4.

Design of suction and inlet pipes

To avoid air and gas pockets, suction pipes must be arranged horizontally or slope continuously upwards towards the pump. They must be completely leak free and be capable of being completely vented. If conical section reducers are necessary, they should be of the eccentric type. Inlet pipework which does not fall vertically to the pump must be arranged horizontally or slope continuously downwards toward the pump. Sudden changes in the cross sectional area and sharp bends should be avoided. Badly designed suction and inlet pipework (e.g. bends in several planes immediately before the pump inlet) can substantially impair the pump performance. For double entry pumps, it is essential that the flow into each side of the impeller is equal. For this reason a straight section of pipe, length at least 2x the diameter, is placed between any necessary bend and the suction flange of the pump, to equalise the flow. If several identical pumps are connected to a common suction or inlet pipe, the pipework should be arranged in such a way that each pump has identical inlet flow conditions. Right angle branches should be avoided, even where a straight section of pipe can be fitted before the pump. (Fig. 4.3.01). More favourable flow conditions are achieved by swept branch connections, fig. 4.3.02 shows a satisfactory arrangement of inlet pipework for a two pump system. Fig. 4.3.02 Correct pipe arrangement for two similar pumps with a common inlet pipe

Fig. 4.3.01 Poor branch arrangement

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The velocity of flow should be kept within the following guidelines: in the suction line in inlet line Us 1.0 to 2 m/s Uz 1,5 to 2,5 m/s max. 3 m/s max. 3 m/s

Isolating valves in the suction or inlet pipes must be fully open during operation and should not be used for control or regulation. Isolating valves in suction pipework should be mounted with the spindle horizontal or vertically downwards, so that air pockets in the spindle cover are avoided. The spindle seal should be adequate to prevent the in leakage of air into the valve. If the pump is drawing from a sump and a suction strainer and valve cannot be fitted, then a bell mouth suction pipe should be fitted. The positioning of the suction strainer or bell mouth from the sump floor and walls should be such that the liquid can enter uniformly from all directions, see fig. 4.3.03 and 4.3.04.

Fig. 4.3.03 Arrangement of a sump with open feed

Fig. 4.3.04 Arrangement of a sump with two suction pipes

If the sump supply pipe discharges above the liquid level (as shown in fig. 4.3.03), there is the danger of air entrainment, which can impair the pump performance. The problem can be reduced by increasing the distance between the feed and the suction pipe to allow the air to escape from the liquid, or by providing baffle plates, or by selecting a relatively large immersion depth (M) as per fig. 4.3.05, although this may increase installation costs. Fig. 4.3.05 Minimum submergence M for open feed to the sump according to Fig. 4.3.03
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4.4 4.4.1

Design of the suction chambers for vertical pumps General

The intake chamber of a vertically installed pump should be designed to ensure undisturbed flow to the pump for all operating conditions and all water levels. This is particularly important for pumps with high specific speed (mixed flow and axial flow) as these are more sensitive to irregular inlet flow conditions than centrifugal pumps. The pump operation will be trouble free if the flow in to the pump impeller is swirl free and there is a uniform velocity profile across the entire cross section of the entry chamber. Furthermore the formation of air entraining vortices, in the intake chamber, must be prevented when operating at minimum liquid levels. If these conditions are not met, the flowrate and efficiency of the pump may be impaired. In severe cases, damage could occur due to vibration and cavitation. 4.4.2 Open intake chambers If a single pump is installed in an intake chamber, then the principal dimensions may be selected from the guidelines in Fig. 4.4.01 . A channel of uniform cross section at least 5xD should be provided upstream of the pump. The flow velocity in this channel should not exceed 0.5 m/s. The minimum submergence depth M is defined as the distance from the lowest edge of the suction bell mouth to the lowest inlet water level (NNW). For the installation of vertical pumps, no general guideline values can be given. This must be determined by the pump manufacturer for each individual application, see Fig. 4.4.01.

Fig. 4.4.01 Dimensions for intake chamber for a single pump

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Fig. 4.4.02 Minimum submergence dependent on flowrate. In the flow range I, the minimum submergence of pumps in wet installations, with bearings which are lubricated by the pumped liquid, ensures that the lowest bearing is lubricated during start up. In this case M is determined by the mechanical design of the pump. In the flow range II the minimum submergence must prevent the formation of air vortices which could enter the pump to be broken up by the impeller causing severe vibrations which could damage the unit. In this case M is determined by the flow velocity at the pump inlet. In the flow range III, the (NPSH) required value (NPSHR) is the determining parameter. The minimum submergence must ensure that cavitation does not occur at any point in the pump. If several pumps have to be installed in one intake chamber, separate bays for the individual pumps provide the best solution (Fig. 4.4.03). If this is not possible, an arrangement similar to Fig. 4.4.04 should be used, whereby the spacing suggested are guidance values only. In difficult cases, baffle plates may have to be installed (Fig. 4.4.05), but their positioning should be agreed with the pump manufacturer.

