P R E G E O M E T R Y 1

Chapter 1

P R E G E O M E T R Y


We start to learn basic geometry. In this whole subject material, we will
learn about drawing, analysis, and logic. Some theorems are proved by its
contraposition and it need logic to understand the proof. In first chapter we
will discuss about the principal of learning geometry, axiom, definition,
theorem, and the base of drawing.

A. AXIOM, DEFINITION, AND PRE-PRINCIPAL

Some relation of elements in geometry sometimes must be accepting
without proof. This relation called axioms or postulate. Relation which
must be proofed is called theorem or dale. The difference between
postulate and axioms that is axiom obtain in general science but
postulate obtain in specific science.

Axiom example:
Through 2 points, we just can draw 1 line.

We introduce the word iff. Iff is short word from if and only if. We
usually used these words to explain any similarity to two sentences.
Example, an isosceles triangle is a triangle which has three similar legs
could be written as a triangle is called isosceles triangle iff has three
similar legs.

Definition is also unproved. The difference between definition and
axioms, definition is specific to a material. Example:

Definition of Grup:
Let G any set.
G grup iff G suitable for:
1. There are binary operation * in G, that is closed.
2. There is identity element on G, which is e.
3. For every xG there exist xG, such that x * x = e.


2 P R E G E O M E T R Y


B. LINE AND ANGLE

1. Line (Basic Properties of Line)

The geometry presented in this course deals mainly with figures such
as points, lines, triangles, circles, etc., which we will study in a logical
way. We begin by briefly and systematically stating some basic
properties. For the moment, we will be working with figures which
lie in a plane. You can think of a plane as a flat surface which extends
infinitely in all directions. We can represent a plane by a piece of
paper or a blackboard.



We denote this line by L
PQ
or sometimes denoted by small caps g.
We have indicated such a line in Figure below. The line actually
extends infinitely in both directions.

Figure 1.1. Ray of PQ

We define the line segment, or segment between P and Q, to be the
set consisting of P, Q and all points on the line L
PQ
lying between P
and Q. We denote this segment by

.

If we choose a unit of measurement (such as the inch, or centimeter,
or meter, etc.) we can measure the length of this segment, which we
denote d(P, Q). If the segment were 5 cm long, we would write d(P,
Q) = 5 cm. Frequently we will assume that some unit of length has
been fixed, and so will write simply d(P, Q) = 5, omitting reference
to the units. We also write d(P, Q) by PQ.

Two points P and Q also determine two rays, one starting from P
and the other starting from Q, as shown in Figure 1.2. Each of these
rays starts at a particular point, but extends infinitely in one
direction.

Axiom.
1.1 Given two distinct points P and Q in the plane, there is one
and only one line which goes through these points.

P R E G E O M E T R Y 3

Thus we define a ray starting from P to consist of the set of points
on a line through P which lie to one side of P, and P itself. We also
say that a ray is a half line. The ray starting from P and passing
through another point Q will be denoted by R
PQ
. Suppose that Q' is
another point on this ray, distinct from P. You can see that the ray
starting from P and passing through Q is the same as the ray that
starts from P and passes through Q'.

Using our notation, we would write
R
PQ
= R
PQ


In other words, a ray is determined by its starting point and by any
other point on it. The starting point of a ray is called its vertex.

Sometimes we will wish to talk about lines without naming specific
points on them; in such cases we will just name the lines with a single
letter, such as K or L. We define lines K and L to be parallel if
either K = L, or K L and K does not intersect L. Observe that we
have allowed that a line is parallel to itself. Using this definition, we
can state three important properties of lines in the plane.



In Figure (a) below we have drawn a line k passing through P parallel
to m. In Figure (b) we have drawn a line k which is not parallel to m,
and intersects at a point Q.


Figure 1.2. Condition of two lines in a plane


Axiom
1.2 Two lines which are not parallel meet in exactly one point.
1.3 Given a line L and a point P, there is one and only one line
passing through P, parallel to L.

4 P R E G E O M E T R Y




This property is illustrated in Figure.


Figure 1.3. Basic condition of parallel lines in a plane

We define two segments, or two rays, to be parallel if the lines on
which they lie are parallel. To denote that lines L
l
and L
2
are parallel,
we use the symbol

L
1
L
2

Note that we have assumed properties axiom. That is, we have
accepted them as facts without any further justification. Such facts
are called axioms or postulates. Another information about parallel
line will be explained at chapter 2 and chapter 6.

2. Angle (Basic Properties of Angle)
a. Angle Notation
Look at the figure below.

Figure 1.4. Angle

An angle can build from two rays. When two rays meet at one
point, it will be held two angles. The solid region is the region of
Axiom.
1.4 Let L
1
, L
2
, and L
3
be three lines. If L
l
is parallel to L
2
and L
2
is
parallel to L
3
, then L
l
is parallel to L
3
.

P R E G E O M E T R Y 5

minor angle, and the shaded region is the region of major
angle. It seem like when we talk about circle.

Figure 1.5. Angle on circle

Figure 1.5 (a) show us angle which corresponding to minor arc of
a circle, the we usually call it minor angle, so do major angle (see
figure 1.5 (b)). The major angle is the angle which is
corresponding the major arc of a circle.

b. Part of Angle

As another object of geometry, angle also has its parts. We will
discuss what is the part of angle. Look at the figure 1.6 below.


Figure 1.6. Angle and part of angle

We can see that if two rays intersect each other, there will be 4
angles lie on the rays (see figure 1.6 (a)). For next discussion, if
there is no information indeed, we may assume that an angle is
a minor angle.

6 P R E G E O M E T R Y


Now please give attention to figure 1.6 (b). Point O is usually
called by Angle Point. OA and OB is usually called by legs or
legs of angle. This angle is usually called by angle O (O) or angle
AOB (AOB) or angle BOA (BOA). We write the measure or
the size of angle O by m O.

Note that the size of angle in this topic is never negative. We will
explain about the negative value for size of angle later in
coordinate topics.

c. Kinds of Angle

Based on the size of angle, we may classify angle into 4 kinds of
angle, those are:
1. Acute angle is angle that has size less than 90
o
, see figure 1.7
(a).
2. Obtuse angle is angle that has size more than 90
o
, see figure
1.7 (b).
3. Right angle is angle that has size 90
o
, see figure 1.7 (c).
4. Straight angle is the angle that has size 180
o
, see figure 1.7 (d).

To see the drawn of the angle above, please see figure 1.7 below.

Figure 1.7. Kinds of angle

d. Condition of angle.

As figure 1.6 (a) we may understand that if two rays intersect
each other, there will be hold 4 angles. The condition of angle
that could explain the situation are:
1) supplementary,
2) complementary,
3) opposite angle, and
4) adjacent angle.

P R E G E O M E T R Y 7


Figure 1.8. The condition of angle

O
1
and O
2
is called supplementary adjacent angle, the
consequence is O
1
become suplement of O
2
and vice versa.
O
1
and O
3
is called opposite angle.



Basic properties of line and angle we end by the theorems below.
We will explain more detail in the next chapter.

Theorems!
1.1 The difference between supplementary and complementary
similar angle is 90
o

1.2 Two angles that has similar supplementary angle, has similar size.
1.3 Two angles that has similar complementary angle, has similar size.
1.4 The opposite angle has similar size.
Definition:
1.1 Supplementary Angle.
Let A any angle. B is supplementary angle if mA + mB
= 180
o
, in other word we say that B is addition angle for
A to be 180
o
.
1.2 Complementary Angle.
Let C any angle. D is complementary angle if mC +
mD = 90
o
, in other word we say that D is addition
angle for C to be 90
o
.
1.3 Opposite Angle.
2 angles are called 2 opposite angle if has similar angle
point and both of the legs make a straight line.
1.4 Adjacent Angle.
2 angles are called 2 adjacent angles if has one common leg
and has similar angle point.

8 P R E G E O M E T R Y


Proof.
1.1 Prove that The difference between supplementary and
complementary similar angle is 90
o


Let A is any angle.
Let B is complementary angle of A.
Obvious mA + mB = 90
o

mA + mB + 90
o
=180
o

mA + mD = 180
o
, for some mD = mB + 90
o
.
We get D is supplementary angle of A.
Obvious mD = mB + 90
o

mD mB = 90
o
.
So the difference between supplementary and complementary
similar angle is 90
o
.

1.2 Two angles that has similar supplementary angle, has similar size.

Let A and B any set.
Let C is supplementary angle of A and B.
Obvious mA + mC = 180
o
and mB + mC = 180
o
also.
Obvious mA + mC = mB + mC and by subtracting the
size of C to each side we get mA = mC.
So two angles that it supplementary angle is same size, has similar
size.

1.3 Two angles that has similar complementary angle, has similar size.

Let A and B any set.
Let C is complementary angle of A and B.
Obvious mA + mC = 90
o
and mB + mC = 90
o
also.
Obvious mA + mC = mB + mC and by subtracting the
size of C to each side we get mA = mC.
So two angles that it complementary angle is same size, has
similar size.

1.4 The opposite angle has similar size.

Look at figure 1.3
Obvious A
1
and A
3
are opposite angle.
Obvious A
2
is supplementary angle of A
1
and A
2
is also
supplementary angle of A
3
.
By theorem 1.2 it is proved that mA
1
= mA
3
.
So the opposite angle has similar size.
P R E G E O M E T R Y 9

C. THE BASIC OF DRAWING

Some of subject material could not explained theoretically. To make the
reader understand about the specific subject material, we make new
structure that is construction. We need the reader to increase their
activity when do this construction. The tools that is needed are only
compass, 2 triangle ruler, pencils, and drawing book. Prepare it well!

1. Construction 1: Dividing a line segment into two similar
parts.

Sometimes in geometry we choose special vertex to make the reader
easy to understand. Usually we choose midpoint to make reader
understand about the principal of vertex in a line, without subtracting
the concept, or maybe the midpoint became the question of a
theorem.

Figure 1.9. The midpoint

The principal to find the mid point is making perpendicular bisector
to the segment given. The steps are explained directly by solving the
question given. By solving the question, we wish the reader get more
information and could increasing their skill to draw geometrically.

Question:
Find the mid point of segment AB below.


Figure 1.10.



10 P R E G E O M E T R Y


Answer:
By using the compass and point A as center of arc, make an arc
which has radius more than a half of AB. Note that AB means
the length of AB. See figure 1.11 below.

Figure 1.11. Step one

Next step is just like before, but we move the center of arc into
point B. Note that the radius of the arc must be same as step before.
See figure 1.12 as the result.

Figure 1.12. Step two

We get there are two intersection between two arcs, let it be M
1

and M
2
. Please connect it and we get M
1
M
2
as perpendicular bisector
of segment AB. See figure 1.13 as the result.
P R E G E O M E T R Y 11


Figure 1.13. Step three

Now, we have got an intersection point of segment AB and M
1
M
2
.
Please give it label by alphabet O. And then O is the mid point of AB.
See figure 1.14 as the result.



Figure 1.14. Point O as the midpoint of segment AB

Thats all the construction of dividing a line segment into two similar
parts.


2. Construction 2: Drawing a line by a point outside of a line
(not linear) and perpendicular to the given line.

A little different from the construction one, in construction two we
draw the segment first. In construction one, the segment AB is given
but in second construction we build the segment.

Question!
Draw a line which is perpendicular to AB and pass through the point
P.
12 P R E G E O M E T R Y



Figure 1.15. Point P outside of line AB

Answer!
The principal concept to solve the problem is making perpendicular
bisector through point P. The problem now is, which vertex on line
that we will choose as center of the arc. From point P, make an arc
with P as the center. Choose radius as yours such that the arc
intersect the line in two points, namely K and L. See figure 1.16.

Figure 1.16. Point P center of arc KL. The dashes is made from compass.

As the center, make an arc from K and L, which has radius more
than a half of KL. The intersection between arc K and arc L is
given name Q. Now, we have explained that the points like
construction 1 are K and L, and we build that.
P R E G E O M E T R Y 13


Figure 1.17. Point Q is the common vertex of arc K and arc L..

Make a line that is connecting P and Q and we get a line PQ that is
perpendicular to line AB through point P outside the line of AB.

Figure 1.18. Line PQ AB, pass through point P outside the line


3. Construction 3: Drawing a perpendicular line from a point
on a line.

Sometimes we were asked to build a perpendicular line from a point
lie on the line given. The principal is also like to problems before.
Our duty is just find which is the vertex be the center of arc.

Question!
Let line AB and point P AB. Draw a line m such that m AB and
m pass through point P.
14 P R E G E O M E T R Y



Figure 1.19. Point P lie on line AB

Answer!
We do step like this. With P as the center, make two arcs intersect
the line AB. Give name with K and L.

Figure 1.20. 2 intersection point K and L from P as center of arc

Next step is like this. As the center, make an arc from K and L, which
has radius more than a half of KL. The intersection between arc K
and arc L is given name Q. See figure 1.21 as the result.

Figure 1.21. Finding the point Q

The last step is just connecting P and Q. We get PQ AB. See figure 1.22
as the result.
P R E G E O M E T R Y 15


Figure 1.22. Line m AB.

Thats all the construction of drawing a perpendicular line from a
point on a line.


4. Construction 4: Dividing an angle into two similar size
angles (making angle bisector).

Angle bisector is one important concept of geometry. We will often
use this concept to proof or explain other related topics. To
understanding the concept, we will give question and the answer is
the step of construction 4.

Question!
Make a line pass through the vertex A such that A is divided into
two similar size angles.

Answer
Let A as shown on figure 1.23.

Figure 1.23. A given


16 P R E G E O M E T R Y


With point A as center, draw an arc such that the arc intersects both
of angle legs. The radius of the arc is up to you. Let give name the
intersection with B and C. See figure 1.24 as the result.

Figure 1.24. Point B and C as result of intersection

From B and C draw a similar length arc, such that both of arcs have
intersection inside the angle and in front of A. Let give the
intersection name as P, see figure below as the result.

Figure 1.25. Point P as result of intersection between arc B and arc C

The last step is just connecting A and P, and we get mBAP =
mCAP.

Figure 1.26. We get mBAP = mCAP. AP is angle bisector

P R E G E O M E T R Y 17

That is the construction of dividing an angle into two similar size
angles (making angle bisector). Because of AP is an angle bisector, we
may say it AP bisects A.

5. Construction 5: Moving (or duplicating) an angle

This concept is often used in triangle concept. We usually give some
angle and ask the reader to make triangle by the angles given. To
understanding the concept, we will give question and the answer is
the step of construction 5.

Question!
It is given angle A below. Draw the duplicate of angle A to line g,
which is M as the angle point in line g.

Figure 1.27. Duplicate A to line g

Answers!
With point A as the center, make an arc until intersect both of its
legs. Let give the intersection name as B and C. See figure 1.28 as the
result.

Figure 1.28.

Do it with similar radius length on the line g, such that we get MF has
similar length to AB.
18 P R E G E O M E T R Y



Figure 1.29.

From B, draw an arc with radius length is BC. Do similar step has
just before with M as the center of arc. We get intersection between
the arcs on step before with this one. Let give the intersection name
with R. See figure 1.30 as the result.

Figure 1.30.

Connect F with E, then we get mCAB = mEMF.

Figure 1.31.


P R E G E O M E T R Y 19

D. EXERCISE Ch. 1

1. Radio station KIDS broadcasts with sufficient strength so that any
town 100 kilometers or less but no further from the station's
antenna can receive the signal.
(a) If the towns of Kutha and Metro pick up KIDS, what can you
conclude about their distances from the antenna?
(b) If a messenger were to travel from Kutha to the antenna and
then on to Metro, he would have to travel at most how many
kilometers?
(c) What is the maximum possible distance between Kutha and
Metro? Explain why your answer is correct.

2. Charts indicate that city B is 265 km northwest of city A, and city C
is 286 km southwest of city B. What can you conclude about the
distance from city A directly to city C?

3. Which of the following sets of lengths could be the lengths of the
sides of a triangle:
(a) 2 cm, 2 cm, 2 cm
(b) 3 km, 3 km, 2 km
(c) 3 m, 4 m, 5 m
(d) I! m, 5 m, 3! m
(e) 5 cm, 8 cm, 2 cm
(f) 2
1
2
cm, 3
1
2
cm, 4
1
2
cm

4. If two sides of a triangle are 12 cm and 20 cm, the third side must be
larger than cm, and smaller than cm.

5. Let P and Q be distinct points in the plane. If the circle of radius r
1

around P intersects the circle of radius r
2
around Q in two points,
what must be true of d(P, Q)?

6. If d(X, Y) = 5, d(X, Z) = I
1
2
, and Z lies on XY, then d(Z, Y) = ?

7. Draw a line segment AB whose length is 15 cm. Locate points on AB
whose distances from A are:
(a) 3 cm; (b)
5
2
cm; (c) 7
1
2
cm; (d) 8 cm; (e) 14 cm

8. Let X and Y be points contained in the disk of radius r around the
point P. Explain why d(X, Y) 2r. Use the Triangle Inequality.
20 P R E G E O M E T R Y



T H E L O C U S O F G E O M E T R Y O B J E C T S 21

Chapter 2

THE LOCUS OF GEOMETRY OBJ ECTS


Locus is basic knowledge to learn geometry. That is locus is not easy to
learn about. We assume that in locus of basic geometry we learn about (a)
distance, (b) basic parallel law, (c) and perpendicularly. Why basic parallel
law? Because there are some topics that couldnt be explained before we
learn polygon. So, special for parallel, we divide it into some parts, and we
put some material here.

A. DISTANCE

There three ideas about distance that we will discuss. There are:
1. distance between two points,
2. distance between points and line, and
3. distance between two parallel lines.

We define the distance between two points P and Q in the plane as the
length of the line segment connecting them, which we have already
denoted d(P, Q). Keep in mind that this symbol stands for a number. We
often write |PQ| instead of d(P, Q).

A few ideas about distance are obvious. The distance between two
points is either greater than zero or equal to zero. It is greater than zero
if the points are distinct; it is equal to zero only when the two points are
in fact the same-in other words when they are not distinct. In addition,
the distance from a point P to a point Q is the same as the distance from
Q back to P.



The situation could be shown as figure below:

Definition.
2.1. We write these properties of distance using proper symbols as
follows:
(a) For any points P, Q, we have d(P, Q) > O. Furthermore,
d(P, Q) = 0 if and only if P = Q.
(b) For any points P, Q, we have d(P, Q) = d(Q, P).

22 T R I A N G L E

A
B
A
B
C
(a) (b)

Figure 2.1. Distance between two points

The length of segment between point A and B is the distance between A
and B (see figure 2.1 (a)) but why the length segment BC and add by the
length of segment CA is not the distance between A and B (see figure
2.1 (b)).

We shall assume that distance between two points is the length of
shortest segment between two points given.

In the next condition, we will define the distance between a point and a
line. We assume that a point has distance to a line if the points is not lie
on the line that is call it is not collinear or have 0 (zero) distance if the
point is lie on the line.




