Rangkaian Aritmetika

Eri Prasetyo

Overview
Binary Number Representation Sign & Magnitude, Ones Complement, Twos Complement Binary Addition Full Adder Revisited A ! "esign BC" Cir#uits Combinational Multiplier Cir#uit "esign Case Study$ % Bit Multiplier Se&uential Multiplier Cir#uit

Number Systems
Representation of Negative Numbers
Representation o' positive numbers same in most systems Ma(or di''eren#es are in )ow negative numbers are represented T)ree ma(or s#)emes$ sign and magnitude ones #omplement twos #omplement Assumptions$ we*ll assume a + bit ma#)ine word ,- di''erent values #an be represented roug)ly )al' are positive, )al' are negative

Number Systems
Sign and Magnitude Representation
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2
1111 1110

+0
0000 0001 0010

+1 +2 +3 +4 +5
+ 0 100 = + 4 1 100 = - 4 -

1101

1100 1011 1010 1001

0011 0100 0101 0110 1000 0111

-1

+6

-0

+7

High order bit is sign: 0 = positive (or zero), Number range for n bits = %&'(n' Representations for 0 '

= negative )

!hree "o# order bits is the magnitude: 0 (000) thru $ (

Number Systems Sign and Magnitude

Cumbersome addition.subtra#tion Must #ompare magnitudes to determine sign o' result
)nes *omp"ement N is positive number, then N is its negative +s ,omp"ement n N = (( ' ) ' N -.amp"e: +s ,omp"ement of $ '$ Short,ut method: simp"0 ,ompute bit #ise ,omp"ement 0 '1 000 = 0 000 = '$ in +s ,omp/ (2 = ' 0000

= 0000

Number Systems )nes *omp"ement

-0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
1111 1110

+0
0000 0001 0010

+1 +2 +3 +4 +5
+ 0 100 = + 4 1 011 = - 4 -

1101

1100 1011 1010 1001

0011 0100 0101 0110 1000 0111

-6

+6

-7

+7

Subtra#tion implemented by addition & ,*s #omplement Still two representations o' /0 T)is #auses some problems Some #omple1ities in addition

Number Representations !#os *omp"ement

-1 -2 -3
like 1's comp except shifted one position clockwise
1111 1110 0000 1101

+0 +1
0001 0010

+2 +3 +4 +5

+ 0 100 = + 4 1 100 = - 4 -

-4 -5 -6

1100 1011 1010 1001

0011 0100 0101 0110 1000 0111

-7

+6

-8

+7

Only one representation 'or / One more negative number t)an positive number

Number !#os Systems *omp"ement Numbers

n N3 = ( ' N 2 ( = sub $ = 0000 0 00 = repr/ of '$ -.amp"e: !#os ,omp"ement of $

-.amp"e: !#os ,omp"ement of '$

2 ( = sub '$ =

0000 00 0 = repr/ of $

Short,ut method: !#os ,omp"ement = bit#ise ,omp"ement % 0 '1 000 % '1 00 (representation of '$) '1 0 (representation of $) 00 '1 0 0 %

Number 4ddition and Subtra,tion of Numbers Representations

Sign and Magnitude resu"t sign bit is the same as the operands+ sign 2 %( 5 0 00 00 0 0 0 '2 % ('() '5 00 0 0 0

#hen signs differ, operation is subtra,t, sign of resu"t depends on sign of number #ith the "arger magnitude

2 '6

0 00 0 000

'2 %6 '

00 00 00

Number 4ddition and Subtra,tion of Numbers Systems

)nes *omp"ement *a",u"ations 2 %6 $ 0 00 00 0 '2 % ('6) '$ -nd around ,arr0 000 2 '6 0 00 00 0000 -nd around ,arr0 000 '2 %6 ' 0 00 0 0 0 00

Number Systems 4ddition and Subtra,tion of 7inar0 Numbers

)nes *omp"ement *a",u"ations 8h0 does end'around ,arr0 #or9: ;ts e<uiva"ent to subtra,ting (n and adding n n M ' N = M % N = M % (( ' ' N) = (M ' N) % ( ' n n 'M % ('N) = M % N = (( ' M ' ) % (( ' N ' ) n n = ( % =( ' ' (M % N)> ' after end around ,arr0: n = ( '

