The CauchyRiemann Equations

Let f (z ) be dened in a neighbourhood of z0 . Recall that, by denition, f is dierentiable at z0 with derivative f (z0 ) if f (z0 + z ) f (z0 ) = f (z0 ) lim z 0 z Whether or not a function of one real variable is dierentiable at some x0 depends only on how smooth f is at x0 . The following example shows that this is no longer the case for the complex derivative. Example 1 Let f (z ) = z . Then, writing z in its polar form rei , f (z0 + z ) f (z0 ) z0 + z z0 z rei = = = = e2 i z z z rei So if we send z to zero along the real axis, so that = 0 or = and hence e2 i = 1, f (z0 +z )f (z0 ) tends to 1, and z 3 2 i = 1, if we send z to 0 along the imaginary axis, so that = 2 or 2 and hence e f (z0 +z )f (z0 ) tends to 1. z f (z0 +z )f (z0 ) does not exist and f (z ) = z is nowhere dierentiable. Note Thus limz0 z that if we write f (x + iy ) = x + iy = x iy = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ), then all partial derivatives of all orders of u(x, y ) = x and v (x, y ) = y exist even though f (z ) does not exist. This example shows that dierentiablility of u(x, y ) and v (x, y ) does not imply the differentiablility of f (x + iy ) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ). These notes explore further the relationship between f (z ) and the partial derivatives of u and v . We shall rst ask the question Suppose that we know that f (z0 ) exists. What does that tell us about u(x, y ) and v (x, y )? Here is the answer. Theorem 2 Let f (z ) be dened in a neighbourhood of z0 . Assume that f is dierentiable at z0 . Write f (x + iy ) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ). Then all of the partial derivatives u x (x0 , y0 ), u v v (x0 , y0 ), x (x0 , y0 ), and y (x0 , y0 ) exist and y
u x (x0 , y0 )

v y (x0 , y0 )

u y (x0 , y0 )

v = x ( x0 , y 0 )

(CR)

and f (x0 + iy0 ) =

The equations (CR) are called the CauchyRiemann equations.

Proof:

By assumption f (z0 + z ) f (z0 ) z 0 z [u(x0 + x, y0 + y ) u(x0 , y0 )] + i[v (x0 + x, y0 + y ) v (x0 , y0 )] = lim z 0 z

f (z0 ) = lim

In particular, by sending z = x + iy to zero along the real axis (i.e. setting y = 0 and sending x 0), we have f (x0 + iy0 ) = lim and hence [u(x0 + x, y0 ) u(x0 , y0 )] + i[v (x0 + x, y0 ) v (x0 , y0 )] x0 x u(x0 + x, y0 ) u(x0 , y0 ) x0 x v ( x + x, y 0 ) v ( x0 , y 0 ) 0 Im f (z0 ) = lim x0 x Re f (z0 ) = lim
u v (x0 , y0 ), x ( x0 , y 0 ) x v x (x0 , y0 )

This tells us that the partial derivatives

exist and (1)

= Re f (x0 + iy0 )

= Im f (x0 + iy0 )

This gives the formula for f (x0 + iy0 ) in the statement of the theorem. If, instead, we send z = x + iy to zero along the imaginary axis (i.e. set x = 0 and send y 0), we have f (x0 + iy0 ) = lim [u(x0 , y0 + y ) u(x0 , y0 )] + i[v (x0 , y0 + y ) v (x0 , y0 )] y 0 iy [v (x0 , y0 + y ) v (x0 , y0 )] i[u(x0 , y0 + y ) u(x0 , y0 )] = lim y 0 y v (x0 , y0 + y ) v (x0 , y0 ) x0 y u(x0 , y0 + y ) u(x0 , y0 ) Im f (z0 ) = lim x0 y Re f (z0 ) = lim
v (x0 , y0 ), u ( x0 , y 0 ) y y u y (x0 , y0 )

and hence

This tells us that the partial derivatives

exist and (2)

= Re f (x0 + iy0 )

= Im f (x0 + iy0 )

Comparing (1) and (2) gives (CR).