The situation could be shown as figure below:


Figure 2.2. Distance between point and line

Definition.
2.2. Let any point P and line g. The distance between P and m,
denoted by d(P, m) is:
(a) The length of segment PQ, d(P,Q), PQ m, Q m, if P m.
(b) 0, if P m.
T H E L O C U S O F G E O M E T R Y O B J E C T S 23

The written P m means the point P is lie on the line m, and vice versa.
The contrast theorem about distance between point and line is shown
below.



Figure 2.3. The contrast distance principal

The distance between two lines only could hold if two lines are parallel.
We assume in planar geometry there only two conditions between two
or more lines, that is parallel and intersect each other. No more
condition we define in this topic.



The situation could be shown as figure below:

Figure 2.4. Distance between two parallel lines
Definition.
2.3. Let two parallel line g and h. Let P g and Q h, any point lie
on the line.
The distance between g and h, denoted by d(g, h) is:
(a) The length of segment PQ, d(P,Q), PQ g and PQ h, if
g h.
(b) 0, if g = h.

24 T R I A N G L E


The written g = h means the line g and h are coinciding or both lines
coincide. The figure 2.4 (a) show us about the condition of distance
between two parallel line, and figure 2.4 (b) show us about the condition
of coinciding two lines.


B. PARALLEL LAW

In this sub topic we only explain some subject material that is used as
based theory. We will continue this topic to higher level of parallel law
in chapter 5, the next parallel law. Some proof in chapter 5 needs the
science about polygon, so we put the subject material to the next level.

A. Two Lines Intersects by Third Line

We will define some condition of angle and line while three unparallel
lines have intersected each other. The situation is shown below.


Figure 2.5. Two lines crossed by third line

If two lines g and h intersect by one line m, it will build 8 angles. The
condition are:
a. Corresponding angles, the condition is hold for A and E, B
and F, C and G, D and H. If g h then the
corresponding angles will be called by parallel angle.
b. Interior corresponding angles, the condition is hold for C and F,
D and E.
T H E L O C U S O F G E O M E T R Y O B J E C T S 25

c. Exterior corresponding angles, the condition is hold for B and G,
A and H.
d. Interior alternate angle, the condition is hold for D and F,
C and F.
e. Exterior alternate angle, the condition is hold for A and G,
B and H.

B. Parallel Lines

Our discussion is about the locus of lines on the plane. Our specific
topic is about parallel lines. The situation is shown below.


Figure 2.6. Two parallel lines






Axioms.
2.1. Let two lines g and h. Let there are line m which is intersect
line g and h. If the size of corresponding angle is same then
g h.
2.2. If two parallel line intersect by third line, then the parallel
angle have similar size.
2.3. Let two lines g and h. Let there are line m which is intersect
line g and h. If the size of corresponding angles is different
then g is not parallel to h, denoted by g h.
Definition.
2.4. Two straight line is called parallel if the line lie on same plane
and have no common vertex or both of line are not
intersecting each other.

Note: if g and h parallel then we denoted it by g h

26 T R I A N G L E

Theorem!
2.1. If two parallel lines are intersected by third line then the interior
alternate angles have similar size.

See figure below for more detail explanation.



Figure 2.7. Condition of Theorem 2.1

It is given line g and h, intersect by line m.
Prove that mA
4
= mB
2
.

Proof!
Obvious mA
4
= mA
2
, because of opposite angle, theorem 1.4.
Obvious mB
2
= mA
2
, because of corresponding angle, axiom 2.
We conclude that mA
4
= mB
2
.


Theorem!
2.2. If two parallel lines intersect by third line then the sum of
interior corresponding angles is 180
o
.

Proof!
Look at figure 2.7.
We will proof that mA
3
+ mB
2
= 180
o
.
Obvious mA
3
+ mA
2
= 180
o
, because of A
3
and A
2
are two
adjacent angles lie on similar line.
Obvious mB
2
= mA
2
, because of corresponding angle, axiom 2.
We conclude that mA
3
+ mB
2
= 180
o
.



T H E L O C U S O F G E O M E T R Y O B J E C T S 27

Theorem!
2.3. If two lines intersect by third line such that the interior alternate
angles have similar size then the both of lines are parallel each
other.
2.4. If two lines intersect by third line such that the sum of interior
corresponding angles is 180
o
then both of lines are parallel each
other.

Proof!
We let the proof as exercise for the reader.




C. PERPENDICULARLY

We define two lines to be perpendicular if they intersect, and if the
angle between the lines is a right angle. Then this angle has 90.
Perpendicular lines are illustrated below.

Figure 2.8. Perpendicular

Notice that we use a special " " symbol, rather than a small arc, to
indicate a 90 (or right) angle. We define two segments or rays to be
perpendicular if the lines on which they lie are perpendicular.
Exercise.
1. If two parallel lines are intersected by third line, prove that:
a. The size of exterior alternate angles is same,
b. The sum of exterior correspondent angle is 180
o
.
2. If two lines are together perpendicular to another line, the
both of lines are parallel. Prove it!
3. If two parallel lines are intersected by third line, then the lines
which are bisect the correspondent angle are also parallel.
28 T R I A N G L E


To denote that lines (or segments) g and h are perpendicular, we use the
symbols

g h

As with parallel lines, we assume some properties.



The condition of axiom 2.4 is shown below.


Figure 2.9. Perpendicular line pass through one certain points that is colinear

The condition of axiom 2.5 is shown below.

Figure 2.10. Two parallel line intersect by one perpendicular line

Using these two new axioms, we can prove a theorem relating
perpendiculars and parallels.


Axioms.
2.4. Given a line g and a point P, there is one and only one line
through P, perpendicular to g.
2.5. Given two parallel lines g and h. If a line m is perpendicular to g
then it is perpendicular to h.
T H E L O C U S O F G E O M E T R Y O B J E C T S 29

Theorem!
2.5. If m is perpendicular to line g, and m is also perpendicular to line h,
then g is parallel to h.

We will try to proof by giving the general counter example. We will
proof the contrast is not true to explain that the condition is true.

Proof
Let g, h, m line, m g and m h.
Suppose that g and h are not parallel.

Obvious if g and h are not parallel, by definition of parallel line, there is
at least a common vertex P, which is P g and P h too. See figure 2.11
below.

Figure 2.11. The contrast condition

The condition shows us a contradiction between axiom no. 2.4 with it.
The axiom tells us there only one line g such that perpendicular to m
passes through point P outside the line m.

We get there are a contradiction.
So, the contrast is false.
We conclude that if m is perpendicular to line g, and m is also
perpendicular to line h, then g is parallel to h.




30 T R I A N G L E

D. EXERCISE Ch. 2

1. Look at figure 2.12 below, line k is perpendicular to line v, and line l
is perpendicular to line v. What can you conclude about lines k and
l? Why?

Figure 2.12.

2. In figure 2.13 line m is drawn from point P perpendicular to g. If g
and h are parallel, what can you conclude about m and h? Why?


Figure 2.13.

3. In Figure 2.14 below,
PR is perpendicular to PT and
PQ is perpendicular to PS.
Prove that m(a) = m(b).

Figure 2.14.
T H E L O C U S O F G E O M E T R Y O B J E C T S 31

4. Below is an example of a non-mathematical proof by contradiction:

Johnny wants to go to the store after dinner. His mother says no, he
should stay home, do his work, and maintain his straight-A average.
Johnny argues: "Suppose I don't go to the store tonight. Then I won't
be able to get a protractor. Tomorrow, I'll be without one in
geometry class, and the teacher will get mad. As a result, I'll get an F.
Since that is an intolerable thing, you must let me go to the store."

Give another example of a "proof by contradiction" that you might
have used some time in your life.

5. Refer to Figure 2.15 below, to answer the following. We assume CD
AB.
(a) m(l) + m(L2) = ___
(b) If m(3) = 50, then m(4) = ___
(c) Is AOT the supplement of TOB?
(d) M(1) + m(2) + m(3) + m(4) = ___
(e) If m(4) = 23, then m(3) = ___
(f) Name, using numbers, two angles that are adjacent to 2. ___
and ___
(g) If m(1) = 32, then m(TOB) = ___
(h) Must OT be perpendicular to OS if m(1) + m(4) = 90?

A B
C
D
S
O
T
1
2 3
4

Figure 2.15.
32 T R I A N G L E


6. Suppose L
l
and L
2
are both perpendicular to L
3
, and they both
intersect L
3
at point P. What can you conclude about L
l
and L
2
?

7. Look at figure 2.16 below. In quadrilateral PBQC, assume that PBQ
and PCQ are right angles, and that m(x) = m(y). Prove that
m(ABQ) = m(DCQ).

Figure 2.16.
T R I A N G L E 33

Chapter 3

T R I A N G L E


In this chapter we will discuss about some properties of triangles. For basic
definition, we let the reader to arrange as good as reader can do. We let
the reader to find their self knowledge and after that, they can arrange the
definition of a triangle their self.

A. TRIANGLE AND PART OF A TRIANGLE

The figure realized by connecting three no collinear point by line
segments is called a triangle (Licker. McGraw Hill Co.). A Triangle ABC
sometimes denoted by ABC.

Exercise:
It is given three segment lines. Their lengths are 10 cm, 7 cm, and 8 cm. Draw
a triangle with three segments given.



When we learn a triangle, we should understand the parts of a triangle
first. Now we define angle of a triangle is angle that adjacent to legs of
Construction 1:
Given segments line 5, 7, and 10 cm, label it with p, q, r.
1. Choose one segment given, construct an equilateral triangle, whose
sides have the same length as that segment.
2. Construct a triangle such that one of the sides has the same length as
p, while the two other sides have the same length as q.
3. Construct a triangle whose sides have lengths 5 cm, 7 cm, and 15 cm.
4. Can you explain why there is trouble with Problem 3?
5. Draw any triangle just using a ruler, and measure the length of the
three sides. Add up the lengths of any two sides and compare this total
with the length of the third side. What do you notice?
6. Construct a triangle with sides of length 5 cm, 10 cm, and 15 cm.
What happens?
7. Let P, Q, and M be three points in the plane, and suppose

d(P, Q) + d(Q, M) = d(P, M).

What can you conclude about point P, Q, and M? Draw a picture.

34 T R I A N G L E

a triangle. And, we define leg of a triangle is a segment that is bounded
by two different vertices which become angle point of a triangle.

We have known that a triangle is held from three collinear points. The
points sometimes we call it vertices of a triangle.

Now, we let the figure below to inform the reader more knowledge.

B
C
A
a
b
c

Figure 3.1 Parts of a triangle

The parts of a triangle are:
1) Angle of triangle : A, B, and C;
2) Legs of triangle : AB, BC, AC;
3) Side BC on the opposite of A is labeled by a,
side AC on the opposite of B is labeled by b,
side AB on the opposite of C is labeled by c;
4) A is also called angle , B is also called angle , C is also called
angle .

Before continue to next subject material, let us show some contrast
about the definition of a triangle. See figure below.


Figure 3.2 Contrast of a triangles

T R I A N G L E 35

We assume that the planar on figure 3.2 (a) is made from wire or straw.
It means, the region surrounded is empty. Thus, the planar on figure
3.2.(b) is assumed made from paper or carton.

My question is, from the definition above, which figure ( (a) or (b) ) is
good explaining the condition of a triangle? And why?

Please compare your knowledge to figure 3.3 below.


Figure 3.3 Contrast of a triangles

Let we see again the information about triangle below.

*) The figure realized by connecting three no collinear point by line
segments is called a triangle (Licker. McGraw Hill Co.).

From the information above we conclude that figure 3.2 (a) is a triangle.
So, it consequence must be figure 3.2 (b) is not a triangle. Yes,
sometimes we call figure 3.2 (b) as the region of a triangle. Based on
the information, we assume that a triangle have no area. The planar
which has area sometimes we call it the region, in this case figure 3.2 (b),
the region of a triangle, could be mentioned the area.

And, what about the perimeter? We assume that both of the figure (3.2
(a) and (b)) has it perimeter, because we can find the length of segment
around the region inside, although the middle region could be empty.

What about figure 3.3, is it a triangle? Off course not. Even figure 3.3 (a)
is also made from wire, we cant say it a triangle. We assume that
segment in *) means a part of straight line (remember on chap. 1 pre
geometry). We know that one side on figure 3.3 is not a segment. So we
can say that both of figures on 3.3 are not a triangle. Thats all basic
information about a triangle.

36 T R I A N G L E


B. CLASSIFICATION OF TRIANGLE BASED ON ITS SIDE AND
ANGLE

1) Based on its side, triangles is classified into:

a) Isosceles triangle.

An isosceles triangle is a triangle with two sides equal in length.
The two similar sides are called legs of isosceles triangle. The
third side is called base of triangle. In a triangle, the angle
opposite the base is called the vertex. Both of the other angles is
called base angle.

Figure 3.4 Parts of an isosceles triangle

Figure 3.2 (a) shows us the basic form of an isosceles triangle.
And the second figure shows us parts of an isosceles triangle.

b) Equilateral triangle.

An equilateral triangle is a triangle which has three equal sides.
Because of the side has similar lengths then the size of each angle
is also similar, that is 60
o
.

T R I A N G L E 37


Figure 3.5 Parts of an equilateral triangle

Figure 3.3 show us the angles of 60
o
. It means, the sum of all
angles in a triangle is 180
o
. (Prove it!)

c) Scalene triangle.

A scalene triangle is a triangle which each side has different
length.



Figure 3.6 Parts of an equilateral triangle

In scalene triangle, and also equilateral triangle, we can say that all
side of the triangle is base of triangle. It is different from isosceles
triangle; the base of an isosceles triangle is specific side. The base
of an isosceles is a side which has different length from another
two sides.

2) Based on its angle, triangles are classified into:

a) Acute triangle. A triangle is called an acute triangle if all three its
angles are acute angle.
b) Obtuse triangle. A triangle is called obtuse triangle if there is one
angle in the triangle that is obtuse angle.
38 T R I A N G L E

c) Right triangle. A triangle is called right triangle if there is one
angle in the triangle that is right angle.

The figure of triangles based on information above is shown below.


Figure 3.7 Parts of an equilateral triangle

Different from another two kinds, its only acute triangle that has
three acute angles. The other kinds of triangle only have one angle
which is corresponding.


C. THE SUM OF ANGLES ON A TRIANGLE AND EXTERIOR
ANGLE

Theorem!
3.1. The sum of all angles in a triangle is 180
o
.

Proof!
We leave the proof as the exercise for the reader.




Figure 3.8 An exterior angle

Definition
3.1 Exterior angle is an angle which is adjacent to one angle in the
triangle given. The angle and its exterior angle make a straight
line.

T R I A N G L E 39

Figure 3.8 show us the exterior angle. We assume that an exterior angle
is a supplementary angle of an angle on triangle.


Theorem!
3.2. The size of exterior angle equals to the sum of both other angle.

Analyze.
Look at the figure below!

Figure 3.9 Condition of th. 3.2

Proof!
We will proof that m
2
= m + m.
Obvious m
1
+ m
2
= 180
o
. (Because of straight line)
Obvious m + m
1
+ m = 180
o
. (Tr. 3.1)
We get m
1
+ m
2
= m + m
1
+ m
m
2
= m + m.
So in a triangle the size of exterior angle equals to the sum of both other
angle.


Theorem!
3.3. The sum of all exterior angle of a triangle equals 360
o
.

Proof!
We leave the proof as the exercise for the reader.






40 T R I A N G L E

D. SPECIAL LINE ON A TRIANGLE

1) Median (median of a triangle)



Figure 3.10 A median of a triangle

Three medians were through one certain point. The point is called
median point. Median point dividing a median by the ratio 2 : 1. For
next level, we know that a median divide a triangle into to similar
part which has same area. See figure below.
A
B
C
D
A
C
D B
C
D
(a)
(b) (c)

Figure 3.11 A median of a triangle divide
Definition!
3.2 Median is a line that is connecting a vertex to midpoint of
opposite side.
In other sentences, a bisector is a locus of equidistant vertices from
its legs.
3.3
T R I A N G L E 41


Triangle in figure 3.11 (a) divided by median CD into two parts,
those are 3.11 (b) and 3.11 (c). We know that AD = DB, and
the altitude (we will learn soon) of CAD = DCB. In our
discussion later, we can conclude that the area of CAD equals to
the area of DCB.

2) Bisector (Angle bisector)



See figure 3.12 below, for more detail information.

Figure 3.12 A bisector or angle bisector of a triangle

It can be say; the angle bisector was bisecting an angle into two
similar size.

Three of bisector has an intersection that is called bisect point.
Bisect point is center of inscribed circle.


Figure 3.13 Bisector point as center of inscribed circle

Definition!
3.4 A bisector is a line which is dividing an angle into two similar
sizes.
42 T R I A N G L E

3) The altitude



To help you understand the condition, see figure 3.14 below.


Figure 3.14 Altitudes and an altitude point of a triangle

Three altitudes intersect at one point which is called altitude point.

4) Perpendicular bisector (Axis line)



To help you understand the condition, see figure 3.15 below.

Figure 3.15 Perpendicular bisector and axis point of a triangle
Definition!
3.6 Perpendicular bisector of a line or side is a line that is
perpendicular to the side or line through the midpoint.
Definition!
3.5 The altitude is a line from a vertex perpendicular to opposite
side.
T R I A N G L E 43


In a triangle perpendicular bisector sometimes called by axis line. All
of perpendicular bisector through one certain point that is called axis
point. The axis point is the center of circumscribed of a triangle.



Figure 3.16 Axis point as center of circumscribed of a triangle

In the figure 3.16, we give some note that (i) OQ AB, |AP| = |PB|.
Off course OQ is a perpendicular bisector. It means note (i) is
suitable for all perpendicular bisector of a triangle.

We have explained all four special lines of a triangle. We will give some
properties about the special lines below.


Theorem!
3.4. Inside bisector and outside bisector to similar angle is perpendicular
one another.

Analyze.
Look at the figure below.
44 T R I A N G L E

x
x 1
2
3
4
A B
C
D
E
F

Figure 3.17 Condition of theorem 3.4

Proof!
It is given ABC, BD is interior bisector, and BE is exterior bisector.
We will proof that BE BD.
Obvious mB
1
= mB
2
and mB
3
= mB
4

Obvious mB
1
+ mB
2
+ mB
3
+ mB
4
= 180
o

2 . mB
2
+ 2 . mB
3
= 180
o

2 . ( mB
2
+ mB
3
) = 180
o

mB
2
+ mB
3
= 90
o
.
Because of mB
2
+ mB
3
= 90
o
then we conclude that BD BE.


E. CONGRUENCY

We shall say that two figures in the plane are similar whenever one is
congruent to dilate of the other. Therefore the two quadrilaterals are
similar, since one is just an enlargement of the other. Any two circles
are similar, if the two circles have the same radius. We simply take
dilation by 1 to satisfy the definition. For the moment, we will study
similar triangles, as illustrated below.