(M 1 N) M%N?( n'

' (M % N)

this is the ,orre,t form for representing '(M % N) in +s ,omp@

Number Systems 4ddition and Subtra,tion of 7inar0 Numbers

!#os *omp"ement *a",u"ations 2 %6 $ ;f ,arr0'in to sign = ,arr0'out then ignore ,arr0 if ,arr0'in differs from ,arr0'out then overf"o# 2 '6 0 00 0 000 '2 %6 ' 00 00 0 00 00 0 '2 % ('6) '$ 00 0 00

Simp"er addition s,heme ma9es t#os ,omp"ement the most ,ommon ,hoi,e for integer number s0stems #ithin digita" s0stems

Number 4ddition and Subtra,tion of 7inar0 Numbers Systems !#os *omp"ement *a",u"ations
8h0 ,an the ,arr0'out be ignored: 'M % N #hen N 1 M: n n M3 % N = (( ' M) % N = ( % (N ' M) n ;gnoring ,arr0'out is Aust "i9e subtra,ting ( 'M % 'N #here N % M ? or = ( n'

n n 'M % ('N) = M3 % N3 = (( ' M) % (( ' N) n n = ( ' (M % N) % ( 4fter ignoring the ,arr0, this is Aust the right t#os ,omp"/ representation for '(M % N)@

Number )verf"o# *onditions Systems

-1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8
1111 1110

4dd t#o positive numbers to get a negative number or t#o negative numbers to get a positive number +0
0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 1000 0110 0111

-1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -7 - 2 = +7! -3 -2
1111 1110

+0
0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101

+1 +2 +3 +4 +5

1101 1100 1011 1010 1001

1101 1100 1011 1010 1001 1000

+6

0110 0111

+6

+7 5 + 3 = -8!

+7

Number )verf"o# *onditions Systems

B 6 'C )verf"o# 0000 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 000 0 '$ '( $ )verf"o# 0 000 00 00

B ( $

'6 'B 'C No overf"o# 0

0 000

No overf"o#

)verf"o# #hen ,arr0 in to sign does not e<ua" ,arr0 out

Multiplication
Multiplication is a complex operation, w et er per!orme" in ar"ware or so!tware # e multiplication o! two$n bit binary integers results in a pro"uct o! up to %n bits in lengt & e'g', ((x(( ) (**(+
(*(( x ((*( (*(( **** (*(( (*(( (***(((( multiplican" &((+ multiplier &(,+
Partial Pro"uct

Pro"uct &(-,+

Multiplication o! unsigne" binary integers

.ar"ware /mplementation o! 0nsigne" 1inary Multiplication

Multiplican" Mn$( ' ' ' Mo

A"" n$ 1it A""er

S i!t an" a"" control logic

S i!t rig t

An$( ' ' ' ' '

Ao

2n$( ' ' ' ' ' Multiplier

2*

Example
3 * * * A **** (*(( *(*( 2 ((*( ((*( (((* M (*(( (*(( (*(( /nitial 4alues A"" s i!t 5irst 3ycle secon" 3ycle Pro"uct in A, 2 * * ((*( *((* (((( (((( (*(( (*(( A"" S i!t # ir" 3ycle 5ourt 3ycle

**(*

((((

(*((

S i!t

( *

***( (***

(((( ((((

(*(( (*((

A"" S i!t

5lowc art !or 0nsigne" Multiplication

Start
3,A * M Multiplican" 2 Multiplier 3ount n

No

2*)(6

yes

3,A A 7 M

S i!t rig t 3,A,2 3ount count$(

No

3ount )*6

yes

en"

Pro"uct /n A,2

#wos complement multiplication

Algoritma untuk unsigne" multiplication ti"ak bisa "igunakan untuk %8s complement Sebagai conto 9 ((&(*((+ x (, &((*(+ ) (-, &(***((((+ %8s 3omplement $: &(*((+ x $,&((*(+ ) $((, &(***((((+ Maka perlu algoritma yang lain Solusi 9 1oot 8s Algoritma