Fig. 4.4.03

Fig. 4.4.04

Fig. 4.4.05

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Incorrect design of intake chambers: In the arrangements in Fig. 4.4.06 and 4.4.07, the liquid enters at one end of the suction chamber. The flow to the individual pumps is unequal and the pumps will affect each other.

Fig. 4.4.06

Fig. 4.4.07

Several pumps arranged non-symmetrically in one intake chamber Sudden expansion or contraction of the supply channel Insufficient length of supply channel of uniform cross sectional area Steps or pipes in the bed of the intake chamber, immediately before the pump Suction inlet too close to the bottom of suction chamber The sump supply pipe discharges above the liquid level so that air entrainment can impair the pump performance, see section 4.3. Covered intake chambers Fig. 4.4.08

4.4.3

If for any reason the required length of supply channel (l 5xD), which is required for trouble free operation cannot be achieved, then an alternative is to fit a sloping cover to the intake chamber. These covers are very effective in reducing swirl. Guidelines for the dimensions of these covers can be taken from Fig. 4.4.08, but final figures should be agreed with the pump manufacturer. A cover with an appropriate profile can also provide the necessary acceleration of the inlet flow to achieve a more uniform velocity profile in open intake chambers where site conditions make changes in the angle of the inlet chamber side walls or slope of the bed before the suction bell mouth unavoidable.
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4.4.4

Inlet elbows

Minimum installation dimensions are achieved by using turbine type elbows , which are shaped to accelerate the flow (Fig. 4.4.09 and 4.4.10). If the flow velocity is accelerated by a factor of 4 to 5, then the length of the elbow (inlet section to centre of the pump) of lKr 4x impeller inlet diameter is sufficient to achieve uniform velocity distribution. F Fig. 4.4.09 Accelerating elbow

The inlet cross sectional area AE of the elbow should be large enough to ensure that the velocity at inlet is low enough to prevent air entrainment or bubble formation. A1 = (4 to 5) x A2 Fig. 4.4.10 Cross sections

In each case a cost effectiveness assessment should be carried out to compare the higher constructional costs of an inlet elbow compared to an inlet chamber. The design and construction of an inlet elbow is often more complex and can require much deeper excavations.

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4.5 4.5.1

Priming centrifugal pumps prior to start up General

In general, centrifugal pumps have to be filled with liquid prior to starting up (i.e. primed). In installations where the liquid flows to the pump (flooded suction), care must be taken to ensure that the casing of the pump is adequately vented. Priming pumps with a static suction lift can be more difficult. In contrast to positive displacement pumps, standard design of centrifugal pumps if not primed, can produce virtually no suction lift. They are therefore incapable of evacuating the suction line and their own casing and care must be taken using other means to achieve this. A distinction should be made between self priming centrifugal pumps and non-self priming centrifugal pumps with external priming devices. 4.5.2 Self priming pumps

Self priming is a term used to describe pumps which are capable of priming their suction pipe without the use of external devices, i.e. which are capable of pumping air (gas) if the pump has previously been filled with liquid.

Fig. 4.5.01 Suction capacity of a side channel pump The best known types are the side channel pump (star vane impeller) and the radial flow centrifugal pump with built in ejector. Fig. 4.5.01. shows the characteristic suction capacity curve of a side channel pump, pumping air. During the suction operation, the pump operates in this range until the liquid enters the pump due to the suction lift created. For a short time a mixture of both gas and liquid are pumped until eventually the full liquid flowrate, for which the pump is designed, is reached. The sequence of operations from priming to full liquid flow, proceeds automatically without any external influence.
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The design of the branch connections and the configuration of the pump internals, ensure that when the pump is stopped, the backflow of liquid does not empty the pump completely (siphon out). Sufficient liquid remains in the pump to restart the self priming action at any time, even without a foot valve in the suction line. The self priming capacity indicates the maximum suction lift which the pump can reprime and re-establish full pumping, after stopping and allowing the suction line to drain down. The self priming feature increases the reliability of operation, particularly where immediate availability is required on intermittent operation, where the pumping is arranged from lower lying wells or vessels or the suction pipe is laid over ground that rises and falls. As the economic installation of side channel pumps is usually limited to lower flowrates (up to 35 m3/h), compound self priming pumps are used for higher duties. These are single or multi-stage centrifugal pumps with radial impellers and an integrated side channel stage, which is arranged in parallel with the first or last radial impeller. The radial stages pump the liquid when the efficiency is high and the side channel stage enables the self priming capacity and the pumping of entrained gases. 4.5.3 Non-Self-priming pumps