Figure 3.18 Dilation of a triangle
T R I A N G L E 45


We can easily generate similar triangles by dilating a triangle with respect
to one of its vertices or with respect to a point 0 not a vertex like
shown below.


Figure 3.19 Process of dilating a triangle

Let T be a triangle whose sides have lengths a, b, c respectively. If we
dilate T by a factor of r, we obtain a triangle which we denote by rT.
The lengths of its sides will be ra, rb, rc, as we saw in the preceding
section. Note that r can be any positive number. For instance in Figure
below we have drawn triangles T,
1
2
T, and 2T.


Figure 3.20 Sample of dilating process of a triangle

Denote by T' the dilation of T by r. Let a', b', c' be the lengths of the
corresponding sides. Then we have

a' = ra, b' = rb, c' = rc.

Therefore the ratios of the corresponding sides are all equal, that is:
46 T R I A N G L E


o
o
=
b
b
=
c
c
= r

We have seen that if two triangles are similar, then the ratios of the
lengths of corresponding sides are equal to a constant r. We now prove
the converse.



Note:
If both of the triangles have same length side, then it is denoted by SSS.
Notation for congruent is
Another ways to explain the congruency will be given soon.


Theorem!
3.5. Let T, T' be triangles. Let a, b, c be the lengths of the sides of T, and
let a', b', c' be the lengths of the sides of T'. If there exists a positive
number r such that

a' = ra, b' = rb, c' = rc,

then the triangles are similar.

Proof!
The dilation by
1
r
of T' transforms T' into a triangle T whose sides have
lengths a, b, c, because
1
r
. ro = o,
1
r
. rb = b,
1
r
. rc = c

Therefore T, T have corresponding sides of the same length. By
condition SSS we conclude that T and T are congruent. Therefore T is
congruent to a dilation of T', and triangles T and T' are similar.






Definition!
3.7 Two triangles which its all corresponding side have same length
are similar and congruent.
T R I A N G L E 47

Theorem!
3.6. If two triangles are similar, then their corresponding angles have the
same measure.
3.7. If the corresponding angles of two triangles have same measure,
then the triangles are similar.

Proof!
Let T, T' be the triangles. Let A, B, C be the angles of T and let A', B', C'
be the corresponding angles of T'. Let a, b, c and a', b', c' be the lengths
of corresponding sides. Let
r =
o
o


be the ratio of the lengths of one pair of corresponding sides. Then a' =
ra. Dilation by r transforms T into a triangle T" whose sides have lengths

a" = ra, b" = rb, c" = rc

respectively. The triangles T' and T" have one corresponding side having
the same length, namely

a" = a' = ra.

The situation is shown below.


Figure 3.21 Condition of theorem 3.6 and 3.7

48 T R I A N G L E

We have seen in the previous theorem that dilation preserves the
measures of angles. Hence the angles adjacent to this side in T' and T"
have the same measure, that is:

m(B') = m(B") and m(C') = m(C").

It follows from the ASA property that T', T" are congruent. Hence T' is
congruent to a dilation of T, and hence T' is similar to T, as was to be
shown.


Theorem!
3.8. Two triangle are congruent if
a. there is similar side
b. angle in that side and angle which is opposite to the side is
similar
then we called it congruent by SAA.
3.9. Two triangles are congruent if both of triangles are right angle
triangle and one leg and also its hypotenuse is same length.

Proof!
We let the proof as exercise.



Now, we will give some examples to make the reader more understand
about the concept.

Example #1:

Prove that in the isosceles triangle, the lengths of median to the similar
sides are same.

NOTE!

If two triangle are congruent, then:
a. The length of corresponding sides are same
b. The magnitude of corresponding angle are same.

Corresponding side is the sides in front of the similar measure angles.
Therefore corresponding angle is the angle the angles which is correspond
to similar length side.
T R I A N G L E 49

Solution:
Look at figure 3.22 to see the condition about the theorem.

Figure 3.22 Condition to the problem

It is given:
ABC is an isosceles triangle with AC = BC.
We build AD and BE be median, and thats why AE = CE and BD = CD.

Prove that AD = BE.

Obvious =
1
2
. .

Obvious =
1
2
. =
1
2
.

We get AE = BD.

Look at the ABD and BAE.
We can find fact that:
1. AE = BD
2. mBAE = mABD (from given isosceles triangle)
3. AB = AB (coincide)

From fact above and theorems before we conclude that ABD and
BAE are congruent, because of SAS rule.
So that the length of corresponding side is same include AD and BE.
So, AD = BE.

50 T R I A N G L E



We have proof this theorem or maybe have same meaning, but we try to proof
by another way, just use the special properties of triangle.

Theorem.
Given line K intersecting parallel lines g and h. Then parallel angles 1 and 5 have
the same measure, and so do alternate angles 5 and 3.

Proof.
Look figure below!

Figure 3.23 Condition to the problem

Through P we draw a line perpendicular to g, intersecting g at M. Since g and h
are parallel, AXIOM 2.5 tells us that this new line is also perpendicular to h. We
label this point of in tersection N. We have now created two right triangles,
.QPM and PRN. By Theorem 3.5, we know that :

mR + mP = 90 (applied to PRN)
and
mQ + mP = 90 (applied to QPM).

Therefore mR
5
= mQ
1
. Since opposite angles have the same measure, we
have

mQ
1
= mQ
3
and thus mR
5
= mQ
3
.

This proves our theorem.
T R I A N G L E 51



F. ANOTHER PROPERTIES ON TRIANGLE

After the explanation above, now, we will explain some properties of a
triangle, included its special lines.

Theorem!
3.10. The measure of base angle in an isosceles triangle is same.

See figure below for more detail information.

Figure 3.24 Condition of theorem 3.10

It is known:
ABC is an isosceles triangle, AC = BC. (see figure 3.24)
The theorem says that mA = mB.

Proof!
Build median CD, and then look at ACD and BCD.
Obvious (i) AC = BC, (ii) AD = BD, (iii) CD = CD.
So that ACD BCD
So that mA = mB.


Theorem!
3.11. In the isosceles triangle, the three special lines from the top to the
base axis are coinciding.

See figure below for more detail information.

52 T R I A N G L E


Figure 3.25 Condition of theorem 3.11


It is known:
ABC is an isosceles triangle, AC = BC, mA = mB.
Prove that the median, the altitude, and the bisector of ABC are
coinciding.

Proof!
We build CD as a median of triangle. We will proof that CD is also the
altitude and perpendicular bisector.

Look at ADC and BDC.
Obvious (i) AC = BC, (ii) mACD = mBCD, (iii) CD = CD.
So that ACD BCD

The consequences are:
(A) Because of AD = BD, we get CD is a median.
(B) Obvious mADC + mBDC = 180
o
. We get fact that mADC =
mBDC, so mADC =
1
2
.180
o
= 90
o
or CD AB. We get CD is the
altitude of ABC.
(C) AD = BD and CD AB. We can conclude that CD is perpendicular
bisector.

From (A), (B), and (C) we know that the altitude, the median and
perpendicular bisector of ABC are coincide.





T R I A N G L E 53

Theorem!
3.12. If in the triangle, the three special lines from the top to base axis
coincide then the triangle given is isosceles triangle.

Proof!
We leave this proof as exercise.

Theorem!
3.13. In the right angle triangle, the length of median to the hypotenuse
equals a half of its hypotenuse.

See figure below for more detail information.

Figure 3.26 Condition of theorem 3.13

It is given
ABC, mA = 90
o
.
AD is median of the triangle, such that BD = CD.
The theorem says that |AB| =
1
2
. |BC|

Proof!
From the point B, build segment BE parallel to AC until intersect the
extension of AD in E. Then ADC BDE, such that AC = BE.

Look at BAC and ABE.
We get :
(i) AC = BE
(ii) mBAC = mABE = 90
o

(iii) BA = AB
From (i), (ii), and (iii) we get BAC ABE.
So that mBAE = mABC or ABD is isosceles.
We get AD = BD or AD =
1
2
BC.
54 T R I A N G L E

Theorem!
3.14. In the 30
o
right angle triangle, the length of side opposite to the
30
o
angle equals a half of its hypotenuse.

See figure below for more detail information.

Figure 3.27 Condition of theorem 3.14

Proof!
It is given 30
o
right angle triangle.

We will show that BC = 2.AB.

Draw a median AD of ABC.
Obvious BD = CD.

Look at ABD.
Obvious mB = 60
o

From theorem 1.17 we get AD =
1
2
.BC. And also BD =
1
2
.BC.
We get ABD is an isosceles triangle.
The consequence is mDAB = mABD = 60
o
.
Because the sum of angle in a triangle is 180
o
, we conclude that
mADB = 60
o
.
So that ADB is an equilateral triangle.

From the fact above, we get AD = BD = AB =
1
2
.BC.
So we get the length of side opposite to the 30
o
angle equals a half of its
hypotenuse.



T R I A N G L E 55

G. EXERCISE Ch. 3

As self evaluation, we let the reader to do the exercises.

1. Given an isosceles triangle ABC (C as top angle). On the base AB,
mention a vertex of D and E such that AD = BE.
Prove that CD = CE !

2. On the triangle ABC, ABC is an isosceles triangle, AB as base of
triangle, build a bisector AD and bisector BE. Prove that AD = BE !

3. Draw a perpendicular bisector of a line AB. On the perpendicular
bisector, there is a vertex P. Prove that P is equidistant from A and
B !

4. Given ABC is an isosceles triangle with AB as its base. Bisector
AD and BE are intersecting on vertex T. Prove that ATE RTD!

5. Prove that in the isosceles triangle, both of the altitude from base
vertices is similar!

6. Given CD as the altitude of ABC which is isosceles triangle. Prove
that CD the median, the bisector, and also the perpendicular
bisector.


56 T R I A N G L E

H. PROJECTS

It is given some angles and segments below.

Figure 3.28 Lines and angles given

1. Draw a triangle, if it is known a side and two angle on the side given
(g, A and B)
2. Draw a triangle, if it is known two side and one adjacent angle of two
side given (g, k, and C)
3. Draw a triangle, if it is known one side, one adjacent angle, and one
opposite single to the side given (m, A, and B)
4. Draw a triangle, if it is known two sides and one opposite angle to
any side given (k, m, and C)



P O L Y G O N 57

Chapter 4

P O L Y G O N


In this chapter, we will explain about polygon. We may start from the basic
ideas of a polygon, the convexity, basic theorems of polygon, regular
polygon, some kinds of polygon, until kinds of quadrilateral. We give you
two kinds of exercise in this chapter, because of its large subject material.
Some our daily mistakes are also given and directly solved here. We wish
for next activity, the mistakes will not be happen again.

A. BASIC IDEAS

Some figure which is polygon is shown below.


Figure 4.1 Polygon

Some figures which are not polygon are shown below.


Figure 4.2 Not polygon

We shall give the definition of a polygon in a moment. In these figures,
observe that a polygon consists of line segments which enclose a single
region.

A four-side polygon is called a quadrilateral (Figure 4.1(a) or (f)). A
five-side polygon is called a pentagon (Figure 4.1(b)), and a six-side
58 P O L Y G O N


polygon is called a hexagon (Figure 4.1(e)). If we kept using special
prefixes such as quad-, penta-, hexa-, and so on for naming polygons, we
would have a hard time talking about figures with many sides without
getting very confused. Instead, we call a polygon which has n sides as n-
gon.

For example, a pentagon could also be called a 5-gon; a hexagon would
be called a 6-gon. If we don't want to specify the number of sides, we
simply use the word polygon (poly- means many). As we mentioned for
triangles (3-gons), there is no good word to use for the region inside a
polygon, except "polygonal region", which is a mouthful. So we shall
speak of the area of a polygon when we mean the area of the polygonal
region, as we did for triangles.

If a segment PQ is the side of a polygon, then we call point P or point Q
a vertex of the polygon. With multisided polygons, we often label the
vertices (plural of vertex) P
1
, P
2
, P
3
, etc. for a number of reasons. First,
we would run out of letters if the polygon had more than 26 sides.
Second, this notation reminds us of the number of sides of the polygon;
in the illustration, we see immediately that the figure has 5 sides:


Figure 4.3 A Hexagon

Finally, if we want to talk about the general case, the n-gon, we can label
its vertices P
1
, P
2
, P
3
, ,P
n - 1
, P
n
as shown:

P O L Y G O N 59


Figure 4.4 General n-gon

We can now define a polygon (or an n-gon) to be an n-sided figure
consisting of n segments

,
2

,
3

, ,
n-1

,
n

which intersect only at their endpoints and enclose a single region.


Experiment 4.1.
Below are two rows of polygons. Each polygon in the top row exhibits a
common property, while those in the bottom row do not.





Figure 4.5 Polygons

Can you discover what the top row polygons have in common that the
bottom ones do not? Try to state the definition of your property as
specifically as possible, using terms and concepts that we have already
defined. There are many possible answers.

60 P O L Y G O N


B. CONVEXITY AND ANGLES

Polygons which look like those in the top row of Figure 4.5 we will call
convex. Thus we define a polygon to be convex if it has the following
property:

Given two points X and Y on the sides of the polygon, then the
segment XY is wholly contained in the polygonal region
surrounded by the polygon (including the polygon itself).

Observe how this condition fails in a polygon such as one chosen from
the lower row in Figure 4.5:

Figure 4.6 Example polygon

You might want to go back to Figure 4.5 and verify that this condition
does hold on each polygon in the top row.

Throughout this book we shall only be dealing with convex polygons, as
they are generally more interesting. Consequently, to simplify our
language, we shall always assume that a polygon is convex, and
not say so explicitly every time.

In a polygon, let PQ and QM be two sides with common endpoint Q.
Then the polygon lies within one of the two angles determined by the
rays R
QP
and R
QM
. This angle is called one of the angles of the polygon.
Observe that this angle has less than 180, as illustrated:

Figure 4.7 Angles of polygon
P O L Y G O N 61



Consider a convex quadrilateral. A line segment between two opposite
vertices is called a diagonal. We can decompose the quadrilateral
("break it down") into two triangles by drawing a diagonal, as shown:


Figure 4.8 A diagonal

Experiment 4.2.
1. Besides the number of sides, two characteristics of polygons are the
lengths of its sides and the measures of its angles.
a. What do we call a quadrilateral which has four sides of the same
length and which has four angles with the same measure?
b. Can you think of a quadrilateral which has four angles with equal
measures but whose sides do not all have the same length? Draw a
picture. What do we call such a quadrilateral?
c. Can you draw a quadrilateral which has four sides of equal length,
but whose angles do not have the same measure?
d. What do we call a 3-gon which has equal length sides and equal
measure angles?
2. With a ruler, draw an arbitrary looking convex quadrilateral. Measure
each of its four angles, and add these measures. Repeat with two or
three other quadrilaterals.
3. Repeat the procedure given in Part 2 with a few pentagons, and then a
few hexagons.

What can you conclude? Can you say what the sum of the measures of the
angles of a 7-gon would be? How about a 13-gon?
For the rest of this experiment, we will develop a formula to answer these
questions.

62 P O L Y G O N


Notice that the angles of the two triangles make up the angles of the
polygon. What is the sum of the angles in each triangle? In the two
triangles added together? And in the polygon?

Now look at a convex pentagon. We can decompose it into triangles,
using the "diagonals" from a single vertex, as shown:


Figure 4.9 Diagonals

We see that in a 5-gon we get three such triangles. Again, the angles of
the triangles make up the angles of the polygon when it is decomposed
in this way. What is the sum of the measures of all the angles in the
triangles? What is the sum of the measures of all the angles in the
polygon?

Repeat this procedure with a hexagon to find the sum of the measures
of its angle. Continue the process until you can state a formula which
will give the sum of the measures of the angles of an n-gon in terms of n.
If you have succeeded, you will have found the next theorem.


Theorem!
4.1. The sum of the angles of a polygon with n sides is

(n 2).180
o


Proof!
Let. P
1
, P
2
, ,P
n
be the vertices of the polygon as shown in the figure.
The segments

,
1

, ,
1

n-1

P O L Y G O N 63

decompose the polygon into (n 2) triangles. Since the sum of the
angles of a triangle has 180
o
, it follows that the sum of the angles of the
polygon has (n 2).180.


Figure 4.10 Condition of th. 4.1

Thats it some basic properties of polygon. In next sub chapter, we will
learn more about the properties of polygon.


C. BASIC THEOREMS OF POLYGONS

Theorem!
4.2. In the n-gon, we can build (n 3) diagonals from a vertex.

Proof!
Look at figure below.

Figure 4.11 Condition of th. 4.2
64 P O L Y G O N


Let. P
1
, P
2
, ,P
n
be the vertices of the polygon as shown in the figure.
Take any vertex as the certain vertex, let it be P
x
.

The segments

,
x

, ,
x

x-2

,
x

x+2

, ,
x

n-1

,
x

build diagonals. So that there are 2 vertices those could not be
connected from a chosen vertex, that is P
x1
, and P
x+1
which are not
build diagonals.
Obvious P
x
couldnt make diagonal to itself.
Because of P
x
is any vertex, we conclude that the condition is suitable
for all vertices.
So we can only build (n 3) diagonal from a vertex in a n-gon.


Theorem!
4.3. The sum of diagonal in an n-gon is

1
2
n(n S)

Proof!
From theorem 4.2 we get there are (n 3) diagonal for every vertex in
an n-gon.
Obvious from P
1
there are (n 3) diagonals,
from P
2
there are (n 3) diagonals,
from P
3
there are (n 3) diagonals,

from P
n1
there are (n 3) diagonals, and
from P
n
there are (n 3) diagonals.

Take any P
x
vertex in n-gon given.
Obvious there are (n 3) diagonal out from the vertex and also there
are (n 3) diagonal in from another vertices.
It means every vertex in an n-gon is being counted twice.

So that the sum of diagonal in a n-gon should be

2n. (n S)
2
=
1
2
n. (n S)

These prove the theorem.
P O L Y G O N 65

Theorem!
4.4. The sum of exterior angle of an n-gon is 360
o
.

Proof!
We leave the proof as exercise.

D. REGULAR POLYGON

A polygon is called regular if all its sides have the same length and all its
angles have the same measure. For example, a square is also a regular 4-
gon. An equilateral triangle is a regular 3-gon.

The perimeter of a polygon is defined to be the sum of the lengths
of its sides.

Example!
If each angle of a regular polygon has 135, how many sides does the
polygon have?

Answer.
Let n be the number of sides. This is also the number of vertices.
Since the angle at each vertex has 135, the sum of these angles has
135n. By Theorem 4-1
1
, we must have

135n = (n 2)180.

By algebra, this is equivalent with

135n = 180n - 360,

and we can solve for n. We get

360 = 180n 135n = 45n,

Then we get n = 8.

The answer is that the regular polygon has 8 sides.




