is$ perception depends on the sta$eho%der@s needs# issues# and $now%ed!e' D.TE 2 (is$ perception can differ from o&7ective data'

3.2.4 risk communication

e4chan!e or sharin! of information a&out ris( <3'*'*= &etween the decision-ma$er and other sta(eholders <3'2'*=
D.TE The information can re%ate to the e4istence# nature# form# pro*a*ilit"# severit # accepta&i%it # treatment# or other aspects of ris$'

1-1 ,erms related to ris( assessment

3.3.1 risk assessment overa%% process of ris( anal"sis <3'3'2= and ris( evaluation <3'3'2= 3.3.2 risk analysis s stematic use of information to identif sources <3'*'5= and to estimate the ris( <3'*'*=
D.TE * (is$ ana% sis provides a &asis for ris( evaluation# ris( treatment# and ris( acceptance' D.TE 2 :nformation can inc%ude historica% data# theoretica% ana% sis# informed opinions# and the concerns of sta(eholders'

3.3.3 risk identi ication process to find# %ist and characteri"e e%ements of ris( <3'*'*=
D.TE * E%ements can inc%ude source or ha"ard# event# consequence and pro*a*ilit"' D.TE 2 (is$ identification can a%so ref%ect the concerns of sta(eholders'

3.3.4 source identi ication process to find# %ist and characteri"e sources <3'*'5=
D.TE :n the conte4t of safet # source identification is ca%%ed ha"ard identification'

3.3.5 risk estimation process used to assi!n va%ues to the pro*a*ilit" <3'*'3= and consequences <3'*'2= of a ris( <3'*'*=

111

D.TE (is$ estimation can consider cost# &enefits# the concerns of sta(eholders# and other varia&%es# as appropriate for ris( evaluation'

3.3.6 risk evaluation process of comparin! the estimated ris( <3'*'*= a!ainst !iven ris( criteria <3'*'2= to determine the si!nificance of the ris$
D.TE * (is$ eva%uation ma &e used to assist in the decision to accept or to treat a ris$'

1-? ,erms related to ris( treatment and control

3.4.1 risk treatment process of se%ection and imp%ementation of measures to modif ris( <3'*'*=
D.TE * The term ris$ treatment is sometimes used for the measures themse%ves' D.TE 2 (is$ treatment measures can inc%ude avoidin!# optimi"in!# transferrin! or retainin! ris$'

3.4.2 risk control actions imp%ementin! ris( management <3'*'5= decisions

D.TE (is$ contro% ma invo%ve monitorin!# reeva%uation# and comp%iance with decisions'

3.4.3 risk optimi!ation process# re%ated to a ris( <3'*'*=# to minimi"e the ne!ative and to ma4imi"e the positive consequences <3'*'2= and their respective pro*a*ilities <3'*'3=
D.TE * :n the conte4t of safet # ris$ optimi"ation is focused on reducin! the ris$' D.TE 2 (is$ optimi"ation depends upon ris( criteria# inc%udin! costs and %e!a% re1uirements' D.TE 3 (is$s associated with ris( control can &e considered'

3.4.4 risk reduction actions ta$en to %essen the pro*a*ilit" <3'*'3=# ne!ative consequences <3'*'2=# or &oth# associated with a ris( <3'*'*= 3.4.5 mitigation %imitation of an ne!ative consequence <3'*'2= of a particu%ar event <3'*'/= 3.4.6 risk avoidance decision not to &ecome invo%ved in# or action to withdraw from# a ris$ situation
D.TE The decision ma &e ta$en &ased on the resu%t

3.4.7 risk trans er sharin! with another part the &urden of %oss or &enefit of !ain# for a ris( <3'*'*=
D.TE * 0e!a% or statutor re1uirements can %imit# prohi&it# or mandate the transfer of certain ris$' D.TE 2 (is$ transfer can &e carried out throu!h insurance or other a!reements' D.TE 3 (is$ transfer can create new ris$s or modif e4istin! ris$' D.TE / (e%ocation of the source is not ris$ transfer'