Where a non-self-priming pump operates under suction lift conditions, the pumping operation can only be started when the pump casing and the suction pipe is filled with liquid. A foot valve arranged in the suction pipe will permit filling from an external source. If this is not possible the pump and suction pipe must be evacuated by means of an external priming pump with the discharge closed by an isolating valve. Liquid ring vacuum pumps are generally used for this operation, although occasionally self priming side channel pumps may be used. 4.5.4 Design of priming pumps

Suction lines rarely consist of a simple vertical pipe, they normally include horizontal and vertical (or sloping) sections. It can be assumed with reasonable accuracy, that the pressure in the entire suction pipe only reduces during the priming of vertical or sloping sections and during priming of horizontal sections it remains constant. Different formulae are therefore used to calculate the priming requirement of horizontal and vertical (or sloping) sections.

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For rising (vertical or sloping) pipe sections pA pE S t = 60 Vrise (2 ln ) pE pA pE For horizontal pipe sections pA S t = 60 Vhoriz (ln + 1) pE with S in m/h t in min Vrise in m Vhoriz in m pE in bar pA in bar = Suction capacity = Evacuation time = Volume of (vertical or sloping) pipe sections = Volume of horizontal pipe sections including the centrifugal pump = Absolute pressure at the priming pump suction branch when the suction pipe is fully primed with liquid = Absolute pressure in the suction pipe when the evacuation commences

To make allowance for minor leakage, head loss in the priming pump pipework and the influence of entrained gases in the liquid, it is advisable to use only 90% of the priming pump suction capacity in the formula, or to increase the calculated suction capacity required by 10%, when selecting the pump. An approximation of the size of a suitable priming pump for a centrifugal pump which has to lift water from an open chamber is easily calculated by means of the following equations: Assumptions: That the suction capacity of the priming pump is constant The losses mentioned above have been taken into account by the coefficients k1 and k2 (see Fig. 4.5.04.) Atmospheric pressure pamb = 1013 mbar

Fig. 4.5.02.
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Fig. 4.5.03

a) Suction capacity and priming time Suction pipe vertically upwards or sloping upwards (Fig. 4.5.02) k1 V o S in m/h t or k1 V o t in min S Suction pipe with rising and horizontal sections (Fig. 4.5.03) k1 Vrise + k2 Vhoriz S in m/h t or k1 Vrise + k2 Vhoriz t in min S k1 and k2 see Fig. 4.5.04 Fig. 4.5.04

Vo in m = Volume of the suction line Factors to calculate the required suction including the centrifugal pump capacity of priming pumps Vrise , Vhoriz , S and t see previous section b) Suction pressure Suction pressure = 1013 98 Hsgeo in mba with Hsgeo in m Example: Given: rising section of the suction pipe with Vansteig = 0.055 m horizontal section of the suction pipe including the centrifugal pump withVhoriz = 0,17 m Hsgeo = 7 m required priming time t = 1 min A priming pump with approximately the following suction capacity is required: k1 Vrise + k2 Vhoriz 97 0.055 + 143 0,17 S = = 29,6 m/h t 1 Suction pressure = 1013 98 Hsgeo = 1013 98 7 = 327 mbar
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A liquid ring vacuum pump with a mean capacity between the suction pressure and atmospheric pressure pamb of S 42 m/h is selected. This satisfies the requirement for a 10% safety margin and the priming time is reduced to 29.6 m/h t = 1 min = 0.78 min (42 m/h 10%) = 37.8 m/h 4.6 4.6.1 Pumping liquid / gas mixtures General

Whilst centrifugal pumps are primarily selected for pumping liquids, the handling of undissolved gases and vapours cannot be excluded. Air entrainment can for example occur due to insufficient suction bellmouth submergence when pumps draw from open chambers (see section 4.3). Air can also leak in through flange joints in the suction pipework, past valve spindle seals and possibly the pump shaft stuffing box. This air entry is difficult to control and is undesirable, leading to loss of performance and indeed interruption of pump flow. The requirements of process plant are different in that often the pump is required to handle gases and vapours from the process without loss of function. Pumps which are handling liquids close to their vapour pressure (condensate, liquefied gases etc.) face special demands. The generation and growth of gas or vapour bubbles from the pumped liquid is to be expected when high suction lift or throttling due to a series of fittings in the suction pipe, has to be overcome, or an increase in the temperature of the liquid occurs, due to poor insulation of the suction pipework. It is therefore important to take into consideration the operational characteristic and application limits of the different types of centrifugal pumps when liquid / gas mixtures are pumped. The effect of the mixture on the pump characteristic is dependent on the relative proportions qGs of gas to liquid as follows:

QG qGs = QF 4.6.2

QG = Gas flowrate QF = Liquid flowrate

Operational characteristics of non-self priming pumps

Non-self priming pumps are only able to handle a limited amount of gas in the liquid pumped. For centrifugal pumps with radial impellers and standard design, this limit is approximately 5-7% of gas by volume. Pumps with open or unshrouded impellers can handle a higher gas content of up to 10%.

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Fig. 4.6.01 The influence of the gas content qGs on the characteristic of a centrifugal pump with radial impeller

Fig. 4.6.02 The influence of the gas content qGs on the characteristic of a self priming side channel pump

QFopt, Hopt, Popt, opt : data applicable at the point of maximum efficiency at qGs = 0
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Fig. 4.6.01 shows the influence of entrained gas on the characteristic of a single stage centrifugal pump with a radial impeller. With a gas content of 7%, the flowrate and delivery head at the point of maximum efficiency are reduced by approximately half. This sensitivity of radial impellers is caused by the fact that a stable, gas filled dead space is created at the hub and the volume of this pocket increases as a function of the gas content and the flow conditions until it fills the impeller entry and leads to collapse of pumped flow. Automatic restarting of the pumping will only occur under certain inlet flow conditions. With small flowrates, instability can start with quite small gas content percentages. The characteristics of multi-stage pumps can be derived approximately from the performance of the single stage pumps if it is considered that the relative volume of gas reduces by the pressure ratio of the preceding stage. The limiting values for multi-stage pumps are determined by the first stage. 4.6.3 Operational characteristics of side channel pumps

Self priming side channel pumps, which are a special type of self priming centrifugal pump, are capable of pumping large gas flows with the liquid when operating in steady state conditions. In the extreme case, during the evacuation of the suction pipe, self priming side channel pumps handle gas only. Between this condition and that of pumping liquid only, the range of gas / liquid mixtures which occur in practice, can be handled without any external auxiliary equipment. Fig. 4.6.02 shows the influence of the gas content qGs on the characteristic of a single stage side channel pump. Gas contents of e.g. 10% which would lead to the collapse of the pumped flow of centrifugal pumps with radial impellers, have only a small effect on the characteristics of side channel pumps. The characteristics of multi-stage side channel pumps can be derived approximately from the performance of the single stage pumps if it is considered that the relative volume of gas reduces by the pressure ratio of the preceding stage. Compound side channel pumps using a radial impeller for the first stage, follow almost the same principles as pure side channel pumps. As a result of their low NPSHR requirement, these pumps are often preferred for applications where liquids are pumped which are close to their vapour pressure (condensate, liquified gas etc.). To keep the gas or vapour content as low as possible at the pump inlet and so minimise the reduction in performance of the pump, the following recommendations should be observed when designing the installation: Head losses in the inlet pipework are to be avoided or reduced to a minimum. A gas balancing pipe should be located between the pump inlet and the inlet vessel. An extended inlet pipe approximately 20x DN (see Fig. 4.6.03a) or an intake tank (see Fig. 4.6.03b) should be fitted upstream of the pump inlet.

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A bypass connection should return to the inlet tank and not the inlet pipe. The inlet pipe should be run as close as possible to the pump level. Horizontal sections, which are sloped down to the pump to aid degassing, should first be brought to the pump level to gain the full NPSHA of the plant and so prevent generation of gas as a result of pipe losses. The complete installation should be protected by roofing or insulation to prevent heat absorption by radiation.