1
Th. 4.1 The sum of the angles of a polygon with n sides is (n 2).180
o

66 P O L Y G O N


E. QUADRILATERAL

Let A, B, C, D be four points which determine the four-sided figure
consisting of the four sides AB, BC, CD, and AD. Any four-sided figure
in the plane is called a quadrilateral. If the opposite sides of the
quadrilateral are parallel, that is, if AB is parallel to CD and AD is parallel
to BC, and then the figure is called a parallelogram:
A B
C D

Figure 4.12 A parallelogram

A rectangle is a quadrilateral with four right angles, as shown in figure
below.



Figure 4.13 A rectangle

In the definition of a rectangle we only assumed something about the
angles. The following basic properties will be used constantly.



It is also true that the opposite sides of a parallelogram have the same
length, but to prove this we need additional axioms. A square is a
Basic Property 1!
The opposite sides of a rectangle are parallel, and therefore a
rectangle is also a parallelogram.

Basic Property 2!
The opposite sides of a rectangle have the same length.

P O L Y G O N 67

rectangle all of whose sides have the same length. More detailed
information to the topics is shown below.

1. Parallelogram



Theorem!
4.5. In a parallelogram, the size of opposite angles is same.

Proof!
Look at the figure below.

Figure 4.14 A parallelogram with its some parts

It is given a parallelogram ABCD.
Prove that mA = mC and mB = mD.
Draw diagonal AC.

Obvious mA
1
= mC
1
(alternate interior angles) and
mA
2
= mC
2
(alternate interior angles).
We get mA
1
+ mA
2
= mC
1
+ mC
2
mA = mC.
By the similar step, we get mB = mD.
So the size of opposite angles in a parallelogram is same.



Definition!
4.1. Parallelogram is a quadrilateral which its corresponding sides
are parallel.
68 P O L Y G O N


Theorem!
4.6. In a parallelogram, the length of opposite sides is same.

Proof!
Look at the figure 3.12.

It is given a parallelogram ABCD.
Prove that AB = CD and BC = DA.

Draw diagonal AC.
Look at ABC and ACD
Obvious mA
1
= mC
1
(because of alternate interior angles),
mA
2
= mC
2
(because of alternate interior angles),
AC = AC (because of coincide).
We get ABC ACD (because of ASA)
One of the consequence is AB = CD and BC = AD.


Theorem!
4.7. In a parallelogram, both of its diagonals are intersecting in the
midpoint of its diagonals.

Proof!
Look at figure below.

Figure 4.15 A parallelogram with its some parts

It is given a parallelogram ABCD.
Prove that AT = TC and BT = TD.

Look at ATD and BTC.
Obvious mD
2
= mB
2
(because of alternate interior angles),
mA
2
= mC
2
(because of alternate interior angles),
AD = BC (because of theorem 3.6).
P O L Y G O N 69

We get ATD BTC (because of ASA)
One of the consequence is AT = TC and BT = TD.
So that T is midpoint of AC and T is also midpoint of BD.


Theorem!
4.8. In a quadrilateral, if the size of opposite angles is same, then
the quadrilateral given is a parallelogram.

Proof!
Look at the figure below.

A B
C D

Figure 4.16

It is given a quadrilateral ABCD and
mA = mC also mB = mD.

Prove that ABCD is a parallelogram.

Obvious the sum of all angles in 4-gon is (4 2).180
o
= 360
o
. (based
on th. 4.1)
Obvious mA + mB + mC + mD = 360
o

mA + mB + mA + mB = 360
o

2. mA + 2.mB = 360
o

mA + mB = 180
o
.

We get:
1. Because of mA + mB = 180
o
then AD BC.
2. Because of mA + mB = 180
o
and mB = mD then mA +
mD = 180
o
.
3. Because of mA + mD = 180
o
then AB CD.

Because AD BC and AB CD, we conclude that quadrilateral
ABCD is a parallelogram.
70 P O L Y G O N


Theorems!
4.9. In a quadrilateral, if the length of opposite sides is same, then
the quadrilateral given is a parallelogram.
4.10. In a quadrilateral, if both of diagonals are intersecting one
another at the midpoint, then the quadrilateral given is a
parallelogram.
4.11. In a quadrilateral, if there are two pairs parallel sides, then
quadrilateral given is a parallelogram.

Proof!
We leave the proof for 4.9, 4.10, and 4.11 as exercises.


2. Rectangle



To help you to be more understood, see figure 4.17 below.


Figure 4.17 A rectangle with diagonals

The consequences are:
a. A rectangle has four right angles.
b. All properties of parallelogram also obtain to rectangle.


Theorem!
4.12. In a rectangle, the length of its diagonals is same.




Definition!
4.2. A rectangle is a parallelogram which one of its angle is a right
angle.
P O L Y G O N 71

Proof!

Figure 4.18 Rectangle with label

Look at figure 4.18.
It is given rectangle ABCD.
Prove that AC = BD.

Look at ABD and ABC.
Obvious
1. mB = mA (90
o
),
2. BC = AD (property of parallelogram hold on rectangle), and
3. AB = AB (coincide).

From 1, 2, 3, we conclude that ABD ABC.

One of the consequence is AD = BC.


Theorem!
4.13. In a parallelogram, if the length of the diagonals is same then
the parallelogram given is a rectangle.

Proof!
We leave the proof as exercise to the reader.


3. Rhombus



Definition!
4.3. A rhombus is a parallelogram which has property the length
of two adjacent sides is same.
72 P O L Y G O N


To help you to be more understood, see figure 4.19 below.

/
/
/
/
Two adjacent sides
(a) (b)

Figure 4.19 Rhombus compare with a parallelogram

Figure 4.19 (a) show us the parallelogram, and 4.19 (b) show us
parallelogram with addition properties. Figure 4.19 (b) show us the
rhombus.

The consequences of parallelogram properties held are:
a. In the rhombus, all sides have similar length.
b. All properties of parallelogram also obtain to rhombus.


Theorem!
4.14. The diagonals of rhombus, bisect the angle be similar size and
the diagonals are perpendicular each other.

Proof!

Figure 4.20 Rhombus with its special lines

It is given rhombus ABCD.
Prove that :
i. mA
1
= mA
2
; mB
1
= mB
2
; mC
1
= mC
2
;
mD
1
= mD
2
.
ii. AC BD.
P O L Y G O N 73


We will proof (i).

Obvious ABC and ACD are isosceles triangles.
Obvious
a. mA
1
= mC
2
(because of alternate interior angle),
b. mA
2
= mC
1
(because of alternate interior angle),
c. mA
2
= mC
2
(because of ABC is an isosceles triangles), and
d. mA
1
= mC
1
(because of ACD is an isosceles triangles).

Because of mA
1
= mC
2
and mA
2
= mC
2
we conclude that
mA
2
= mA
1
.
Because of mC
1
= mA
2
and mC
2
= mA
2
we conclude that
mC
2
= mC
1
.
We get AC is bisect A and C into two similar size angles.

By similar steps, we can proof that BD is bisect B and D into two
similar sizes.

Now we will proof (ii).

Look at ODC and OBC.
Obvious
a. BC = CD (property of rhombus)
b. mC
2
= mC
1
(from (i))
c. OC = OC (coincide)

From a, b, and c, we conclude that ODC OBC (because SAS)

The consequence is mO
1
= mO
2
.
Obvious BCD is an isosceles triangle.
Obvious mO
1
= mC
1
+ mD
2
, from OCD.
Obvious mB
2
+ mC + mD
2
= 180
o
.
Because of mB
2
= mD
2
, then we get
mB
2
+ mC + mD
2
= 180
o
2 . mD
2
+ mC = 180
o

mD
2
+
1
2
.mC = 90
o

180
o
mO
1
= 90
o
.
So that mO
1
= mO
2
= 90
o
.
So AC BD.
74 P O L Y G O N


Theorems!
4.15. In a parallelogram, if a diagonal bisect an angle into two similar
sizes then the parallelogram is a rhombus.
4.16. In a parallelogram, if the diagonals are perpendicular each
other then the parallelogram is a rhombus.

Proof!
We leave the proof as exercise to the reader.


4. Square



To help you to be more understood, see figure 4.21 below.


Figure 4.21 A Rectangle



The direct consequences are:
a. All angles in square are right angle.
b. All properties of rhombus and rectangle also obtain to square.

Square is also called regular quadrilateral.



Definition!
4.4. A square is a quadrilateral which its all sides has similar length
and one of its angles is right angle.
P O L Y G O N 75

5. Trapezoid



To help you to be more understood, see figure 4.22 below.


Figure 4.22 Trapezoid in another forms

Trapezoid which has similar lateral side is called isosceles trapezoid.


Theorems!
4.17. In the isosceles trapezoid, the base angles have similar size.

Proof!

Figure 4.23 Condition of th. 4.17

It is given isosceles trapezoid ABCD (AD = BC)
Prove that mA = mB.

Draw line CE such that AD CE.
Obvious AECD is a parallelogram and AD = CE.
The consequence is BEC is an isosceles triangle (because of AD = CE
and AD = BC).
Then we get mE
1
= mB.
Because of mA = mE
1
(corresponding angle), we conclude that
mA = mB.

Definition!
4.5. A trapezoid is a quadrilateral which has exactly one parallel side.
76 P O L Y G O N



Theorems!
4.18. In a trapezoid, if the base angles have similar size then the
trapezoid is an isosceles trapezoid.
4.19. In a trapezoid, if the diagonal has same length then trapezoid is
an isosceles trapezoid.

Proof!
We leave the proof as exercise for the reader.


6. Kite



To help you to be more understood, see figure 4.22 below.


Figure 4.24 A kite with pair of adjacent sides

We have given a structure like Contrast Theorem. Contrast is
one way to check your understanding. If the problem at contrast
could be solved, we will sure that the knowledge are transferred
well.

Contrast theorem is just like giving sample that is not true about the
topics. But the challenge is which sample is it. It is hard to find the
contrast. Not all topics can be found the contrast easily. Sometimes
we have to discuss deeply just only to find one good contrast
problem.


Definition!
4.6. A kite is a quadrilateral which has a pair of similar length
adjacent side and perpendicular diagonals.
P O L Y G O N 77

Sample of contrast is given below.

Look at the figure below!

Figure 4.25 Is the planar above kite?

Is figure 4.25 a kite?
Explain your answer!

Hints!
Please read sub chapter about convexity.

Thats all explanation about quadrilateral. Some problems about the
topics were given below.


F. EXERCISE CHAPTER 4 #1

1. In the 4-gon ABCD, S is an intersection point of the diagonals.
Let AS = SC and AB DC. Prove that the 4-gon is a parallelogram!

2. Let ABCD is a square. On AB take any vertex P, on BC take any
vertex Q, on CD take any vertex R, and on AD take any vertex S,
such that AP = BQ = CR = DS. Prove that PQRS is a square!

3. In the rhombus ABCD, the line m from B is perpendicular to AD
bisecting the side AD in similar length. Find the size of all rhombus
angles!

4. It is known a 4-gn ABCD. The midpoints of AB, CD, BD, and AC are
P, Q, R, S. Prove that PQ and RS intersecting at midpoint!
78 P O L Y G O N



5. It is known a parallelogram ABCD. P and Q is midpoint of AB and
CD. Prove that AQ and CP dividing diagonal BD be three equal
parts!

6. Prove that the line which passes through the midpoint of parallel side
of isosceles trapezoid is perpendicular to its parallel side!

7. In the trapezoid ABCD (AB // CD), P and Q are midpoints of AD
and BC. The line PQ intersect AC at R and BD at S. Prove that PR =
QS!

8. Prove this theorem. The midpoints of isosceles trapezoid side are a
vertex of a rhombus.

G. EXERCISE CHAPTER 4 #2

1. Determine whether or not each of the following figures is a polygon.
If it is, state whether or not it is convex:



2. What is the sum of the measures of the angles of:
(a) an octagon (b) a pentagon (c) a 12-gon

3. Find the measure of each angle of a regular polygon with:
(a) 6 sides (b) 11 sides (c) 14 sides (d) n sides

4. Is it possible to have a regular polygon each angle of which has 153?
Give reasons for your answer.

5. If each angle of a regular polygon has 165, how many sides does the
polygon have?

6. How many sides does a polygon have if the sum of the measures of
the angles is:
(a) 2700 (b) 1080 (c) d
o


7. If each angle of a regular polygon has 140, how many sides does the
polygon have?
P O L Y G O N 79


8. Give an example of a polygon whose sides all have the same length,
but which is not a regular polygon. Give an example of a polygon
whose angles all have the same measure, but which is not a regular
polygon.

9. An isosceles triangle has a side of length 10, and a side of length 4.
What is its perimeter? (Yes, there is enough information given.)

10. The sides of a triangle have lengths 2n - 1, n + 5, 3n - 8 units.
(a) Find a value of n for which the triangle is isosceles.
(b) How many values of n are there which make the triangle
isosceles?
(c) Is there a value of n which makes the triangle equilateral?

11. An equilateral triangle has perimeter 36. Find its area.

12. A square has perimeter 36. Find its area.

13. In the figure, angle X is measured on the outside of an arbitrary n-
gon. Prove that the sum of all n such outside angles equals
(n + 2).180
o
. [Hint: What is the sum of all n interior angles?]


14. Squares of side length x are cut out of the corners of a 4 cm x 5 cm
piece of sheet metal, as illustrated:


Show that the perimeter of the piece of metal stays constant,
regardless of the value of x, as long as x < 2.


80 P O L Y G O N


15. What is the area of the piece of metal in Exercise 14?

16. Prove that the area of a regular hexagon with side of length s is:

Ss
2
VS
2


[Hint: Divide the hexagon into triangles by drawing "radii". What kind of
triangles are they?]

17. What is the area of a regular hexagon whose perimeter is 30 cm?

18. The length of each side of a regular hexagon is 2. Find the area of the
hexagon.

19. In the figure, ABCDEF is a regular hexagon. The distance from the
center 0 to any side is x; the length of each side is s. Prove that the
area of the hexagon is 3xs.
A
B
C
D
E F
O
x
s

T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M 81

Chapter 5

THE AREA AND PHYTAGORAS THEOREM


We have talk about some concept of area in chapters before. When we talk
about the median we have talk that the median divide a triangle became two
parts which each part has same area. In that chapter we just justify my
statement is true without proofing. Now, some of our discussion is
repeated and maybe we will give you deeper understanding about the area.
We begin with the area of a triangle including the area of square, as base,
and rectangle.

A. INTRODUCTION

Whenever we choose a unit of distance to measure the length of a line
segment (as we did in the first chapter), we are also selecting a unit of
area, with which we can measure the amount of space enclosed by a
region in the plane. For example, if we select the centimeter as the unit
of distance, the corresponding unit of area is the square centimeter. One
square centimeter is defined as the area of the region enclosed by a
square with sides of length one centimeter:


Figure 5.1. Area of 1 cm square

Now, we can find the area of various regions by determining how many
unit area squares fit into the region. For example, suppose we have a
square with sides of length 4 cm; we see that its area is 16 square cm:



Figure 5.2. Area of 4 cm side square is 16 area units.

82 T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M


Suppose that there are a square which has 2
1
2
cm side length. Please
count the number of area unit on the figure below include the fraction.


Figure 5.3. Area of 2,5 cm side square.

From figure above we get:
there are 4 full squares, this means the area should be 4 cm square,
there are 4 half squares, this means the area should be 2 cm square, and
there are 1 a quarter square, this means the area should be
1
4
cm square.
Total area is 6
1
4
cm square.


Project 5.1
1. Draw a picture illustrating a square whose sides have length 10,25
cm. Determine its area by counting unit squares and fractions of unit
squares!
2. Draw a rectangle whose sides have lengths 3 cm and 5 cm.
Determine its area by counting unit squares!
3. Draw a rectangle whose sides have lengths 9,5 cm and 5 cm. Count
squares to determine its area!
4. In your picture for Problem 2, draw a diagonal of the rectangle (a line
segment joining opposite corners), which creates two right triangles.
(a) How do the areas of these two triangles compare? Why?
(b) Compute the areas of these triangles without counting.
5. Look at figure below.

Figure 5.4. A polygon.

Using whatever method please find the area of figure above!
T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M 83

B. THE AREA

From project 5.1 we define the area of a rectangle and square as shown
below.



We know that square has same length for all sides and rectangle has a
pair of same length sides. In rectangle we can say, the longer side by
length and the shorter side by width. It is a little bit different with a
triangle.

We build a triangle by make a diagonal from a rectangle. See figure
below.

Figure 5.5. Construction of a triangle.

Look at ABC and ADC.
Obvious mACD = mBAC, because of alternate interior angle,
|CD| = |AB|, because of properties of rectangle, and
mADC = mABC, because of right angle (90
o
).
We conclude that ABC ADC.
So that the area of rectangle ABCD could be say twice of the area
ABC, or we can say that the area ABC is a half of the area rectangle
ABCD.
5.1. Definition!
The area of square and rectangle!
Area of a square whose sides have length s is s . s = s
2
square
units. Area of a rectangle whose sides have lengths a, b units is
(a.b) square units.

We denote area of ABCD by A
ABCD
84 T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M


We knew that the area of rectangle ABCD is 28 area unit, from AB
BC. So we can write, the area of ABC is


1
2
. AB BC 1

If AB or length of rectangle can be expressed by base of ABC, and BC
or width of rectangle ABCD can be expressed by the altitude of ABC,
then the formula on 1 can be expressed by


A

ABC
=
1
2
. base altitude 2

From 2 we may write the definition below.



We will proof that the formula in definition 5.2 is hold for all kinds of
triangle. See figure below.

Figure 5.6. A scalene triangle.

This proof for scalene triangle is also held for isosceles triangle and
equilateral triangle. Generally, this proof is held for acute triangle.

Draw the altitude from C to opposite side of C, give label for
intersection point of altitude and base with F! Now, find the midpoint of
AC and BC! Label it with D and E! We assume the line DE divide the
altitude CF in to two similar parts. (Why?)
5.2. Definition
The area of triangle!
Area of a triangle whose base (b) and altitude (a) are known is
1
2
. b a square units.

We denote area of triangle by A

ABC
=
1
2
. b a

T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M 85


Figure 5.7. Proof of the area of triangle. STEP #1

Extend the line DE! Draw a perpendicular line from vertex A and B such
that cross the extension line of DE.

Figure 5.8. Proof of the area of traingle. STEP #2

By the properties of congruency, you may proof that AGD DOC,
and also BEH COE. (Proof that!) So we assume that the area of
ABC equals to the area of rectangle ABHG. We know that the area of
rectangle ABHG,

A
ABHG
= AB AG = AB FO = AB
1
2
.CF =
1
2
AB CF

We get that A

ABC
= A
ABHG
=
1
2
AB CF. Obvious AB is base of triangle
and CF is the altitude of ABC. So we conclude that the area of ABC
equal
1
2
base the altitude. What if the triangle given is an obtuse
triangle as shown below?