3.4.8

112

risk inancing provision of funds to meet the cost of imp%ementin! ris( treatment <3'/'*= and re%ated costs
D.TE :n some industries# ris$ financin! refers to fundin! on% the financia% conse1uences re%ated to the ris('

3.4." risk retention acceptance of the &urden of %oss# or &enefit of !ain# from a particu%ar ris( <3'*'*=
D.TE * (is$ retention inc%udes the acceptance of ris$s that have not &een identified' D.TE 2 (is$ retention does not inc%ude treatments invo%vin! insurance# or transfer & other means' D.TE 3 There can &e varia&i%it in the de!ree of acceptance and dependence on ris( criteria'

3.4.1# risk acceptance decision to accept a ris( <3'*'*=

D.TE * The ver& 8to accept9 is chosen to conve the idea that acceptance has its &asic dictionar meanin!' D.TE 2 (is$ acceptance depends on ris( criteria'

3.4.11 residual risk ris( <3'*'*= remainin! after ris( treatment <3'/'*= :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: Figure 7 M Relationship *et=een terms *ased on their definitions regarding NRis(O (is$ <3'*'*= Pro&a&i%it <3'*'3= Event <3'*'/= Conse1uence <3'*'2= Figure 5 M Relationship *et=een terms *ased on their definitions regarding NRis( )anagementO (is$ mana!ement < 3'*'5= (is$ assessment <3'3'*= (is$ ana% sis <3'3'2= 3ource identification <3'3'/= (is$ estimation <3'3'5= (is$ eva%uation <3'3'2= (is$ treatment <3'/'*= (is$ avoidance <3'/'2= (is$ optimi"ation <3'/'3= (is$ transfer <3'/'5= (is$ retention <3'/'9= (is$ communication <3'2'/= (is$ acceptance <3'/'*0= Figure 1 M Relationship *et=een terms *ased on their definitions regarding NSta(eholderO 3ta$eho%der <3'2'*= :nterested part <3'2'2=
Pe" for Figures 7 5 & 1 +

11,

> C The terms > and C are used in the definition of the term + or the notes to definition +'

11-

.nneB . ,erms and definitions .pplied to safet":related ris( management$.1. sa ety. freedom from unaccepta&%e ris$ $.2. risk. com&ination of the pro&a&i%it of occurrence of harm and the severit of that harm $.3. harm. ph sica% in7ur or dama!e to the hea%th of peop%e# or dama!e to propert or the environment $.4. harm ul event. occurrence in which a ha"ardous situation resu%ts in harm $.5. ha!ard. potentia% source of harm' D.TE The term ha"ard can &e 1ua%ified in order to define its
ori!in or the nature of the e4pected harm <e'!' e%ectric shoc$ ha"ard# crushin! ha"ard# cuttin! ha"ard# to4ic ha"ard# fire ha"ard# drownin! ha"ard='

$.6. ha!ardous situation. circumstance in which peop%e# propert or the environment are e4posed to one or more ha"ards $.7. tolerable risk. ris$ which is accepted in a !iven conte4t &ased on the current va%ues of societ $.8. protective measure. means used to reduce ris$' D.TE Protective measures inc%ude ris$
reduction & inherent% safe desi!n# protective devices# and persona% protective e1uipment# information for use and insta%%ation# and trainin!'

$.". residual risk. ris$s remainin! after protective measures have &een ta$en $.1#. risk analysis. s stematic use of avai%a&%e information to identif ha"ards and to estimate the ris$ $.11. risk evaluation. procedure &ased on the ris$ ana% sis to determine whether the to%era&%e ris$ has &een achieved $.12. risk assessment. overa%% process comprisin! a ris$ ana% sis and a ris$ eva%uation $.13. intended use. use of a product# process# or service in accordance with information provided & the supp%ier $.14. reasonably oreseeable misuse. use of a product# process# or service in a wa not intended & the supp%ier# &ut this wa ma resu%t from readi% predicta&%e human &ehavior'

::::::::::::::::::::::::::: Bi*liograph"
International standards
]*^ :3. 50/A2000# ;erminolo y work ? @rinciples and methods' ]2^ :3. 620A*992# ;erminolo y work ?"armonization of concepts and terms ' ]3^ :3. 353/-*A*993# Statistics ? Aocabulary and symbols ? @art 4$ @robability and eneral statistical terms' ]/^ :3. 9000A2000# Buality mana ement systems ? Fundamentals and vocabulary ' ]5^ :3. *02/*A*992# -nternational terminolo y standards ? @reparation and layout '

11.