5lowc art !or 1oot 8s Algorit m

Start
A * , 2$( * M Multiplican" 2 Multiplier 3ount n

)(*

2*,2$(

)*(

AA$M

)(( )**
Arit metic S i!t rig t A,2,2$( 3ount count$(

AA7M

No

3ount )*6

yes

en"

Example
A **** (**( ((** 2 **(( **(( (**( 2$( * * ( M *((( *((( *((( /nitial 4alues A a$M s i!t 5irst 3ycle secon" 3ycle # ir" 3ycle 5ourt 3ycle

(((*

*(**

*(((

S i!t

*(*( **(*

*(** (*(*

( *

*((( *(((

A A7M S i!t

***(

*(*(

*(((

S i!t

Networks !or 1inary A""ition Ha"f 4dder

8ith t#os ,omp"ement numbers, addition is suffi,ient
Ai Bi Sum Carry 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 Ai 0 Bi 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 Ai 0 Bi 0 0 1 0 1 0 1

Sum = Ai Bi + Ai Bi = Ai + Bi

Carry = Ai Bi

Ai 1i

Sum

Ha"f'adder S,hemati,
3arry

Networks !or 1inary Du"" 4dder A""ition

A 3B 3 A 2B 2 A 1B 1 A 0B 0

*as,aded Mu"ti'bit 4dder

S 3 C 3 S 2 C 2 S 1 C 1 S 0
usua""0 interested in adding more than t#o bits this motivates the need for the fu"" adder

Du"" 4dder
A 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

Networks !or 1inary A""ition

B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 CI 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 S 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 CO 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 A B CI 00 01 11 10 S 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0

A B CI 00 01 11 10 CO 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1

S = *; .or 4 .or 7 *) = 7 *; % 4 *; % 4 7 = *; (4 % 7) % 4 7

Networks !or 1inary Du"" 4dder&Ha"f A""ition 4dder

Standard 4pproa,h: 5 Eates
A 1 S 3/ A 1 3/ A 1 3O

4"ternative ;mp"ementation: B Eates

A B CI

Half Adder CO A B

A+B

Half AdderCO CI A + B!
+

A + B + CI

CO

4 7 % *; (4 .or 7) = 4 7 % 7 *; % 4 *;

Networks !or 1inary A""ition 4dder&Subtra,tor

A , 1 , 1, * ( Sel A % 1% 1% * ( Sel A ( 1( 1( * ( Sel A * 1 * 1* * ( Sel

A 3O 7 S

1 3/

A 3O 7 S

1 3/

A 3O 7 S

1 3/

A 3O 7 S

1 3/ A"";Subtract

S,

S%

S(

S*

Over!low

4 ' 7 = 4 % ('7) = 4 % 7 %

*arr0 Foo9ahead *ir,uits

"ate arriving signa"
" 0 A " 0 1 " #3 / " 0 A " 0 1 " 1

Networks !or 1inary A""ition

" #+1 3O " #+2 " 1

*riti,a" de"a0: the propagation of ,arr0 from "o# to high order stages

t#o gate de"a0s to ,ompute *)

3* A* * A( 1( S* <% 3( <% ( A% 1% S( <, 3% <% A, 1, S% <: 3, <= , S, <> 3- <?