86 T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M



Figure 5.9. An Obtuse Triangle

To proof formula 2 also applied for obtuse triangle, we will show first
the formula of parallelogram below. Before we explain the formula of a
parallelogram, you may find the area of figure below by whatever the
way!


Figure 5.10. A Parallelogram

Draw perpendicular lines from N down to its base, and also from M,
until intersects the extension of KL.

Figure 5.11. Proofing the area of parallelogram

From figure 5.11 above we assume that KSN LTM. (Why? Proof
that!). So we can eliminate and move KSN and coinciding to LTM. We
get the area of parallelogram KLMN is equal to the area of rectangle
T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M 87

STMN, that is ST NS. Because of |ST| = |KL|, we may write the area of
STMN by KL NS.



Now, we proof the formula in definition 5.2 also hold for obtuse triangle
on figure 5.9. Let draw a congruent triangle PQR, give label PQR, and
rotate it 180
o
. After that please coincide the side QR each other.

Figure 5.12. Proofing the area of obtuse triangle. #1

Figure 5.12 show us two obtuse triangles builds parallelogram PQPR.
We knew that A
PQPR
= PQ AP. We get A

PQR
=
1
2
PQ AP. That is
1
2

of base times its altitude. Here we give you a figure which shows
another proof of obtuse triangle.

Figure 5.13. Proofing the area of obtuse triangle. #2
5.3. Definition
The area of parallelogram!
Area of a parallelogram whose base (b) and altitude (a) are
known is b a square units.

We denote area of parallelogram KLMN by
A
KLMN
= b a

88 T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M



First, draw a line QQ parallel with PR. From the midpoint of altitude
RR, draw line parallel with PQ such that intersect PR at S, QR at O and
QQ at U.
We get RSO QOU. (Why? Proof that!)
So the area of triangle PQR is equal with the area of parallelogram
PQUS, that is PQ RT. Now, we can write

A

PQR
= RT PQ =
1
2
RR PQ =
1
2
altitude base

We have proof that the formula in 5.2 can be applied to any triangle
given.

Back to project 5.1! Now we will explain how to find the area of a
trapezoid as shown on figure 5.4 above. Let there are trapezoid as
shown below.

Figure 5.14. Inventing the area of trapezoid.

Draw altitude from vertex S, P, and Q, and then find its midpoint, label
it with T! After that draw line through T parallel to PQ until cross PP
and QQ! (PP and QQ are altitude through each P and Q). See figure
below!

Figure 5.15. Inventing the area of trapezoid.
T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M 89


Let we denote the altitude by a, so that from figure above we get area of
trapezoid,

A
PQRS
= A
PPTS
+ 2 . A
TURS
+ A
QQUR

=
1
2
. a . PS + 2 .
1
2
. a . SR +
1
2
. a . RQ
=
1
2
. a . (PS + 2. SR + RQ)
=
1
2
. a . (PQ + SR)
=
1
2
. a . (PQ + SR)

Because of PQ and RS are parallel sides of trapezoid, we may write
definition below.



We let the reader to proof two trapezoid below are suitable with the
formula in definition 5.4.



Figure 5.16. Proof that trapezoids above are suitable to formula in def. 5.4.

Another quadrilateral is a rhombus and kite. We may justify that to find
the area of a rhombus is similar to find the area of parallelogram. We
sure it is easier. But we give some another proof of it. See figure below.

5.4. Definition!
The area of trapezoid!
Area of a parallelogram whose altitude (a) and two parallel side
p and q are known is
1
2
a (p + q) square units.

We denote area of trapezoid PQRS by
A
PQRS
=
1
2
. a . (PQ + SR)

90 T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M



Figure 5.17. Rhombus and a kite

We will proof only for kite. To find the formula of a rhombus, please do
yourself as the exercise. Let see figure 5.17 (b), please give it label
KLMN. See figure below.

Figure 5.18. Rhombus

Draw lines through K parallel with LN. Do it from vertex M. And after
that draw line parallel to KM through L!

Figure 5.19. Inventing the area of Kite.

We justify that KNO KKL and MNO MML (Why?). So that,
the area of kite KLMN equals with the area of rectangle KMMK.
We can write the formula of area of a kite,

A
KLMN
= A
KMMK

= |KM| |MM|
= |KM| |OL|
= |KM|
1
2
. |LN|
=
1
2
. |KM| . |LN|
T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M 91


Please realize that KM and LN are diagonals. So we can write definition
below.



Now, give attention to figure 5.17! What can you conclude about both
of quadrilateral? See deeper to its diagonal. After that we can give a
property as shown below.


Theorem!
5.1. The area of quadrilateral which its diagonals are perpendicular each
other is a half of multiplication its diagonals length.

See figure below for more detail explanation.

Figure 5.20. Condition of theorem 5.1.

It is given a 4-gon ABCD. The theorem is just tell us that

A
ABCD
=
1
2
| || |AC| || | | || |BD| || |



5.5. Definition!
The area of Rhombus and Kite!
Area of a rhombus and trapezoid whose its diagonal (d
1
) and
diagonal (d
2
) are known is
1
2
d
1
d
2
square units.

We denote area of Rhombus and Kite PQRS by
A
PQRS
=
1
2
. d
1
d
2
92 T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M


Proof!
We give two kinds of proofing here, analytically and geometrically. We
let you choose which is easier to understand.

Proof #1!
Obvious A
ABCD
= A

ACD
+ A

ACB

=
1
2
AC OD +
1
2
AC OB
=
1
2
AC (OD + OB)
=
1
2
AC BD
We conclude that A
ABCD
=
1
2
|AC| |BD|.

Proof #2!
Draw O
1
and O
2
midpoints of OD and OB! Draw lines parallel with AC
through O
1
and another parallel line through O
2
. See figure below.

Figure 5.21. Proof of theorem 5.1.

We get DFO
1
AEF ; DGO
1
CGH ; AIJ BO
2
J ; and CKL
BO
2
K.
We conclude that the area of 4-gon ABCD equal the area of rectangle
ILHE that is IL IE = IL
1
2
BD =
1
2
AC BD.
This proof the theorem.



T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M 93

C. EXERCISE CHAPTER 5 #1

1. In each of the following, the base b and height h of a triangle is given.
Find the area:
(a) b = 12 cm, h = 5 cm (b) b = 3 m, h = 7 m (c) b = 2x, h = x
2. Find a side of a square whose area is equal to the area of a rectangle
with sides 10 and 40.

3. The height of a triangle is one half the bases. Find its base if the area
of the triangle is 36 sq. m.

4. Find the dimensions of a rectangle whose length is five times its
width and whose area is 1440 sq. cm.

5. The piece of sheet metal illustrated below folds into a box with a
square bottom and no top:

Figure 5.22. Condition of problem 5.

(a) How much material is needed (in square cm) if l = 5 cm and h = 4
cm?
(b) Write a formula for the area of the metal in terms of l and h.

6. A man wishes to build a path 1 m wide around a garden which is a
rectangle 15 m by 20 m. What is the area of the path?

7. The sides of a rectangle are in the ratio 3: 4 and its area is 300 sq.
cm. Find its sides!

8. Find the base of a triangle if its area is 36 sq. cm and its height is 12
cm.

9. A right triangle has legs of equal length and area 40. How long are
the legs?

94 T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M


10. In right triangles ABC and XYZ below, each leg in XYZ has
twice the length of the corresponding leg of ABC. What is the ratio
of the area of ABC to the area of XYZ?

Figure 5.23. Condition of problem 10.


11. In Problem 10, suppose the legs of X Y Z are n times as big as the
legs in6.ABC, where n is a positive integer. What is the ratio of the
areas of the triangles?

12. The length of a side of a square is 8 units. What is the length of a
side of the square whose area is three times as large?

13. A swimming pool measures 6 m by 9 m. You want to cover the floor
with tiles which come in squares 0.5 m on a side, and which cost $35
each. How much will this project cost you?
14. Three squares, with sides of length 5, 4, and 3 respectively, are
placed together as shown. Find the area of the shaded region.


Figure 5.24. Condition of problem 14.

15. If a trapezoid has a base 8 and height 7, what is the length of the
other base if the area of the trapezoid is 77.

T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M 95

16. Three city lots, each with 25 m frontage along the main drag, make
up a single tract, as illustrated below:

Figure 5.25. Condition of problem 16.

What is the total area of the tract?

17. Let PQM be a triangle, as shown below. Let N be the midpoint of
the segment QM. Prove that the triangles PQN and PNM have
the same area.

Figure 5.26. Condition of problem 17.


18. Let PQM be a triangle, as shown below. Let N be the point on the
segment QM such that the distance from N to M is twice the
distance from Q to N, as shown.
96 T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M



Figure 5.27. Condition of problem 18.

(a) Prove that the triangle PNM has twice the area as PQN.
(b) How does the area of PN'M relate to the area of PQN if N' is the
point two thirds of the way on the segment QM from Q to M?
(c) What is the relation between the area of PNN' and the area of
PQN?

19. In Exercise 18 suppose that we select N on the segment QM at a
distance from Q equal to one-fourth of d(Q, M). What can you then
say about the areas of PQN and PNM? What if this distance was
one-fifth?

20. Prove that if the diagonals of a quadrilateral are perpendicular, then
the area of the quadrilateral may be found by taking one-half the
product of the lengths of the diagonals. (Draw a picture, and label all
lengths clearly.)



T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M 97

D. PYTHAGORAS THEOREM

Let's build up squares on the sides of a right triangle. Pythagoras
Theorem then claims that the sum of (the areas of) two small squares
equals (the area of) the big one.

Theorem!
Pythagoras Theorem!
5.2. Let XYZ be a right triangle with legs of lengths and , and
hypotenuse of length ,. Then

2
+
2
= ,
2


See figure below for more detail explanation.

x
y
z

Figure 5.28. Triangle of Pythagoras Theorem.

In algebraic terms, a
2
+ b
2
= c
2
where c is the hypotenuse while a and b
are the legs of the triangle. The theorem is of fundamental importance in
the Euclidean Geometry where it serves as a basis for the definition of
distance between two points. It's so basic and well known that, we
believe, anyone who took geometry classes in high school couldn't fail to
remember it long after other math notions got thoroughly forgotten

There are so many proofs about the theorem; here we explain some
proof to you.

Proof #1!
For general proofing, it is ordinary that to proof Pythagoras theorem, we
only show that the sum of area two medium square equals to the area of
the biggest square as shown below. In other word we write c
2
= o
2
+
1
2
.
98 T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M



Figure 5.29. Triangle of Pythagoras Theorem.

To proof, please draw a line from vertex C perpendicular to line c.

Figure 5.30. Proofing of Pythagoras Theorem. #1 way.

We divide square ABED into two parts.
We assume that c
2
= A
ABED
is held from A
BJKE
+ A
AJKD
.
We will proof that A
BJKE
= o
2
and A
AJKD
= 1
2
.


T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M 99

Case 1 : we proof that A
AJKD
= 1
2
.

Obvious A

AJD
= A

ACD
(why?).
Obvious A

AIC
= A

AIB
(why?).

Look at AIB and ACD.

We have fact that
(1) mIAC = 90
o
= mJAD,
(2) mIAB = mIAC + mCAB = 90
o
+ mCAB, and
(3) mDAC = mDAJ + mBAC = 90
o
+ mCAB.
From (1) until (3) we get mIAB = mDAC.

Obvious |AB| = |AD| = c,
mIAB = mDAC, because of fact above, and
|AI| = |AC| = b.

We conclude that AIB ACD 1

The direct consequence is
A

AIB
= A

ACD

A

AIC
= A

AJD

A
AJKD
= A
ACHI
.

This prove that A
AJKD
= 1
2
.

Case 2 : we proof that A
BJKE
= o
2
.

By same way, you may find that A
BJKE
= o
2
.
We leave this proof as exercise to the reader.

From case 1 and case 2, we conclude that A
ABED
= A
BJKE
+ A
AJKD

c
2
= o
2
+ 1
2
.
These proof the theorem.


100 T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M


Proof #2!
See figure below!

Figure 5.31. Proofing of Pythagoras Theorem. #2 ways.

To proof Pythagoras theorem in another way, we use figure 5.31 to get
more detail information. We just show that A
ABED
can be divided into
A
DFHG
and A
BCHI
.

Figure 5.32. Proofing of Pythagoras Theorem. STEP #1.

Shaded region on figure above show us the area of square DABE. We
make AFD from ABC rotated 90
o
. So, we sure that is AFD ABC.
So that the area of square DABE equals c
2
.
T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M 101

We will show that A
DABE
= A
DFHG
+ A
BCHI
that is c
2
= 1
2
+ o
2


Figure 5.33. Proofing of Pythagoras Theorem. STEP #2.

Second step, we move ADF to DEG. This step is legal because ADF
DEG (why?). We draw different shading to give information to next
step.

Figure 5.34. Proofing of Pythagoras Theorem. STEP #3.

102 T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M


Now, we have moved all possible congruent regions to proof Pythagoras
Theorem. We have show you that A
DABE
= A
DFHG
+ A
BCHI
that is
c
2
= 1
2
+ o
2
.
These prove the theorem.


Application of Pythagoras Theorem!

We think that is important to give you an example how Pythagoras
theorem is used. Here we give you a problem related to Pythagoras
theorem.

Find the length of AG from 4 cm side length cube given below!

Figure 5.35. Cube on application of Phytagoras Theorem problem.

Obvious |AG|
2
= |AC|
2
+ |CG|
2
= ( |AB|
2
+ |BC|
2
) + |CG|
2

= ( 4
2
+ 4
2
) + 4
2
= 16 + 16 + 16 = 48
Obvious |AG| = V48 = V16 . S = 4VS
We get |AG| = 4VS cm.



T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M 103

E. EXERCISE CHAPTER 5 #2

1. Look at figure 5.36 below! Find the length of the diagonal of a
rectangular solid whose sides a, b, and c have lengths:
(a) 3, 4, 5 (b) 1, 2, 4 (c) 1, 3, 4 (d) a, b, c (e) ra, rb, rc


Figure 5.36.


2. A TV tower is to be anchored by wires from a point 30 m above
the ground to stakes set 25 m from the base of the tower. How
long does each wire have to be?
3
0

m


Figure 5.37.

3. How far is it from second base to home plate? (Note: A baseball
"diamond" is really a square, with sides length 90 feet.)
4. A square has area 144 sq. cm. What is the length of its diagonal?
5. One leg of a right triangle is twice the length of the other leg. The
area of the triangle is 72 sq. cm. How long is the hypotenuse?

104 T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M


6. In the figure below, right triangle PQA
l
has two legs of length 1.
(a) How long is hypotenuse PA
l
?
(b) How long is segment PA
2
?
(c) How long is segment PA
3
?
(d) How long is the "n-th" segment, PA
n
?

Figure 5.38.

7. (a) A ship travels 6 km due South, 5 km due East, and then 4 km
due South. How far is it from its starting point? (The answer is
NOT 15 km!) You may assume that the path of the ship is as
shown on the diagram, and lies in a plane.


Figure 5.39.

(b) If actually the ship starts at the North Pole, on earth, what
would the actual distance be?

T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M 105

8. (a) A right triangle ABC has legs of lengths 3 and 4. What is the
length of the hypotenuse?
(b) Suppose we double the lengths of the legs, so that they are 6
and 8. How long is the hypotenuse in this case?
(c) Now triple the original lengths of the legs. How long is the
hypotenuse in this case?
(d) Suppose we multiply the lengths of the original legs by a factor
of e (e a number greater than 0), so that they have lengths 3e
and 4e. What is the length of the hypotenuse?
(e) Prove your conclusion in part (d).
(f) In your head, compute the lengths of the hypotenuses of the
following right triangles whose legs are given:
(i) 300 and 400 (ii) 18 and 24 (iii) 27 and 36

9. In Problem 8, you found a number of Pythagorean triples, which are
sets of three integers a, b, and e which satisfy

o
2
+ 1
2
= c
2


Can you find other triples which are NOT multiples of the ones in
Problem 8? For example, 5, 12, 13 is such a triple (5
2
+ 12
2
= 13
2
).
Can you develop a calculation method which will generate
Pythagorean triples?
[Hint: Let x =
u
c
and y =
b
c
so x
2
+ y
2
= 1. Use the formulas

=
1
2
1 +
2
on =
2
1 +
2


Substitute values for t, like t = 2, t = 3, t = 4, t = 7, or whatever.]

10. In each of the following right triangles, find x (think of Pythagorean
triples).

Figure 5.40.
106 T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M


11. The lengths of the legs of a right triangle are in the ratio 2: 3. If the
area of the triangle is 27, how long is the hypotenuse?

12. One leg of a right triangle is 4/5 of the other. The area of the
triangle is 320. Find the lengths of the legs.

13. A 20 m pole at one corner of a rectangular field is anchored by a
wire stretched from the top of the pole to the opposite corner of
the field as shown:

Figure 5.41.

What is the length of the wire?

14. A smaller square is created inside a larger square by connecting the
midpoints of the sides of the larger square, as shown:


Figure 5.42.

What is the ratio of the area of the small square to the area of the
big square? Proof it!

15. A baseball diamond is a square 90 feet on a side. If a fielder caught a
fly on the first base line 30 feet beyond first base, how far would he
have to throw to get the ball to third base?

16. A square has area 169 cm
2
. What is the length of its diagonal?

17. Find the area of a square with a diagonal of length 8V2 cm.

18. Find the area of a square whose diagonal has length 8.
T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M 107

19. The length and width of a TV screen must be in the ratio 4: 3, by
FCC regulation. If a company advertises a portable TV with a
screen measuring 25 cm along the diagonal:
(a) What is the viewing area in square centimeters?
(b) If the diagonal measurement is doubled to 50 cm, does the
viewing area double? If NO, how does it change?

20. In the figure, find |PQ|.

P Q
R
S
8
12
20

Figure 5.43.

21. Use Pythagoras to prove the following statement, which is an
extension of the RT postulate:

If a leg and hypotenuse of one right triangle have the same
length as a leg and hypotenuse respectively of another right
triangle, then the third sides of each triangle have the same
length.

22. ABCD is a rectangle, and AQD is a right triangle, as shown in the
figure. If |AB| = a, |BQ| = b, and |QC| = c, prove the following:
(a) |AD| = Vb
2
+2o
2
+c
2

(b) a
2
= bc (This should be easy once you've shown part (a))

Figure 5.44.
108 T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M



23. In triangle ABC, |AC| = |CB| and CN is drawn perpendicular to AB.
Prove that |AN| = |NB|.


Figure 5.45.

24. Let ABC be a right triangle as shown on Figure below, with right
angle C.

Figure 5.46.

Let P be the point on AB such that CP is perpendicular to AB.
Prove:
(a) |PC|
2
= |AP| . |PB|
(b) |AC|
2
= |AP| . |AB|


25. Let PQ and XY be two parallel segments. Suppose that line L is
perpendicular to these segments, and intersects the segments in
their midpoint. (We shall study such lines more extensively later.
The line L is called the perpendicular bisector of the segments.)
T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M 109


Figure 5.47.