January 19, 2012

The CauchyRiemann Equations

Theorem 2 says that it is necessary for u(x, y ) and v (x, y ) to obey the CauchyRiemann equations in order for f (x + iy ) = u(x + iy ) + v (x + iy ) to be dierentiable. The following theorem says that, provided the rst order partial derivatives of u and v are continuous, the converse is also true if u(x, y ) and v (x, y ) obey the CauchyRiemann equations then f (x + iy ) = u(x + iy ) + v (x + iy ) is dierentiable. Theorem 3 Let z0 C and let G be an open subset of C that contains z0 . If f (x + iy ) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ) is dened on G and the rst order partial derivatives of u and v exist in G and are continuous at (x0 , y0 ) u and v obey the CauchyRiemann equations at (x0 , y0 ), v (x0 , y0 ) + i x ( x0 , y 0 ) . then f is dierentiable at z0 = x0 + iy0 and f (x0 + iy0 ) = u x Proof: Write f (z0 + z ) f (z0 ) = U (z ) + iV (z ) z u(x0 + x, y0 + y ) u(x0 , y0 ) z v (x0 + x, y0 + y ) v (x0 , y0 ) V (z ) = z U (z ) =
z 0 u v (x0 , y0 ) + i x (x0 , y0 ). x

where

Our goal is to prove that lim [U (z ) + iV (z )] exists and equals

Concentrate on U (z ). The rst step is to rewrite U (z ) in terms of expressions that y )u(x0 ,y0 ) will converge to partial derivatives of u and v . For example u(x0 ,y0 + converges y to uy (x0 , y0 ) when y 0. We can achieve this by adding and subtracting u(x0 , y0 + y ): U (z ) = u(x0 + x, y0 + y ) u(x0 , y0 ) z u(x0 + x, y0 + y ) u(x0 , y0 + y ) u(x0 , y0 + y ) u(x0 , y0 ) + = z z

To express U (z ) in terms of partial derivatives of u, we use the (ordinary rst year Calculus) mean value theorem. Recall that it says that, if F (x) is dierentiable everywhere between x0 and x0 + x, then F (x0 + x) F (x0 ) = F (x 0 ) x for some x0 between x0 and x0 + x. Applying the mean value theorem with F (x) = u(x, y0 + y ) to the rst half of U (z ) and with F (y ) = u(x0 , y ) to the second half gives
ux ( x uy ( x0 , y 0 )y 0 , y0 + y )x U (z ) = + z z for some x 0 between x0 and x0 + x and some y0 between y0 and y0 + y . Because ux and uy are continuous, ux (x 0 , y0 + y ) is almost ux (x0 , y0 ) and uy (x0 , y0 ) is almost uy (x0 , y0 ) January 19, 2012 The CauchyRiemann Equations

when z is small. So we write U (z ) = ux (x0 , y0 )x uy (x0 , y0 )y + + E1 (z ) + E2 (z ) z z

where the error terms are E1 (z ) = [ux (x 0 , y0 + y ) ux (x0 , y0 )]

x z

y z

Similarly V (z ) =
vx (x vy (x0 , y0 )y 0 , y0 + y )x + z z vx (x0 , y0 )x vy (x0 , y0 )y = + + E3 (z ) + E4 (z ) z z

for some x 0 between x0 and x0 + x, and some y0 between y0 and y0 + y . The error terms are x E3 (z ) = [vx (x 0 , y0 + y ) vx (x0 , y0 )] z y E4 (z ) = [vy (x0 , y0 ) vy (x0 , y0 )] z Now as z 0 both x 0 and x0 (both of which are between x0 and x0 + x) must approach x0 and both y0 and y0 (both of which are between y0 and y0 + y ) must approach y0 and y x z 1 and z 1 Recalling that ux , uy , vx and vy are all assumed to be continuous at (x0 , y0 ), we conclude that lim E1 (z ) = lim E2 (z ) = lim E3 (z ) = lim E4 (z ) = 0 z 0 z 0 z 0 z 0