]2^ :EC 20050 <*9*=A*990# -nternational /lectrotechnical Aocabulary ? Chapter 494$ Dependability and quality of service'

IS6;IE' %uides
]5^ :3./:EC Juide 2A*992# Standardization and related activities ? Ceneral vocabulary ' ]6^ :3./:EC Juide 5*A*999# Safety aspects ? Cuidelines for their inclusion in standards '

::::::::::::::::::::::

11/

References

!eferences
"isk General 1. 9'& ?1442@, 'uccessful 9ealth and 'afety (anagement, 9'?G@/., 2nd &dition, 9'& 5ooks 9armsK Glendon : & (c=enna &+ ?144.@, 9uman 'afety and "isk (anagement, )hapman & 9all. 2. 5ird +& & Germain G1 ?143.@, #ractical 1oss )ontrol 1eadership, :nternational 1oss )ontrol :nstitute, :nstitute #ublishing, 1oganville, Georgia. ,. 9armsK"ingdahl, 1. ?144,@, 'afety nalysis O #rincipals & #ractices in 0ccupational 'afety, &lsevier -. 9oyos, ).G & Bimolong, 5 ?1433@, 0ccupational 'afety & ccident #revention, &lsevier .. 9'& ?1442@, The )ost of ccidents at Cork, 9'?G@4/, 2nd &dition, 9'& 5ooks. /. "ingdahl, 1. ?144,@, 'afety nalysis O #rincipals & #ractices in 0ccupational 'afety, &lsevier 2. 9oyos, ).G & Bimolong, 5 ?1433@, 0ccupational 'afety & ccident #revention, &lsevier 3. 9'& ?1444@ The )osts to 5ritain of Corkplace ccidents and Cork "elated :ll 9ealth in 144.F4/, 9'& 5ooks. 4. 5aker G ?2666@ 9ard Targets, #aper presented to the Puarries Aational >oint dvisory )ommittee, (arch. 16.'cott ?144.@, =illing 0ff &rrors, (ine & Puarry, (ay. 11. ')A: 9uman +actors 'tudy Group ?144,@: ,rd "eportK 0rganising for 'afety, 9'& 5ooks. 12."idley >, )hanning > ?ed@ ?1444@ 'afety t Cork, .th &dition, 5utter<orth 9einemann 1,.9'& ?1442@, Dangerous (aintenance: 'tudy of (aintenance accidents and ho< to prevent them, 9('0. 1-.9'& ?1442@, 'uccessful 9ealth & 'afety (anagement, 9'?g@ /., 9'& 5ooks. ccident theory 1..9einrich 9C, #eterson D & "oos A ?1436@, :ndustrial ccident #revention, .th &dition, (cgra< 9ill, Ae< %ork 1/.5ird +& & Germain G1 ?143/@, #ractical 1oss )ontrol 1eadership, :nternational 1oss )ontrol :nstitute, 1oganville, Georgia.