It is given L PQ and L RS.
|PM| = |MQ| and |SM| = |MR|.

Prove:
(a) |PX| = |QY|
(b) |PY| = |QX|
[Hint: Use the lines perpendicular to PQ and XY passing through P
and Q and intersecting X Y in points P' and Q' as on Figure below.
Use various equalities of segments, and Pythagoras' theorem.]


Figure 5.48.

Remark! Statements (a) and (b) can be interpreted by saying that if
two points are reflected through a line, then the distance between
the two points is the same as the distance between the reflected
points. The two points might be P, X or they might be P, Y,
depending on whether they lie on one side of the line L or on
different sides of the line L. F or a more systematic study of
reflections.

110 T H E A R E A A N D P Y T H A G O R A S T H E O R E M


26. Prove that the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is the
length of a leg.

27. The next five exercises are "data sufficiency" questions. In this type
of question, you are asked to make a specific calculation (in this
case the area of a particular square), using the data given in the
question. If the given data is sufficient to determine the answer, you
do so. If it is not sufficient, you answer "insufficient data". Each
question is independent of the others.

Three squares intersect as shown in Figure below. Find the area of
ADG for the following sets of data.


Figure 5.49.

(a) |AF| = 10
(b) |CE| = 18
(c) |BD| = SV2
(d) Area of square BCDH = 49
(e) Area of figure AGDEF = 27

T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W 111

Chapter 6

T HE NE X T P A R A L L E L L A W


Some subject material has explained at chapter 2, the locus of geometry
objects. Now, we will discuss the parallel as higher level of parallel.

A. DIRECT PROPORTION OF LINES

If we talk about direct proportion its like discuss about scale. We will
talk about when the value of scale become larger, then in fact, the things
in the scale become larger too.

Theorem!
6.1. If some parallel lines intersect same parts of any cross line, then the
parallel lines will intersect to same part of another cross lines.

See figure below for more detail explanation.

Figure 6.1. Condition of Line Direct Proportion

It is given four parallel lines, AP BQ CR / DS.
It is known that AB = BC = CD
The theorem is just saying that:

PQ = QR = RS.

Proof!
From each P, Q, R, S, builds segment parallel to AD crossing the parallel
line below. Now, we get 3 parallelograms ABEP, BCFQ, CDGR. The
direct consequence is the length of AB = PE, BC = QF, CD = RG.


112 T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W


Obvious mPEQ = mQFR = mRGS, (parallelogram property.),
mPQE = mQRF = mRSG, (axiom 2.2.), and
PE = QF = RG.
We conclude that PQE QFR RGS because of SAA rule.
The direct consequences are PQ = QR = RS.


Theorem!
6.2. If some parallel lines intersects same parts of any intersect line, then
the parallel lines will intersect to same part of another intersect
lines.

See figure below for more detail explanation.

Figure 6.2. Condition to Th. 5.2

Analyze.
It is given three parallel lines AP BQ CR. See figure 5.2.
Prove that AB : BC = PQ : QR.

Proof!
Suppose that AB : BC = 4 : 7.
So, we can divide AB into 4 parts by making 4 parallel lines which are
parallel to AP and also with BC. See figure 6.3 below.

Figure 6.3. Explanation of Th. 5.2
T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W 113


From theorem 6.1 we knew that the parallel line divided AB and PQ in
similar parts. And its also done in BC and QR.
So that we get PQ : QR is also 4 : 7.
This proves the theorem.


Theorem!
6.3. A line which is parallel to one side of a triangle, is dividing another
two sides with similar comparison.

See figure below for more detail explanation.

Figure 6.4. Explanation of Th. 6.3

Let ABC is a triangle, DE AB, and
a
1
= CD, a
2
= CE, b
1
= DA, b
2
= EB.

The theorem is just explain us that,

o
1
b
1
=
o
2
b
2


Proof!
Draw a line through C parallel to DE and AB. See figure 6.5

Figure 6.5. Explanation of Th. 6.3
114 T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W



Theorem 6.2 said that
C
A
=
CL
LB
or somewhat we say it
u
1
b
1
=
u
2
b
2
.
These proof this theorem.


By using the properties of direct proportion,

o
1
b
1
=
o
2
b
2


The consequences of it are:

1.
(u
1
+b
1
)
(u
2
+b
2
)
=
u
1
u
2
or
(u
1
+b
1
)
(u
2
+b
2
)
=
b
1
b
2


2.
(1)
(2)
=
u
1
u
2
=
CA
CB
=
C
CL


3.
(1)
(2)
=
b
1
b
2
=
CA
CB
=
B
LA




Theorem!
6.4. A line which is parallel to one side of a triangle, will build a triangle.
The corresponding side of new triangle has similar proportion to the
latest one.

See figure below for more detail explanation.

Figure 6.6. Explanation of Th. 5.4



T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W 115

Let ABC is a triangle and DE AB.
The theorem explain us that,

Proof!
Build a segment EF, F on AB, such that EF AC. See figure 6.7 below.


Figure 6.7. Explanation of Th. 5.4

Look at CDE and CAB.
From the consequences of theorem 6.3 (2) above, we conclude that:

. = .

1

Look at BFE and BAC.
From the consequences of theorem 6.3 (3) above, we conclude that:

. = .

. = .

2

116 T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W


From 1* and 2*, we conclude that
CL
CB
=
C
CA
=
L
AB
.
This proves the theorem.


Theorem!
6.5. If a line cross side AC and BC of a triangle in D and E, such that
C
CA
=
CL
CB
, then the line DE is parallel to AB.

See figure below for more detail explanation.

Figure 6.8. Explanation of Th. 5.5

Let ABC is a triangle and DE AB.
The theorem is just explain us that,

_

] .


Proof!
We have
C
CA
=
CL
CB
. We will prove that .

Suppose that .
From axiom 1.3 there is only one line through point D which is parallel
to AB. Please give label it by line DF, F on BC. That hold DF AB. See
figure 6.9 below.
T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W 117


Figure 6.9. Explanation of Th. 5.5

From th. 5.4, It consequence
C
CA
=
CP
CB
. Because we have
C
CA
=
CL
CB
, the
situation become
C
CA
=
CP
CB
=
CL
CB
. From the fact that
CP
CB
=
CL
CB
it seem like
CF = CE, then we get F = E. It hold a contradict because we knew that
F E.
So the supposition is false. The true one is .
This proves the theorem.


B. DRAWING ALGEBRAIC PLANAR

In this sub chapter, we will explain two constructions. These
constructions based on the theorems before. We let the reader to
explore another construction itself.

1. Construction 6.1.
Dividing a line into some similar parts!

In solid geometry, we often use this construction to divide a line
suitable to its direct proportion. The direct proportion in solid
means the ratio of orthogonal of projection to the real. We may use
this construction to make a direct proportion of the line.

Question:
It is given a segment AB below. Divide AB into 3 similar parts!


Figure 6.10. Question on const. 6.1

118 T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W


Answer.
This construction use theorem 6.1 as the basic theorem!
From point A, make a segment. The principal to answer this question
is just making parallel lines from a helped line.

Figure 6.11. Making a helped line

Figure 6.11 is like the condition of Th. 6.1 if the both cross line are
extended until meet at one point. The next principal is just making
parallel lines intersecting both lines. But before that we have to make
3 similar parts using the helped line.

Make an arc from point A until the arc cross the helped line, label it
with P. By same length radius, do same step, just change the center
of arc with P and find the point Q. Do same step until you find R.
See figure below to simplify the concept. You get d(AP) = d(PQ) =
d(QR).


Figure 6.12. Making 3 similar parts on helped line.

Next step is connecting R to B! By using two triangle rulers, make
parallel line with BR through Q and cross AB at Q, through P and
cross AB at P.

T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W 119


Figure 6.13. Making 3 similar parts on AB. STEP #1

R

U

L

E

R
R

U

L

E

R

Figure 6.14. Making 3 similar parts on AB. STEP #2

Figure 6.15. Making 3 similar parts on AB. The Result
120 T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W



From theorem 6.1, we get that d(A,P) = d(P,Q) = d(Q,B). This solves
the problem on construction 6.1.

2. Construction 6.2.
Making a projection ratio between orthogonal and the real!

We will construct a new topic in here, because this material is
important for higher level geometry. We introduce the word
projection ratio and orthogonal. Projection ratio is a proportion
between orthogonal to real. Orthogonal line or plane is a geometry
subject that is perpendicular to drawing plane. See figure 5.16 below.


Figure 6.16. Introducing Orthogonal Line and Orthogonal Plane

Now, it is the construction.

Question!
Draw an orthogonal line PQ, which has projection ratio 2 : 3 to AB,
(PQ = AB) and has subsided angle 60
o
, through point D, such that
PD : DQ = 2 : 1.


Figure 6.17. Condition of construction 6.2
Answer.
We do like construction 6.1, which is divide line AB to 3 similar
parts. Thus, we know that 2 of 3 parts is the length of PQ.
T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W 121


Figure 6.18. Making projection ratio PQ, which has ratio 2 : 3 of AB. STEP #1

Figure 6.19. Making projection ratio PQ, which has ratio 2 : 3 of AB. STEP #2

Our project now is dividing PQ into 3 similar parts. Thus, we will get
point D as cross point of PQ and AB.

Figure 6.20. Making projection ratio PQ, which has ratio 2 : 3 of AB. STEP #3

Next step is just making 60
o
angle from point D as angle point.

122 T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W



Figure 6.21. Making subsided angle 60
o
.

And the final step is coinciding PQ to helped line of 60
o
and both of
point D.


Figure 6.22. PQ has on its position.

T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W 123


Figure 6.23. The final result of the construction.

Now, we have solved the problem on question above.

3. Construction 6.3.
Drawing a fourth line from three another line given!

We introduce the term comparer.
Let there are algebraic form
u
b
=
c
x
. We let x as the fourth compared
to a, b, and c. From
u
b
=
c
x
we get ax = bc or =
bc
u
.

In geometry, if a, b, and c are given lines, then x could be drawn by
theorem 6.3. See figure below to get more detail information above.

Figure 6.24. Condition of information above.

The problem is find the length of x, a fourth line, such that =
bc
u
.

Solution!
First step to make solution is making an angle P.
124 T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W



Figure 6.25. Any angle P as helped angle.

Then put line a to one leg of angle P, together with line b. Let there
are point A such that |PA| = a and point B such that |AB| = b.

Figure 6.26. Draw a fourth line. STEP #1.

Do next step with line c, and we will get the result as shown below.


Figure 6.27. Draw a fourth line. STEP #2.

Connect A and C, after that please extend PC!

T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W 125


Figure 6.28. Draw a fourth line. STEP #3.


Next step is drawing a line from B parallel with AC until cross the
extension of PC, label it with D. Thus, we get the length of x is equal
to the length of CD.


Figure 6.29. Draw a fourth line. The final result.

Now, we have get the length of x such that =
bc
u
.
Thus, we have solved the problem.

This is finishing the construction on chapter 6.


C. DILATION

We have learned application of dilation on similarity and congruency on
chapter 3. We knew that congruency held if there were two planar and
each other has dilation by factor 1 to another planar. Now our
discussion will be more detail by dilation to real number such that the
dilate factor is not only 1 but also negative and fraction.

Look at the figure below.
126 T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W


Some position of the shadow of P.

In figure 6.30, P
1
is on the right side of ray OP. Because of the length OP
1

is three times of |OP|, we say that OP is dilating by dilate factor 3
with O as the center become OP
1
. Almost similar to P
1
, P
2
is on the
left side of P. Because of the length OP
2
is three times of |OP|, we say
that OP is dilating by dilate factor -3 with O as the center become OP
2
.
We may write it:


OP
1
= 3 OP

and

OP
2
= 3 OP

_ 3

Give attention to 3
1. The number 3 or 3 is called dilate factor,
2. The point O or center of dilation is called sentrum,
3. The point P is called origin, and
4. P
1
and P
2
are called the shadows.

Next topics are about dilation related to parallel law.

Theorem!
6.6. Let AB line. The shadow of line AB is line A
1
B
1
which is parallel to
AB. The length of A
1
B
1
is r times to length of AB, r is dilate factor of
dilation AB to A
1
B
1
.

See figure below for more detail explanation.


Figure 6.30. Condition of th. 6.6.
T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W 127


It is given line AB, d(A
1
O) = r . d(AO), and d(B
1
O) = r . d(BO).
The theorem is just said that AB A
1
B
1
, |A
1
B
1
| = r . |AB|.

Proof!
We will proof that AB A
1
B
1
.
Look at figure 6.31. Let there are OA
1
B
1
.
Obvious d(A
1
O) = r . d(AO) r =
d(A
1
0)
d(A0)
and

d(B
1
O) = r . d(BO) r =
d(B
1
0)
d(B0)
.
From theorem 6.5, we conclude that AB A
1
B
1
.

We will proof that |A
1
B
1
| = r . |AB|.
Look at figure 6.31. Let there are OA
1
B
1
.
We get AB A
1
B
1
.

Obvious
d(A
1
0)
d(A0)
=
d(B
1
0)
d(B0)
= r.

From theorem 6.4 we have the corresponding side has similar
proportion. We get that:
(
1
)
()
=
(
1
)
()
=
(
1

1
)
()
= r
We know that
d(A
1
B
1
)
d(AB)
= r or d(A
1
B
1
) = r . d(AB). In other written, we
write
|A
1
B
1
| = r . |AB|.
This proves the theorem.

128 T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W





Theorem
6.7. Let any A. The shadows of dilation A is A, mA = mA, and
the legs of A is parallel with the legs of A.

See figure below for more detail explanation.

Figure 6.33. Condition of th. 6.7.
Note:
Here we give an example if a line dilate by negative dilate factor.

Let AB any line. See figure 6.32 below. Dilate AB to AB by dilate
factor
1
2
.

Figure 2.1. Dilation AB to AB.

From the figure above AB and AB has different ray. It is caused from
negative dilate factor. The sentrum of dilation is placed on between the line
and the shadow, and then as consequence of dilation, the length of AO is a
half of the length of AO because of dilate factor
1
2
.
T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W 129


Let any A. g and m are both of its legs.
The theorem is just say that
1. mA = mA,
2. g g
3. m m

Proof!
Usually we proof number 1 first and continue to next number. But in this
case, maybe easier if we proof number 2 and 3 first.

Now, we will proof g g and m m.
We divide case of two legs one by one. Let there is line g. Line g is
dilating to line g. From theorem 6.6 we conclude that g g. This caused
m m.

To proof that mA = mA, look at the figure below.

Figure 6.34. Construction of parallel line.

Because AB AB and because of axiom 2.2 we conclude that mBAA
= mBAD.
Because AC AC and because of axiom 2.2 we conclude that mCAA
= mCAD.
Obvious mBAA mCAA = mBAD mCAD
mBAC = mBAC
mA = mA.

Now we have proved that g g , m m , and also mA = mA.
This proof the theorem.


130 T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W



Theorem!
6.8. If a polygon dilates by dilate factor r or r, and then the shadow is
also polygon. The sides length of the shadow are r times the length
of corresponding side. The angles size of the shadow is same with
corresponding angle of the polygon.


Theorem!
6.9. On the corresponding planar (one planar is product of dilation), all
corresponding angles have same size and lines are parallel to its
corresponding. Corresponding planar will held bunch direct
proportion.


See figure below for more detail explanation.

Figure 6.35. Dilation of a polygon.

On a triangle, dilation to r dilate factor is not only dilating its side. It is
also dilating the altitude, its median, and also dilating its bisector to be r
times the origin. See figure below to get more detail information.
T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W 131


Figure 6.36. Dilation of a triangle was caused the altitude, the median,
and the bisector also dilated.

From figure 6.36, we get d(AB) = r . d(AB) 4
and d(AC) = r . d(AC) 5


From 4 and 5 we get:
(AB) + u(AC) = r . u(AB) + i . u(AC)
(AB) + u(AC) = i . (u(AB) + u(AC))
r =
d(AB)+ d(AC)
d(AB)+ d(AC)
6

from 6, we can write theorem below.


Theorem!
6.10. The sum or subtraction of the length of corresponding side has
comparison to the origin. The value of comparison both equals the
value of dilates factor r of dilation.

Proof!
We leave proof of theorem 6.8, 6.9, and 6.10 as exercises to the reader.

We give you an example how to draw a dilation of a planar.
132 T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W



Construction 6.3!
Drawing the shadow of dilation from a planar!

Question!
Let a triangle ABC below. Let O as the sentrum. Dilate ABC by (O, 3),
that is dilate by sentrum O and dilate factor 3.

Figure 6.37. Dilation of a triangle by (O,3).

First, draw line OC, OB and OA.

Figure 6.38. Dilation of a triangle by (O,3). STEP #1

Use compass, draw 3 arcs by OC, from the line OC. Do it with another
2 lines OB and OA. Then we get C, B and A as the shadow of C, B, and
A. Give attention that |OC| = 3 . |OC|, |OB| = 3 . |OB|, and |OA| = 3.
|OA|. See figure below for more detail information.
T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W 133

O
A
B
C
C
B
A

Figure 6.39. Dilation of a triangle by (O,3). STEP #2

The final step is just connecting A to B, and also C. We get the shadow
of ABC as shown below.
O
A
B
C
C
B
A

Figure 6.40. Dilation of a triangle by (O,3). The final result.

Now, we have explained the law of parallel lines.



134 T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W


D. SIMILARITY AS CONSEQUENCE OF PARALLEL LINES

We have deeply discussed about congruency on the chapter 3, but we
may discuss again in this chapter some topics which has relation to
parallel law. We know that 2 planar are congruent each other if there is
a dilation.


Figure 6.41. Similarity as product of Dilation.

In figure 6.41, we knew that ABC is dilate from ABC by dilate factor
3. The consequences from the theorems above are:
1.
u
ui
=
b
bi
=
c
ci

2. mC = mC ; mB = mB ; mA = mA
3. We call both of triangle are similar. We may write with:

ABC ABC








Definition 6.1.
The similarity of two triangles.
Let any ABC and DEF. ABC similar to DEF, denoted by
ABC DEF, if ABC is the shadow of DEF or ABC dilate of
DEF by any dilate factor r.
T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W 135


Theorem!
6.11. Two triangles are called similar if all three corresponding side
between both triangles has comparison each other. In this case, we
call both triangles similar because of Side-side-side (SSS).
6.12. Two triangles are called similar if two parallel angles between both
triangles have same size. In this case, we call both triangles similar
because of Angle-Angle (AA).
6.13. Two triangles are called similar if two corresponding sides between
both triangles have comparison each other and the adjacent angle
has same size. In this case, we call both triangles similar because of
Side-angle-side (SAS).
6.14. Two triangles are called similar, if both of triangles are right-angle
triangle while the hypotenuse and one legs of triangle have
comparison each other. In this case, we call both triangles similar
because of Side-Hypotenuse (S-Hy).