and, using the CauchyRiemann equations, lim f (z0 + z ) f (z0 ) = lim U (z ) + iV (z ) z 0 z ux (x0 , y0 )x uy (x0 , y0 )y vx (x0 , y0 )x vy (x0 , y0 )y = lim + +i +i z 0 z z z z ux (x0 , y0 )x vx (x0 , y0 )y vx (x0 , y0 )x ux (x0 , y0 )y = lim +i +i z 0 z z z z x + iy x + iy = lim ux (x0 , y0 ) + ivx (x0 , y0 ) z 0 z z = ux (x0 , y0 ) + ivx (x0 , y0 )

z 0

as desired.
January 19, 2012 The CauchyRiemann Equations

Example 4 The function f (z ) = z has f (x + iy ) = x iy so that u(x, y ) = x and v (x, y ) = y The rst order partial derivatives of u and v are ux (x, y ) = 1 vx (x, y ) = 0 uy (x, y ) = 0 vy (x, y ) = 1

As the CauchyRiemann equation ux (x, y ) = vy (x, y ) is satised nowhere, the function f (z ) = z is dierentiable nowhere. We have already seen this in Example 1. Example 5 The function f (z ) = ez has f (x + iy ) = ex+iy = ex cos y + i sin y = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ) with u(x, y ) = ex cos y and v (x, y ) = ex sin y The rst order partial derivatives of u and v are ux (x, y ) = ex cos y uy (x, y ) = ex sin y vx (x, y ) = ex sin y vy (x, y ) = ex cos y

As the CauchyRiemann equations ux (x, y ) = vy (x, y ), uy (x, y ) = vx (x, y ) are satised for all (x, y ), the function f (z ) = ez is entire and its derivative is f (z ) = f (x + iy ) = ux (x, y ) + ivx (x, y ) = ex cos y + iex sin y = ez

Example 6 The function f (x + iy ) = x2 + y + i(y 2 x) has u(x, y ) = x2 + y and v (x, y ) = y 2 x The rst order partial derivatives of u and v are ux (x, y ) = 2x vx (x, y ) = 1 uy (x, y ) = 1 vy (x, y ) = 2y

As the CauchyRiemann equations ux (x, y ) = vy (x, y ), uy (x, y ) = vx (x, y ) are satised only on the line y = x, the function f is dierentiable on the line y = x and nowhere else. So it is nowhere analytic.
January 19, 2012 The CauchyRiemann Equations

Example 7 The function f (x + iy ) = x2 y 2 + 2ixy has u(x, y ) = x2 y 2 and v (x, y ) = 2xy The rst order partial derivatives of u and v are ux (x, y ) = 2x uy (x, y ) = 2y vx (x, y ) = 2y vy (x, y ) = 2x

As the CauchyRiemann equations ux (x, y ) = vy (x, y ), uy (x, y ) = vx (x, y ) are satised for all (x, y ), this function is entire. There is another way to see this. It suces to observe that f (z ) = z 2 , since (x + iy )2 = x2 y 2 + 2ixy . So f is a polynomial in z and we already know that all polynomials are dierentiable everywhere. Example 8 The function f (x + iy ) = x2 + y 2 has u(x, y ) = x2 + y 2 and v (x, y ) = 0 The rst order partial derivatives of u and v are ux (x, y ) = 2x uy (x, y ) = 2y vx (x, y ) = 0 vy (x, y ) = 0

As the CauchyRiemann equations ux (x, y ) = vy (x, y ), uy (x, y ) = vx (x, y ) are satised only at x = y = 0, the function f is dierentiable only at the point z = 0. So it is nowhere analytic. There is another way to see that f (z ) cannot be dierentiable at any z = 0. Just z) would observe that f (z ) = z z . If f (z ) were dierentiable at some z0 = 0, then z = f( z also be dierentiable at z0 and we already know that this is not case.

January 19, 2012

The CauchyRiemann Equations