2 stage adder

1*

fina" sum and ,arr0

Networks !or 1inary A""ition *arr0 Foo9ahead *ir,uits

*riti,a" de"a0: the propagation of ,arr0 from "o# to high order stages
S 0 , C 1 V a lid S 1 , C 2 V a lid S 2 , C 3 V a lid S 3 , C 4 V a lid

% 000 #orst ,ase addition

T 0

T 2

T 4

T 6

T 8

!0: ;nputs to the adder are va"id !(: Stage 0 ,arr0 out (* ) !2: Stage ,arr0 out (*() !5: Stage ( ,arr0 out (*6) !C: Stage 6 ,arr0 out (*2) ( de"a0s to ,ompute sum but "ast ,arr0 not read0 unti" 5 de"a0s "ater

Networks !or 1inary *arr0 Foo9aheadA""ition Fogi,

*arr0 Eenerate Ei = 4i 7i *arr0 Gropagate Gi = 4i .or 7i must generate ,arr0 #hen 4 = 7 = ,arr0 in #i"" e<ua" ,arr0 out here

Sum and *arr0 ,an be ree.pressed in terms of generate&propagate: Si = 4i .or 7i .or *i = Gi .or *i *i% = 4i 7i % 4i *i % 7i *i = 4i 7i % *i (4i % 7i) = 4i 7i % *i (4i .or 7i) = Ei % *i Gi

Networks !or 1inary *arr0 Foo9ahead A""ition Fogi,

Ree.press the ,arr0 "ogi, as fo""o#s: * = E0 % G0 *0 *( = E % G * = E % G E0 % G G0 *0 *6 = E( % G( *( = E( % G( E % G( G E0 % G( G G0 *0 *2 = E6 % G6 *6 = E6 % G6 E( % G6 G( E % G6 G( G E0 % G6 G( G G0 *0 -a,h of the ,arr0 e<uations ,an be imp"emented in a t#o'"eve" "ogi, net#or9 Hariab"es are the adder inputs and ,arr0 in to stage 0@

Networks !or 1inary *arr0 Foo9aheadA""ition ;mp"ementation

Ai 1i 3i Pi < ( gate "elay Si < % gate "elays @i < ( gate "elay

4dder #ith Gropagate and Eenerate )utputs ;n,reasing"0 ,omp"e. "ogi,

3* P* @*

3(

3* P* P( P% @* P( P% @( P% @% 3,

3* P* P( P% P, @* P( P% P, @( P% P, @% P, @,

3* P* P( @* P( @( 3%

3-

Networks !or 1inary A""ition *arr0 Foo9ahead Fogi,

*as,aded *arr0 Foo9ahead *arr0 "oo9ahead "ogi, generates individua" ,arries sums ,omputed mu,h faster
3* A* 1* 3( <, A( 1( 3% <, A% 1% 3 , <, A, 1, 3- <, S, <S% <S( <S* <%

Networks !or 1inary A""ition *arr0 Foo9ahead Fogi,

*as,aded *arr0 Foo9ahead
33* <* 3(= A A(:$(%B1A(:$(%B 3(% -$bit A""er P @ - <? SA(:$(%B <% <, 3(= <: P, 3@, A A(($?B 1A(($?B 3 ? -$bit A""er P @ - <? SA(($?B <: 3, <% <, P% @% A A>$-B 1A>$-B -$bit A""er P @ - <> SA>$-B <: 3% <% <, P( @( A A,$*B 1A,$*B -$bit A""er P @ <<% <, P* P,$* <, @,$* <: @* 3* 3* <* SA,$*B <3(

Cooka ea" 3arry 0nit

2 bit adders #ith interna" ,arr0 "oo9ahead se,ond "eve" ,arr0 "oo9ahead unit, e.tends "oo9ahead to 5 bits Eroup G = G6 G( G G0 Eroup E = E6 % G6 E( % G6 G( E % G6 G( G E0

Networks !or 1inary A""ition *arr0 Se"e,t 4dder

3? -$1it A""er A>9-B * A""er Cow

Redundant hard#are to ma9e ,arr0 ,a",u"ation go faster

3-

3?

-$1it A""er A>9-B

A""er .ig

-D %9( Mux

( * ( * ( *

( *

3-

-$1it A""er A,9*B

3*

3?