See figure below for more detail explanation.


Figure 6.42. Condition of Th. 5.11. It is known
u
ui
=
b
bi
=
c
ci
= r


136 T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W


Figure 6.43. Condition of Th. 5.12. It is known mA = mA ; mC = mC


Figure 6.44. Condition of Th. 6.13. It is known mA = mA and
b
bi
=
c
ci




Figure 6.45. Condition of th. 5.14. It is known
u
ui
=
h
hi


Proof!
We leave proof of theorem 6.11, 6.12, 6.13, and 6.14 as exercise for the
reader.
T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W 137


We give an example as deeply understanding.

Example!
If AD and BE are altitudes of ABC, prove that CD CB = CE CA.
See figure below.

Figure 6.46. Condition of example problem

Solution!
Look at ACD and BCE.
Obvious ACD = BCE, because of coincide, and
ADC = BEC, because of perpendicular (90
o
).
We conclude that ACD BCE.
The consequence is
C
CL
=
CA
CB
CD CB = CE CA.
This solves the problem.

138 T H E N E X T P A R R A L E L L A W


E. EXERCISE CHAPTER 6.


Figure 6.47. Lines for problem 1 and 2.

1. Draw vertex A such that OA =
5
3
. OA. See figure 6.47 above.
2. Dilate OA with 0,
p
q
, p and q are certain lines given.
3. On the ABC, AB = 16 cm, BC = 18 cm, AC = 12 cm. Vertex D is
on AC such that AD = 8 cm. Draw vertex E on BC such that DE
AB. After that draw vertex F on AB such that EF CA. Please
mention the length of CE, CD, DE, and EF!
4. It is given ABC. On side BC there exist vertex D such that CD =
2
5
.
BC and on the side AB there exist vertex E such that AE =
1
3
. AB.
AD and CE cross each other and build cross point in S. Find the
value of
AS
S
and
CS
SL
!
5. Divide a line be 5 similar parts!
6. Divide a line as parts such that each parts compare 2 : 5!
7. Divide a line such that each part has comparison as 2 lines p and q!
8. Find vertex C on the extension of line AB such that AB : BC = 7 : 3!
9. In the problems below, a, b, c, d, e, and f are certain lines. Draw:

(a) =
ub
c

(b) =
b
2
d

(c) =
3ub
2c

(d) =
(c+d).c
]


(e) =
ubc
dc

(f) =
3b
2
c
ud

(g) =
(u-b)
2
c



139

Chapter 7

HI G H E R L E V E L T R I A NG L E


In this chapter we will learn some topics about higher level triangle. Those
are projection theorem, Stewart theorem, and the next special line on
triangle, Menealos and Ceva theorem. We assume that the reader have full
knowledge about triangle which was learned before.

A. THEOREMS OF PROJECTION

We start explain about projection. Imagine that there are plane low
flying at the mid day. We assume that the sun is exactly on the top of
the plane. We say that the shadow of the plane is a projection of plane
in earth.


Figure 7.1. Plane and its shadow

Let the plane as a ray, then we assumes that the sun light is
perpendicular to earth, and the shadow is exactly under the plane, and
then we can draw the condition on figure 7.1 as shown below.

Figure 7.2. Plane and its shadow

We assume that a projection has same direct with its projectum or
object which is projected. We call a plane which is a projection held, by
projection screen.

140

A
B
A B

Figure 7.3. Projection process.

Figure 7.3 above show us the part of projection. We have known that
ray AB is a projectum, ray AB is a projection on screen. We can call
segment AA and BB be a projector. We often say that a projector is
perpendicular to the screen. Now, we can write:

AB is projection of AB on the screen

We define properties of projection by some parts, those are:

1. Projection theorem on right-angle triangle

Base on the general properties of projection, we draw properties of
projection on right-angle triangle as shown below.

Figure 7.4. Projection on right-angle triangle.

Look at figure above! We can write some information about
projection on that triangle, those are:
a. p is projection of c on side a,
b. q is projection of b on side b, and
c. t is the projector of its projection.

141

Theorems!
7.1. The square of one leg equals the multiplication product of its
projection and hypotenuse of triangle. b
2
= q.a and c
2
= p.a.
7.2. The square of the altitude to hypotenuse equals the
multiplication product of its part. t
2
= p.q.
7.3. The product of legs multiplication equals to the multiplication of
altitude and hypotenuse. b.c = t.a.

See figure below for more detail explanation.

Figure 7.5. Projection condition on rigth-angle triangle.

Proof!
Look at ACD and ABC.
Obvious mACD = mACB, because of coincide, and
mADC = mBAC, because of right angle,
From the fact above, we conclude that ACD ABC.
The direct consequence of the condition is
C
CA
=
A
BA
=
AC
BC
.
We get
C
CA
=
AC
BC

q
b
=
b
u
b
2
= q.a.

By similar step, we leave to proof c
2
= p.a as the exercise to the
reader. And then, these proves theorem 7.1.

Look at ADC and ADB.
Because of ACD ABC, the consequence is also mCAD =
mABC. So that we can write some information below!
Obvious mCAD = mABC, the consequence of ACD ABC,
mADC = mBDA, because of right angle.
We conclude that ADC ADB.
The direct consequence of the condition is
A
B
=
C
A
=
AC
AB
.
We get
A
B
=
C
A

t
p
=
q
t
t
2
= p.q.

These proves theorem 7.2.

142

We proof theorem 7.3 by finding the area of triangle.
Obvious A

ABC
=
1
2
. AB . BC =
1
2
. c . b and
A

ABC
=
1
2
. AD . BC =
1
2
. t . a.
We get
1
2
. c . b =
1
2
. t . a a.t = b.c.
This proves the theorems.

2. Projection theorem on acute and obtuse triangle

In acute and obtuse triangles, it holds properties below.


Theorems!
7.4. We give two theorems below:
a. The square of length corresponding to acute angle equals
the square sum of another two sides minus twice of
multiplication its corresponding side and its projection.
b. The square of length corresponding to obtuse angle equals
the square sum of another two sides plus twice of
multiplication its corresponding side and its projection.

See figure below for more detail information!
B A
C
D
p q
c
b
a
t

Figure 7.6. Projection condition on acute triangle.

Theorem 7.4.a. is just say that, in acute triangle there are
obtaining two formulas below.

a
2
= b
2
+ c
2
2.p.c 1
and
b
2
= a
2
+ c
2
2.q.c 2



143


Proof!
At ADC, obvious p
2
+ t
2
= b
2
t
2
= b
2
p
2
and
DBC, obvious q
2
+ t
2
= a
2
t
2
= a
2
q
2
.
We get b
2
p
2
= a
2
q
2

a
2
= b
2
p
2
+ q
2

a
2
= b
2
p
2
+ (c p)
2

a
2
= b
2
p
2
+ c
2
2pc + p
2

a
2
= b
2
+ c
2
2pc.
Then we have proved 7.4.a. point 1

Obvious b
2
p
2
= a
2
q
2

b
2
= a
2
q
2
+ p
2

b
2
= a
2
q
2
+ (c q)
2

b
2
= a
2
q
2
+ c
2
2qc + q
2

b
2
= a
2
+ c
2
2qc
Then we have proved 7.4.a. point 2

Therefore, in obtuse triangle also hold properties below!

Figure 7.7. Projection condition on obtuse triangle.


Theorem 7.4.b. is just say that, in acute triangle there are obtaining
two formulas below.

a
2
= b
2
+ c
2
+ 2.p.c 3

Proof!
Obvious t
2
= b
2
p
2
, because of Pythagoras theorem on ACD, and
t
2
= a
2
(c + p)
2
, because of Pythagoras theorem on BCD.

144

Obvious b
2
p
2
= a
2
(c + p)
2

a
2
= b
2
p
2
+ (c + p)
2

a
2
= b
2
p
2
+ c
2
+ 2pc + p
2
a
2
= b
2
+ c
2
+ 2pc.
We get a
2
= b
2
+ c
2
+ 2pc.
This proves theorem 7.4.b.


B. STEWART THEOREM

Theorem of Stewart!
7.5. If there is line x from C and dividing side c into c
1
and c
2
then hold
formula below. (AD = c
1
and BD = c
2
)

x
2
c = a
2
c
1
+ b
2
c
2
c
1
c
2
c
See figure below for more detail information.

Figure 7.8. Condition on Stewart theorem.

Proof!
To proof the theorem, we need to build a helped line CE, such that
CE AB, and we label the length of segment DE with m. The figure as
shown below!

Figure 7.9. Proofing the Stewart theorem.

145

Look at ADC that is an acute triangle!
From theorem 7.4 we get
b
2
= x
2
+ c
1
2
2mc
1
2mc
1
= x
2
+ c
1
2
b
2

m =
x
2
+c
1
2
-b
2
2c
1
4

Look at DBC, which is an obtuse triangle, angle BDA is obtuse angle.
From theorem 7.4 we get

a
2
= x
2
+ c
2
2
+ 2mc
2

2mc
2
= x
2
+ c
2
2
a
2

m =
-x
2
- c
2
2
+u
2
2c
2
5

From 4 and 5 we get equation of m below.

2
+c
1
2
b
2
2c
1
=

2
c
2
2
+o
2
2c
2


c
2

2
+c
2
c
1
2
c
2
b
2
= c
1

2
c
1
c
2
2
+c
1
o
2

c
2
x
2
+c
1
x
2
= c
1
c
2
2
c
2
c
1
2
+c
2
b
2
+c
1
a
2

(c
1
+c
2
)x
2
= c
1
c
2
(c
1
+c
2
) + c
2
b
2
+c
1
a
2

cx
2
= a
2
c
1
+b
2
c
2
c
1
c
2
c

We have proved the formula is held for Stewart theorem.


C. SPECIAL LINES ON TRIANGLE Part 2

We have discussed some special lines of a triangle. In this sub chapter
we will a little deeper discuss the topics again. We discuss new theorem
related to special lines of a triangle. Different from our topics in chapter
3, our discussion is not only about definition of each special lines of a
triangle.

Here we remind the special lines of a triangle, those are a median, an
altitude, and a bisector. Now, we give some properties about the special
lines of a triangle.

146

Theorem!
7.6. The medians of a triangles is crossing each other and being divided
into two parts by ratio 2 : 1

See figure below for more detail information.
/
/
A B
C
D E
O

Figure 7.10. Condition of theorem 7.6.

It is given triangle ABC, AD and BE are two of its median. The
theorem is just say that
AO
O
=
BO
O
=
2
1


Proof!
Because BE is median, then the consequence is CE : EA = 1 : 1, and
because AD is median, then the consequence is CD : DB = 1 : 1.
Because CE : EA = CD : DB, from theorem 6.5
2
we conclude that
DE AB.

Look at CED and CAB!
Obvious mDEC = mBAC, because of parallel angle, and
mDCE = mBCA, because of coincide.
So CED CAB.
The consequence of condition above is
CL
CA
=
C
CB
=
L
AB
=
2
1
.
Look at DOE and AOB!
Obvious mBAO = mEDO, because of interior alternate angle, and
mBOA = mDOE, because of opposite angle.
So DOE AOB.
The consequence of condition above is
B0
0L
=
A0
0
=
L
AB
=
2
1


By similar step, you can prove if the median is build from vertex C.
These proved the theorem.

2
Theorem 6.5 : If a line cross side AC and BC of a triangle in D and E, such that AD : DC = BE : EC , then
the line DE is parallel to AB.

147

Theorem!
7.7. If z
a
, z
b
, and z
c
are median to side a, b, and c, then there is obtain
formula below:
a.
u
2
=
1
2
b
2
+
1
2
c
2

1
4
o
2

b.
b
2
=
1
2
o
2
+
1
2
c
2

1
4
b
2

c.
c
2
=
1
2
o
2
+
1
2
b
2

1
4
c
2


Proof!
To proof the theorem, see figure below!
2
1
2
1

Figure 7.11. Condition of theorem 7.7.

From Stewart theorem, we get

u
2
o = b
2
.
1
2
o +c
2
.
1
2
o
1
2
o.
1
2
o. o
u
2
=
1
2
b
2
+
1
2
c
2

1
4
o
2


By similar step, you can proof the formula obtain for z
b
and z
c
.
We leave the proof of z
b
and z
c
for exercise to the reader.
This proves the theorem.


Theorem!
7.8. A bisector divides the corresponding side of angle bisected, by ratio
like the adjacent sides.

See figure below for more detail information!
148


Figure 7.12. Condition of theorem 7.8.

It is given ABC. AD is an angle bisector of ABC.
The theorem said that
o
1
o
2
=
b
c


Proof!
To proof the theorem, we need helped lines as shown below.

Figure 7.13. Proofing theorem 7.8.

Look at ADF and ADE.
Obvious mEAD = mFAD, because of angle bisector AD,
|AD| = |AD|, because of coincidance, and
mADF = mADE, because the size of both angles are
together 90
o

1
2
mCAB.
We conclude that ADF ADE.
So that we get |DE| = |DF|.



149

Look at ABD and ACD.
Obvious
A
ABD
A
ACD
=
1
2
. AB. BE
1
2
. AC. BF
=
AB
AC


and

A
ABD
A
ACD
=
1
2
. o
2
. AB
1
2
. o
1
. AB
=
o
2
o
1


We get
AB
AC
=
u
2
u
1
.
We write AC : AB = o
1
: o
2
.
This proves the theorem.

We assume theorem 7.8 also holds for outside angle bisector, like on
figure below.

A B
C
D
E
F
a
b
p
q
c

Figure 7.14. Condition of theorem 7.8 on outside angle bisector

Let p = |DA| and q = |DB|. DC is an outside angle bisector of C. Figure
7.14 give us information that p : q = b : a.

Proof!
Obvious FDC EDC! (why? Prove that!) So we get |DE| = |DF|.
Look at ADC and BDC.
Obvious
A
ADC
A
EDC
=
1
2
.AC.DF
1
2
.BC.DE
=
AC
BC
anu
A
ADC
A
EDC
=
1
2
.p.t
1
2
.q.t
=
p
q

We get
AC
BC
=
p
q
.
We conclude that theorem holds for any condition of bisector.
150

Theorem!
7.9. The square product of inside bisector equals the multiplication of
two adjacent sides subtracted by parts of opposite side.

See figure below for more detail information!

Figure 7.15. Condition of theorem 7.9 on inside angle bisector

Let ABC, CD is an angle bisector of C. We give label p for |DA|
and q for |DB|.
Theorem 7.9 is just say that CD
2
= a.b p.q

Proof!
Because CD is a bisector then from theorem 7.8 we get a : b = q : p or
we write ap = bq.

From Stewart theorem
3
we get:
CD
2
.c = b
2
.q + a
2
p pqc
CD
2
.c = b(bq) + a(ap) pqc
CD
2
.c = b(ap) + a(bq) pqc
CD
2
.c = abp + abq pqc
CD
2
.c = ab (p + q) pqc
CD
2
.c = ab c pqc
CD
2
= ab pq

We get CD
2
= ab pq
And this proves the theorem.

What about outside angle bisector? Does this formula obtain to that
angle? See figure below! We will be shown that the formula is a little
different with the formula above.

3
7.5 If there is line x from C and dividing side c into c
1
and c
2
then hold formula
x
2
c = a
2
c
1
+ b
2
c
2
c
1
c
2
c

151


Figure 7.16. Condition of theorem 7.9 on outside angle bisector

Let ABC, CD is outside bisector of C. Let p = |DB| and q = |DA|.
We will prove that CD
2
= pq ab.

Proof!
Because CD is a bisector then from theorem 7.8 we get a : b = p : q or
we write aq = bp.

From Stewart theorem, we get:
a
2
q = CD
2
c + b
2
p pqc
a(aq) = CD
2
c + b(bp) pqc
a(bp) = CD
2
c + b(aq) pqc
CD
2
c = abp + abq + pqc
CD
2
c = pqc ab (p + q)
CD
2
c = pqc ab c
CD
2
= pq ab

We get CD
2
= pq ab
We conclude that theorem holds for any condition of bisector.


Theorem!
7.10. Let ABC. Let t
a
and t
b
are both altitudes that is build from side a
and b. Then the comparison between both altitudes is reverse
comparison of corresponding sides.

See figure below for more detail information!
152


Figure 7.17. Condition of theorem 7.9 on outside angle bisector

It is given ABC. Let t
a
and t
b
are both altitudes that is build from side a
and b.
The theorem is just said that

b
=
b
o


Proof!
Obvious A

ABC
= A

ABC

1
2
. b . t
b
=
1
2
. a . t
a
b . t
b
= a . t
a


We get b . t
b
= a . t
a

t
c
t
b
=
b
u
.

So we have proved the theorem.


Theorem!
7.11. Let ABC. Let 2s = a + b + c and t
a
, t
b
, t
c
are the altitudes drawn
from side a, b, and c. We suggest the formula below hold for all
triangles:

a.
u
=
2
u
s(s o)(s b)(s c)
b.
b
=
2
b
s(s o)(s b)(s c)
c.
c
=
2
c
s(s o)(s b)(s c)

Proof!
We will show the formula is hold for t
a
and we let the proof of t
b
and t
c

for exercise to the reader.

153

See figure below!

Figure 7.18. Condition of theorem 7.11 on t
a


Obvious a + b + c = 2s a + b c = a + b + c 2c = 2s 2c = 2(sc).
Obvious a + b + c = 2s b + c a = a + b + c 2a = 2s 2a = 2(sa).
Obvious a + b + c = 2s a + c b = a + b + c 2b = 2s 2b = 2(sb).

Obvious t
a
2
= c
2
p
2
, because of Pythagoras theorem on ABD.
Obvious b
2
= c
2
+ a
2
2ap p =
c
2
+u
2
-b
2
2u
, because of theorem 7.4.a.
We get
t
a
2
= c
2
p
2

t
a
2
= c
2

c
2
+u
2
-b
2
2u

2

t
a
2
= c
c
2
+u
2
-b
2
2u
c +
c
2
+u
2
-b
2
2u

t
a
2
=
2uc-c
2
-u
2
+b
2
2u

2uc+c
2
+u
2
-b
2
2u

t
a
2
=
b
2
-(u
2
-2uc+c
2
)
2u

2uc+c
2
+u
2
-b
2
2u

t
a
2
=
b
2
-(u-c)
2
2u

(u+c)
2
-b
2
2u

t
a
2
=
(b-u+c)(b+u-c)(u+c+b)(u+c-b)
4u
2

t
a
2
=
(u+c+b)
4u
2
(b + c a)(a + b c)(a + c b)
t
a
2
=
2s
4u
2
. 2(s a) . 2(s b) . 2(s c)
t
a
2
=
4
u
2
. s(s a)(s b)(s c)
t
a
=
2
u
s(s o)(s b)(s c)

So that we get t
a
=
2
u
s(s o)(s b)(s c). Thus, the formula holds for t
b

and t
c
.
This proves the theorem.
154

Look at figure below!