112

12.#eterson D ?1423@, TechniEues of 'afety (anagement, 2nd &dition, (cgra< 9ill 13."immington > ?144,@, Does 9ealth and 'afety #ayD 'afety (anagement, 'eptember, p,4K/2 14.9'& ?1444@, "educing &rror and :nfluencing 5ehaviour, 9'?G@-3, 9'& 5ooks 26.9') ?144,@ 0rganising for 'afety, ,rd "eport of the 9uman +actors 'tudy Group of the dvisory )ommittee on the 'afety of Auclear :nstallations, 9'& 5ooks. 21.Department of Transport ?1433@, :nvestigation into the =ings )ross *nderground +ire, 1ondon:9('0 22.Department of Transport ?1432@ The 9erald of +ree &nterprise +ormal "eport, 1ondon:9('0 2,.Department of Transport ?1433@ :nvestigation into the )lapham >unction "ail<ay ccident, 1ondon:9('0 2-.Department of &nergy ?1446@ The #ublic :nEuiry into the #iper lpha Disaster, ?2 vol@, 1ondon:9('0 9uman +actors 2.."eason > ?1446@ 9uman &rror, )ambridge *niversity #ress 2/.9'& ?1444@, "educing &rror and :nfluencing 5ehaviour, 9'?G@-3, 9'& 5ooks 22.9'& ?1442@ 'uccessful 9ealth and 'afety (anagement, 9'G/., 9'& 5ooks. 23.Dairymple at al ?1443@, 0ccupational 9ealth & 'afety (anagement 'ystems: "evie< and nalysis of :nternational, national and regional systems and proposals for a ne< international document, "eport prepared by :nternational 0ccupational 9ygiene ssociation for the :nternational 1abour 0ffice 24.5': ?144/@: 5'3366: Guide to 0ccupational 9ealth and 'afety (anagement 'ystems. ,6.5': ?1444@: 09' ' 13661: 0ccupational 9ealth and 'afety (anagement 'ystems O 'pecification. "isk ssessment and "isk (anagement ,1.+rom )ox '.>. & Tait ".'. ?1441@ "eliability, 'afety and "isk (anagement. 5utter<orth 9einemann ,2.9'& ?1442@, 'uccessful 9ealth & 'afety (anagement, 9'?G@/., 9'& 5ooks. ,,.5amber 1 ?1444@, #rincipals of the (anagement of "isk, in "idley > & )hanning > ?ed@ 'afety at Cork,.th &dition, 5utter<orth 9einmann
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,-.9'& ?1433@ The Tolerability of "isk from Auclear #o<er 'tations, 9('0. ,..:)hem& ?1442@ Aomonclature on "isk ssessment in the #rocess :ndustries, :)hem&, "ugby, *= ,/. Aussey ) ?144.@ ccidents 9appen O 9o< they can be avioded and the risks assessed. :n proceedings of the :5) )onference on #reventing & (anaging &mergencies, 1ondon: :5) Technical 'ervices 1td. ,2.9arms "ingdahl 1 ?144.@, 'afety nalysis: #rincipals and #ractice in 0ccupational 'afety, &lsevier pplied 'cience. ,3. )ole "> ?144/@ 9'& 'trategy for :mproved 9ealth in the (ining :ndustry. :n proceedings of the :(( )onference on 9ealth & 'afety in (ining & (etallurgy. 1ondon: :nstitute of (ining & (etallurgy. ,4.5ailey '" ?144.@, The (anagement of 0ccupational 9ygiene, 0ccupational 9ealth & 'afety Training *nit, *niversity of #ortsmouth -6.Glendon : & (c=enna &+ ?144.@, 9uman 'afety & "isk (anagement, )hapman & 9all, *= -1.#eterson D. ?1423@ TechniEues of 'afety (anagement, 2nd &dition, (cGra< 9ill, Ae< %ork -2. +erry T. ?1433@ (odern ccident :nvestigation and nalysis, >ohn Ciley & 'ons, )anada. -,.9'& ?1442@, (anaging )ontractors O Guide for &mployers, 9'& 5ooks. --.)ra<sha< ?2666@ )ontractors 'afety #assport 'cheme, in #roceedings of the Puarry 2666 (illennium )onference, 5ristol, 0ctober. :nstitute of Puarrying, *=. -..%asser &l 'hayeb: "isk nalysis in (ining: an &conomical spect of Aet<ork 'imulation, (.'c. Thesis, +aculty of &ngineering, )airo *., 144/

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