S>

S=

S:

S-

S,

S%

S(

S*

,ompute the high order sums in para""e" one addition assumes ,arr0 in = 0 the other assumes ,arr0 in =

Subtractor
As we saw be!ore, one o! t e !eatures o! t e %8s complement system was t at t e a""ition an" subtraction processes were very muc t e same' Ee can per!orm subtraction by simply inverting t e bits o! one operan" an" setting t e carry in bit o! t e operation to ('
b, a, b% a% b( a( b* a*

a b = a + (b) = a + (b + 1)

adder

Subtractor &continue"F+
/n or"er to be able to use one package !or bot a""ition an" subtraction, we can use GOR gates as controllable inverters' # ese packages ave t e !ollowing structure9

a"";sub

b,

b% a%

b( a(

b* a* cin

a,

adder

Subtractor &continue"F+
Cet8s now "esign a structure t at can give us t e an" result o! t e two inputs or t e a"";sub result base" on a select line'
b, a"";sub b% b( b* a, a% a( a*

adder

S,

S%

S(

S*

* (

* (

*( An" select

Subtractor &continue"F+
As you can see in t e last example, !our %$to$( multiplexers wit a common select are use" to give us t e nee"e" result base" on t e value o! t e select line'

Arit metic Cogic 0nit

I#&'(S
B$-1 % B0 A$-1 % A0

CO#(+O) SI,#A)S
* Si-1 % S0

A)'
C$ C0

-$-1 % -0

O'(&'(S

Sample AC0 Speci!ication

Logical and Arithmetic Operations
M = 0, Logical Bitwise Operations S1 S0 Function Comment 0 0 Input Ai transferred to output Fi = Ai Fi = not Ai 0 1 Complement of Ai transferred to output 1 0 Compute XOR of Ai, Bi Fi = Ai xor Bi 1 1 Compute XNOR of Ai, Bi Fi = Ai xnor Bi M = 1, C0 = 0, Arithmetic Operations (with no carry in) 0 0 Input A passed to output F=A F = not A 0 1 Complement of A passed to output 1 0 F = A plus B Sum of A and B 1 1 Sum of B and complement of A F = (not A) plus B M = 1, C0 = 1, Arithmetic Operations (with carry in) F = A plus 1 0 0 Increment A 0 1 Twos complement of A F = (not A) plus 1 F = A plus B plus 1 1 0 Increment sum of A and B 1 1 F = (not A) plus B plus 1 B minus A

Not all operations appear useful, but "fall out" of internal logic

Arit metic Cogic 0nit Samp"eHesign 4FI

!raditiona" Jesign 4pproa,h !ruth !ab"e K -spresso

* 0

S1 0 0 1

S0 0 1 0

(6 produ,t terms@ -<uiva"ent to (B gates

.i 6 .o 2 .ilb m .ob fi .p 23 111101 110111 1-0100 1-1110 1001010111-10001 010-01 -11011 011-11 --1000 0-1-00 --0010 0-0-10 -0100001-0-0001000-1-1-1-1 --1-01 --0-11 --110--011.e

s1 s0 ci ai bi co 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 01 01 01 01 01

0 0 1

0 1 0

0 0 1

0 1 0

Ci . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Ai 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

Bi . . . . 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 . . . . 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 . . . . 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

-i 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

Ci+1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1

Arit metic Cogic 0nit Hesign Samp"e 4FI

Mu"ti"eve" ;mp"ementation
.model alu.espresso .inputs m s1 s0 ci ai bi .outputs fi co .names m ci co [30] [33] [35] fi 110--- 1 -1-11- 1 --01-1 1 IS( --00-0 1 I1i .names m ci [30] [33] co -1-1 1 M --11 1 S( 1i 111- 1 .names s0 ai [30] S* 01 1 Ai 10 1 .names m s1 bi [33] 111 1 .names s1 bi [35] 0- 1 -0 1 .end

A, : B

3i A, , B A, * B A, , B M 3i A, * B 3o

A, , B

A, * B

M 3i I3 o 3i A, * B A, , B I3 o A, * B A, : B I3 o IA, * B IA, : B

5i

( Eates

Arit metic Cogic 0nit Hesign Samp"e 4FI

*"ever Mu"ti'"eve" Fogi, ;mp"ementation
S( A( 1i S* G( Ai M A% 3i

S = 0 b"o,9s 7i Happens #hen operations invo"ve 4i on"0 Same is true for *i #hen M = 0 4ddition happens #hen M = 7i, *i to Lor gates L(, L6