Figure 7.19. Consequence of theorem 7.11 on ABC

The direct consequence of the theorem 7.11 is

A
ABC
=
1
2
. o.
u
=
1
2
. o.
2
o
s(s o)(s b)(s c)

A
ABC
= s(s )(s b)(s )


And this is the end of sub topics of triangle. We have explained all
properties of a triangle. Next sub chapter are exercises. We suggest to
the reader to do all problem to increase the sense of your geometry.




Pythagoras,
is a mathematician which found a popular formula of a
right-angle triangle c
2
= a
2
+ b
2
.


155

D. EXERCISE CHAPTER 7 #1

1. In the ABC, it is drawn the altitudes AD and BE. These lines
intersects each other at H. Prove that AH HD = BH HE.

2. In the ABC, it is given AB = 10, BC = 12, and AC = 8. E is lying on
BC such that CE = 4
1
2
. D is lying on AC such that CD = 3. Prove that
CED CAB!

3. Two lines AB and CD are crossed at S, such that SASB = SCSD.
Draw lines BC and AD and prove that mABC = mCDA, mBCD
= mBAD, mCDB = mBAC, and mDBA = mDCA.

4. M is a midpoint of a hypotenuse BC of ABC. It is drawn two
perpendicular lines MP and MQ, which P and Q are intersection
points of perpendicular lines M on side AB and AC. Prove that
MA
2
= MP
2
MQ
2
.

5. In the ABC, it is known mA = 30
o
, mB = 45
o
, and t
c
= 8. Find
the length of its sides and also its area!

6. In the ABC, it is known mA = 90
o
, AD BC, |AD| = 4, |BC| = 10.
Find the length of its right-legs!

7. In the ABC that is right-angle triangle, it is known mA = 90
o
,
prove that
1
t
c
2
=
1
b
2
+
1
c
2
!

8. In the ABC, it is known mA = 90
o
, AD BC, BD = 12, DC = 15.
Find the length of AB, BC and also the area of ABC!

9. In the ABC, |AB| = 13, |BC| = 20, and |AC| = 21. Find the length of
projection of BC to AB and projection to AC!

10. In the ABC, it is known |AB| = 10, |BC| = 13, |AC| = 17. At the
extension of AB, there is lying a vertex P such that |AP| : |PB| = 7 : 5.
Find the length of CP!

11. In the ABC, it is known |AB| = 18, |BC| = 14, |AC| = 12. D is lying
on AB such that |BD| = 8. Find the length of CD!

12. In the ABC, it is known |AB| = 40, |BC| = 42, |AC| = 26. P is lying
on AB and Q is lying on BC such that |PB| = 16 and |QB| = 28. Find
the length of PQ!

13. In the isosceles triangle ABC (C is the vertex), there is any point D
on its base and connected with C. Prove that CD
2
= AC
2
AD BD
156


14. In the right-angle triangle ABC, C is right angle. On AB there lie
point D such that |AD| : |DB| = 1 : 2. Prove that 9CD
2
= a
2
+ 4b
2
!

15. The lengths of sides of ABC are 8, 10, and 12. Find the length of its
medians!

16. Prove that in the ABC its hold formula :

4(z
a
2
+ z
b
2
+ z
c
2
) = 3(a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
)

17. In the ABC, the altitudes AD and BE crosses each other at T. Find
the length of AT and TD if it is known a = 9, b = 7, and c = 8!

18. The altitudes AD and BE of ABC crosses each other at T. Prove
that (AD AT) + (BT BE) = AB
2
!

19. In the ABC, it is build bisectors AD and BE. The lines cross at I. If
|AB| = 21, |BC| = 15, and |AC| = 24, find the length of DI and IE!

20. In the ABC, |AB| = 15, |BC| = 18, and |AC| = 12. It is build bisector
CD. Find the length of segment DE, E is midpoint of BC!

21. In the ABC, |AB| = 12, |BC| = 6, and |AC| = 9. Find the length of its
altitudes, its medians, and inside also outside bisector of angle A!

22. In the ABC, |BC| is longer than |AC|. The inside and outside
bisector of C is crossing AB (or the extension) in D and E. Prove
that BD AE = AD BE!



157

E. MENELAUS THEOREM AND CEVA THEOREM

1. Two Rays

Before we continue our discussion to next topics, we will remind
you about rays and its properties. We have introduced you about
rays, but its only about definition. We define ray AB is segment AB
that is the direction if and only if in series A to B. We write ray AB
by

and its seem like figure below.

Figure 7.20. Ray AB or R
AB
or

Now, let there is

. We define

. Obvious |BA| = |AB| but

the direction between both of line is opposite each other. Thus, we
can say the direction of

is reverse of

. See figure below for

more detail information.


Figure 7.21.

and

Figure 7.21.a. show us

and figure 7.21.b. show us

. Let there is
a line and there are vertices A, B, C, and D lying on the line as
shown below.


Figure 7.22.

Then, we can say that AB, AC, AD, BC, and CD have similar
direction. Thus, DC, CB, DA, CA, and BA have opposite direction to
the last. We assume direction to X

has negative value and direction

to X
+
has positive value. We give some note that |AB| = 3 = |BA|, but
we are differencing the number .

= 3 and .

= 3. Another
example is .

= 6 and .

= 6. The number 3, 3, 6, and 6 is

158

called by intro number. Thus, we define intro number of .

as
the number, which its value is similar to the distance AB.

Because intro numbers are also number, then we can operate the
intro number with any operation that is hold for regular number.
Here we give some properties of intro number operation.



To get more information to definition 7.1, please see figure below!


Figure 7.23. Condition of Chasles Relation

Figure 7.23 above show us .

= .

+ .

. That is |AC| = |AB| +

|BC|, and then we give next properties.



Mobius relation is far-ranging form of Chasles relation. Mobius is
introducing relation of rays, which the start point is equal to the
finish point. The intro number for relation above is zero. See figure
7.22 for more detail information.

Definition!
7.2. Relation of Mobius.
Let

, and

are rays.
Mobius relation of rays is define

.

+ .

+ .

= .

+ .

+ .

= u
Definition!
7.1. Relation of Chasles.
Let

, and

are rays.
Chasles relation of rays is define

.

+ .

= .

159

Figure 7.22 show us that is hold relation

.

+ .

+.

+.

= 3 + 1 + 2 6 = 0

Thus, we can far-ranging definition 7.2 by formula below:

. X
1
X
2

+ .X
2
X
3

+ + .X
n-1
X
n

+ .X
n
X
1

= u

Let P is lie on line AB. If P lie between point A and B such that P
divide segment AB from inside, then we call P inside divisor of AB
become PA and PB. Thus, if P doesnt lie between A and B such that
P divide segment AB from outside, then we call P outside divisor of
AB. The comparison between .

and .

is called by division
ratio of AB caused by point P. We denoted it with

() =
.

See figure below for more detail information.


Figure 7.24. (a) P as inside divisor of AB and (b) P as outside divisor of AB

Attending to figure 7.24.a. and definition of intro number, we assume
that the value of .

and .

is opposite each other, and then we

get (ABP) would be always negative. Different with 7.24.a., on 7.24.b
we assume that the direction of PA and PB is always same, and then
we may write the value of (ABP) would be always positive. We
assume that :
a. the ratio (ABP) is negative if P lie between A and B, and
b. the ratio (ABP) is positive if P is not lie between A and B.

2. Transversal

Let there is a polygon. A line m is called transversal if and only if m
crosses the polygon. In fact if there are no sides, which is parallel to
the transversal then the transversal is cross all side of the polygon. If
a triangle is crossed by a transversal, then the transversal is crossing
160

two of it sides and the extension of another one. Let see figure
below for more detail explanation.
A B
C
P
Q
R
m

Figure 7.25. Line m is a transversal

The property of transversals is also hold even line m does not cross
the triangle.

Figure 7.26. A transversal that is not through the triangle

Examples above are transversal hold for triangle. We assume that
the properties hold for all polygons.

Can a transversal through a vertex of a polygon? The answer is yes.
The transversal which is passing through a vertex or vertices of
polygon is called angle transversal. Here we give an example use
triangle.

Let there is ABC and three angle transversals, g, k, and m. If g, k,
and m is intersecting each other at one point then the three angle
transversals are crossing the opposite side of the divided angle. Thus,
if there only one angle transversal crosses the side of triangle, then
another two angle transversal should crosses the extension side of
the triangle.

Figure 7.27. Angle transversals condition

161

3. Theorem of Menelaus

Theorem!
7.12. If a transversal of ABC cross side AB, BC, and AC at point P,
Q, and R then (ABP).(BCQ).(CAR) = 1.

See figure below for more detail explanation.

Figure 7.28. Menelaus theorem condition

Let there is ABC, line PR is a transversal. The theorem said that

(ABP).(BCQ).(CAR) = 1


.

.
.

.
.

= 1

Proof!
Draw segment a, b, and c, such that a b c. Line a pass through
vertex A, line b pass through vertex B, and also line c. See figure
below!

Figure 7.29. Proofing of Menelaus theorem

162

Look at PAK and PBM!
Obvious PAK PBM (Why?). So that we get
PA
PB
=
u
c
.
Because P doesnt lie between A and B, then we get
.

=
o
c


Look at QBM and QCL!
Obvious QBM QCL (Why?) So that we get
B
C
=
c
b
.
Because Q lies between B and C, then we get
.

=
c
b


Look at RAK and RLC!
Obvious RAK RLC (Why?) So that we get
RC
RA
=
b
u
.
Because R lies between C and A, then we get
.

=
b
o


Thus, from three equation above we get

.

=
o
c

c
b

b
o
= 1

This proves Menelaus theorem.

Thus, the reverse of Menelaus theorem also holds.


Theorem!
7.13. If on side AB, BC, and AC of a triangle ABC lies point P, Q,
and R such that (ABP).(BCQ).(CAR) = 1 then the three points
above lies on a similar line.

We leave the proof as exercise to the reader.
(Hints: use indirect proofing method to proof the theorem)






163

4. Theorem of Ceva

Ceva theorem shows us a property of transversal. Here we give a
property about angle transversal.

Theorem!
7.14. Let there is ABC. Let g, k, and m are angle transversals which
crosses the side AB, BC, and CA at P, Q, and R. If the three
angle transversals is passing through one point then
(ABP).(BCQ).(CAR) = 1.

See figure below for more detail explanation!

Figure 7.30. Ceva theorem condition

From figure above, Ceva was just want to explain that

(ABP).(BCQ).(CAR) = 1.


.

.
.

.
.

= 1

Proof!
Draw segment pass through vertex C, label it with z! Extends line
AQ and BR until crosses the line z!

Figure 7.31. Proofing of Ceva theorem
164

Look at AOB and GOH!
Obvious QGC QAB (Why?). So that we get
PA
PB
=
p
q
.
Because P lies between A and B, then we get
i. PA

i. PB

=
p
q


Look at QGC and QAB!
Obvious QGC QAB (Why?) So that we get
B
C
=
c
p
.
Because Q lies between B and C, then we get
i. QB

i. QC

=
c
p


Look at RCH and RAB!
Obvious RAK RLC (Why?) So that we get
RC
RA
=
q
c
.
Because R lies between C and A, then we get
i. RC

i. RA

=
q
c


Thus, from three equations above we get

i. PA

i. PB

i. QB

i. QC

i. RC

i. RA

=
p
q

c
p

q
c
= 1

This proves Ceva theorem.

Thus, the reverse of Ceva theorem also holds.


Theorem!
7.15. If on side AB, BC, and AC of a triangle ABC lies point P, Q,
and R such that (ABP).(BCQ).(CAR) = 1 then the three angle
transversals of AQ, BR, and CP passes through one point.

We leave the proof as exercise to the reader.
(Hints: use indirect proofing method to proof the theorem)





165



F. EXERCISE CHAPTER 7 #2

1. Prove that three medians of a triangle passes through one certain
point and each median is divided to two segment with ratio 2 : 1
(starting from vertex)!

2. Prove that three bisectors pass through one certain point!

3. Prove that three altitudes pass through one certain point!

4. Find the comparison of CT : TP in the figure below!



166

I N D E X

acute angle, 6
adjacent, 6, 7, 26, 31, 33, 48, 56, 76, 135, 147,
150
altitude, 41, 42, 52, 55, 84, 85, 87, 88, 89, 130,
131, 141, 145
altitudes, 42, 137, 151, 152, 155, 156, 165
angle, 135
Corresponding angles, 24
Exterior alternate angle, 25
Exterior corresponding angles, 25
Interior alternate angle,, 25
Interior corresponding angles, 24
minor angle, 5
angle, 4, 5, 6, 15, 34, 41, 160
angle transversal, 160, 163
bisector, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16, 17, 41, 42, 43, 44,
52, 55, 108, 130, 131, 145, 147, 148, 149,
150, 151, 152, 156
center of arc, 10, 12, 13, 14, 18, 118
Ceva, 139, 163, 164
coincide, 24, 49, 52, 53, 68, 71, 73, 87, 137,
141, 146
complementary, 6, 7, 8
congruency, 46, 85, 125, 134
congruent, 44, 46, 48, 49, 87, 102, 134
consequences, 52, 70, 72, 74, 112, 114, 115,
134
contradict, 117
crosses, 156, 159, 160, 163
difference, 1, 7, 8
dilate, 44, 45, 125, 126, 130, 132, 134
dilate factor, 126, 132, 134
dilation, 44, 45, 46, 48, 125, 126, 128, 130,
131, 132, 134
direction, 2, 157, 159
distance, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 80, 81, 95, 96, 97,
104, 109, 158
division ratio, 159
drawn, 3, 6, 30, 45, 108, 123, 152, 155
extension, 53, 85, 86, 107, 125, 138, 155, 156,
160
hypotenuse, 48, 53, 54, 97, 103, 104, 105,
106, 107, 110, 135, 141, 155
inside divisor, 159
intersect, 3, 5, 6, 12, 14, 17, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28,
32, 42, 53, 59, 78, 88, 110, 111, 112
intersection, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18, 41, 77,
84, 155
intersects, 3, 16, 19, 26, 86, 108, 112, 155
length, 2, 10, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 35, 36, 37,
46, 47, 48, 49, 53, 54, 65, 66, 68, 70, 71,
72, 75, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 91, 93,
94, 97, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 110,
111, 118, 120, 123, 125, 126, 130, 131,
138, 142, 144, 155, 156
line, 2, 13, 15, 24, 111, 120, 129, 160, 161
locus, 21
lying, 2, 155, 157
median, 40, 41, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 81,
130, 131, 145, 146, 147, 165
Menelaus, 161, 162
midpoint, 9, 11, 68, 69, 70, 77, 78, 84, 88, 95,
108, 155, 156
obtuse angle, 6
obvious, 21, 143
opposite, 6, 7, 8, 26, 34, 36, 48, 54, 56, 61, 66,
67, 68, 69, 70, 84, 106, 146, 150, 157, 159,
160
origin, 126, 130, 131
orthogonal, 117, 120
outside divisor, 159
parallel, 3, 4, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30,
53, 66, 70, 78, 88, 89, 90, 92, 108, 111,
112, 113, 114, 116, 118, 125, 126, 128,
129, 130, 133, 134, 135, 146, 159
passing through, 3, 109, 160, 163
perpendicular, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 27, 28, 29,
30, 31, 32, 43, 52, 55, 72, 73, 77, 78, 85,
86, 91, 96, 98, 108, 109, 120, 137, 139,
140, 155
planar, 23, 35, 77, 125, 130, 131, 132, 134
plane, 2
polygon, 21, 24, 57, 58, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65,
78, 79, 130, 159, 160
projection, 117, 120, 121, 139, 140, 141, 142,
155
projector, 140
projectum, 139, 140
proportion, 111, 114, 117, 120, 127, 130

167

Pythagoras, 97, 98, 100, 101, 102, 107, 109,
143, 153
ray, 3, 126, 139, 140, 157
right angle, 6
screen, 107, 139, 140
segment, 2, 9, 10, 11, 19, 21, 22, 33, 34, 35,
53, 58, 60, 61, 81, 95, 96, 104, 111, 115,
117, 118, 140, 144, 156, 157, 159, 161,
163, 165
sentrum, 126, 132
shadow, 126, 130, 132, 133, 139
side, 3, 8, 19, 34, 35, 36, 37, 46, 47, 48, 49, 54,
56, 58, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84,
87, 93, 94, 102, 103, 106, 109, 113, 114,
116, 126, 127, 130, 131, 135, 138, 140,
142, 144, 146, 147, 150, 151, 152, 155,
159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164
similar, 1, 7, 8, 9, 11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 26, 27, 36,
40, 41, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 55, 67, 72,
73, 75, 77, 84, 89, 113, 114, 117, 118, 119,
120, 121, 126, 127, 134, 135, 138, 141,
146, 147, 157, 162
Stewart Theorem, 144
straight angle, 6
supplementary, 6, 7, 8, 39
supposition, 117
transversal, 159, 160, 161, 163
transversals, 160, 163, 164
triangle, 1, 9, 17, 19, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39,
40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51,
52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 62, 63, 65, 75, 79, 81,
83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 93, 95, 96, 97, 103,
104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 113, 114,
115, 116, 118, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134,
135, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 145, 146,
154, 155, 156, 159, 160, 162, 164, 165
vertex, 3, 9, 12, 13, 15, 29, 36, 45, 55, 58, 62,
63, 64, 65, 77, 78, 85, 88, 90, 98, 138, 146,
155, 160, 161, 163, 165
vertices, 34, 45, 58, 61, 62, 64, 65, 157, 160


168

Ardhi Prabowo, born at February, 25
th
1982, on small city
Pekalongan. In 1991, he moved to Semarang and continued his
education in Semarang. He finished the pre-graduate title in
2004 for mathematics education. After that he start his career
to be a lecture on January 2005. Specialist at analysis and
education program made him to be one of Olympics adviser on Central Java
Province.
Graduate from Unnes on 2004 at mathematics education, and Magister from
similar department on 2008, now he has 1 daughter as Alifiah Rizqeni. His
wife was from similar department as Laely Rohmatin Apriliani.
Some research of him were about software 3D Studio Max which has
relation to space geometry. Another research is about studying the
application of software SWiSHmax into learning activity. The last research is
about increasing spatial ability using software 3D studio max, was done in
2009.
His activity on English learning advising started in 2009, which was its
content, was about advising the teacher teaching mathematics using English.
On that activity he found that when teach mathematics the most important
is make the student comfort. If student feel comfort, whatever the models,
media and teaching aid, the material will be understood better.
As his residence, Sekargading Block O number 16 maybe the best place to
take a rest, after daily activity. He also has residence in internet by
ardhiprabowo@gmail.com. In his busy day, he also managed some blog like
http://ardhiprabowo.blogspot.com or http://pakarbelajar.blogspot.com. He
implemented the learning using blog and any other digital learning.