a) with extended inlet pipe Fig. 4.6.03

b) with intake tank

Schematic of a condensate installation

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4.7 4.7.1

Pressure surges (water hammer) in piping systems General

In systems with long discharge lines, (e.g. industrial and municipal water supplies, refineries and power stations), if the flow is accelerated or decelerated, then pressure fluctuations occur due to the changes in velocity. If these velocity changes take place rapidly, they propagate pressure surges in the pipe system, which originate at the point of disturbance and travel in both directions (direct waves). They are reflected at points of discontinuity, (e.g. changes of cross sectional area, branches, control or isolating valves, pumps or vessels) and depending on the boundary conditions, these reflections (indirect waves) cause negative or positive pressure surges. The combined effect of all these direct and indirect waves produces the prevailing condition at a particular point and time. These pressure surges added to the maximum working pressure can lead to excessive pressure and stress on the components of the system. In severe cases, this can lead to failure of pipework, fittings or pumps. A minimum pressure surge may, particularly at the highest point of the installation, fall below the vapour pressure of the pumped liquid, causing evaporation and voids in the liquid column. The subsequent pressure increase and reuniting of the separated liquid column can lead to considerable water hammer. The pressure surges resulting from this can also lead to damage or failure of the components of the installation. For the maximum pressure fluctuation, the JOUKOWSKY pressure surge formula can be used: p = a U where = density of the pumped liquid a = velocity of wave front U = change of velocity of flow in pipe The full pressure fluctuation, corresponding to the change of velocity U, occurs only if that velocity change takes place in the time 2l t < reflection time tr = a where l = distance between the next discontinuity (reflection point) and the point of disturbance.

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The velocity of the wave front a is mainly a function of: the density and modulus of elasticity of the pumped liquid. the dimensions of the pipe (diameter, wall thickness) and the pipe supports. the modulus of elasticity of the pipe material. As a mean value, a = 900 to 1300 m/s for water as the pumped liquid, with cast iron, steel or concrete pipes. Because of the non-linear elasticity behaviour of plastic pipes with time, an approximation value of a = 300 to 500 m/s is applied for the most commonly used plastics. Further, a knowledge of the rate of change of the velocity v is important in the evaluation of pressure increase, pressure surges and possible development of oscillations. As an example, the closing of gate valves, throttle valves or similar is often used. It can be shown that effective throttling only takes place during the last 10 to 20% of the valve movement. This means that such valves can be closed up to 80 or 90% in as short a time as required, without causing a dangerous increase in pressure. The last part of the movement however must be effected more slowly, to suit the parameters of the pipe system. Calculation of pressure surges can be very complicated, particularly in complex networks. However it cannot be ignored in long piping systems to determine if surge suppression equipment is necessary. In most cases the development of water hammer in pipes can be calculated sufficiently accurately using partial similarity calculations, (continuity and movement comparisons). The analysis of these similarity results can be made using the graphical (Schneider - Bergeron) method, or on a computer using the characteristic or impedance method. 4.7.2 Causes of pressure surges In addition to considering basic data for the calculation of pressure surges, e.g. starting and stopping the pumps, opening and closing of control and isolating valves, changes of pump speed etc., it is also necessary to take into account the unusual demands caused by abnormal and dangerous operating conditions. 4.7.2.1 Interruption of the electrical power supply Failure of electrical supply. With the loss of drive, the pump runs to a standstill, dependent on the moment of inertia of the rotating parts. Failure of the control voltage for the operation of isolating valves can cause incorrect valve actuation.

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4.7.2.2 Failures within the installation Faulty operation of control or isolating valves. Due to failure of the damping system the valve can close suddenly rather than smoothly as designed. Air in hydraulic lines. Entry or accumulation of air in the hydraulic control lines will prevent normal operation of the control functions. Failure of air bleed or venting valves. Air locks in the pipework. Air escaping from openings. The change over from air to water can set up oscillations. 4.7.2.3 Defective components in the installation Valve flutter. Incorrect installation of isolating valves. Turbulence downstream of bends can lead to flow separation in fittings , which can cause oscillations and pressure surges. Pipe breaks. 4.7.2.4 Incorrect operation of the pumps Priming. If insufficient care is taken during filling of the discharge line, a severe pressure surge can occur. Dead pipe sections. If one section of a branched system is closed off whilst the other side remains connected to the network, unexpected pressure surges may occur. 4.7.3 Preventative measures (pressure surge control) To prevent unacceptably high and low pressures in the pipe system, the following measures can be taken: Design of the discharge line for low flow velocities. Increase of the inertial mass and hence the run down time of the pump set by use of a flywheel.

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Installation of equipment to supply liquid to the piping system during starting and stopping, e.g. an air/liquid bladder tank, a suction reservoir, a by-pass back to the suction chamber or a stand pipe at the start of the discharge line. Correct selection of the opening and closing times and the closing characteristics of the control and isolating valves. Reduction of the reflection time tr of the system, by using the shortest pipe runs as possible, or where long runs are necessary, by installation of intermediate reflection points, e.g. a surge chamber at the highest point. Installation of vacuum relief valves at points in the system where evaporation of the liquid could occur due to low pressure surges. Installation of equipment to relieve liquid accumulations, e.g. additional outlets or relief valves.

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