G%

S0 = 0, L passes 4 S0 = , L passes 4

A,

A-

4rithmeti, Mode:
G, 5i

O( 3i7(

)r gate inputs are 4i *i and 7i (4i .or *i) Fogi, Mode: *as,aded L)Rs form output from 4i and 7i

C Eates (but 6 are L)R)

$2 C
S3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Sele12i/$ S2 S1 S0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1

Arit metic Cogic 0nit Hesign !!F 4FI

*=1 )/0i1 -u$12i/$ - = $/2 A - = A $a$d B - = $/2 A! + B -=1 - = A $/r B - = $/2 B - = A 3$/r B - = A + $/2 B - = $/2 A! B - = A 3/r B -=B -=A+B -=0 - = A $/2 B! -=AB -=A * = 07 Ari28me2i1 -u$12i/$4 C$ = 0 C$ = 1 - = A mi$u4 1 -=A - = A B mi$u4 1 -=AB - = A $/2 B! mi$u4 1 - = A $/2 B! - = mi$u4 1 - = 6er/ - = A 5lu4 A + $/2 B! - = A 5lu4 A + $/2 B! 5lu4 1 - = A B 5lu4 A + $/2 B! - = A B 5lu4 A + $/2 B! 5lu4 1 - = A mi$u4 B mi$u4 1 - = A + $/2 B! 5lu4 1 - = A + $/2 B - = A mi$u4 B - = A 5lu4 A + B! - = A + $/2 B! 5lu4 1 - = A 5lu4 B - = A 5lu4 A + B! 5lu4 1 - = A $/2 B! 5lu4 A + B! - = A $/2 B! 5lu4 A + B! 5lu4 1 - = A + B! - = A + B! 5lu4 1 -=A - = A 5lu4 A 5lu4 1 - = A B 5lu4 A - = AB 5lu4 A 5lu4 1 -= A $/2 B! 5lu4 A - = A $/2 B! 5lu4 A 5lu4 1 -=A - = A 5lu4 1

$2 C

Arit metic Cogic 0nit !!F 4FI Hesign

Note that the sense of the ,arr0 in and out are )GG)S;!- from the input bits
(J %( %, % (? %* %% ( A, A% A( A* 1, 1% 1( 1*

181

5, 5% 5( 5*

(, (( (* J

> 3n ? M

A)1 (3n7- (= @ (> P (:

= (: % : (( ,

S, S% S( S* , - : =

P, P% P( P* @, @% @( @*

182
P @ > (*

3n7K J 3n7y (( 3n7x (%

(, 3n

Dortunate"0, ,arr0 "oo9ahead generator maintains the ,orre,t sense of the signa"s

Arit metic Cogic 0nit Hesign 5'bit 4FI #ith *arr0 Foo9ahead
(J A, %( A% 181 5, %, A( 5% % A* 5( (? 1, 5* %* 1% A)1 %% 1( 3n7( 1* @ > 3n P ?M S,S%S(S* , - : = (J %( %, % (? %* %% ( > ? A, A% A( A* 1, 1% 1( 1* 3n M (, (( (* J ((= (> (: 3(=

181

5, 5% 5( 5* A)1 3n7@ P

(, (( (* J ((= (> (:

S,S%S(S* , - : = (J A, %( A% %, A( % A* (? 1, %* 1% %% 1( ( 1* > 3n ?M

181

5, 5% 5( 5* A)1 3n7@ P

(, (( (* J ((= (> (:

182 = P, (: P% % P( P - P* @ : @, (- @% 3n7K ( @( 3n7y , @* 3n7x (, 3n

> (* J (( (%

S, S%S(S* , - : = (J %( %, % (? %* %% ( > ? A, A% A( A* 1, 1% 1( 1* 3n M

181

3*

5, 5% 5( 5* A)1 3n7@ P

(, (( (* J ((= (> (:

S,S%S(S* , - : =