Piping is divided into three major categories:

1) Large bore pipe: Generally includes piping greater than two inches in diameter.

2)Small bore pipe: Generally includes piping which is two inches and smaller in diameter.

3)Tubing: Tubing is supplied in sizes up to four inches in diameter but has a wall thickness less
than that of either large bore or small piping.

Part I - Nominal Pipe Size


The term diameter for piping sizes is identified by nominal size.
The manufacture of nominal sizes of 1/8 inches through 12 inches inclusive is based on a
standardized outside diameter (OD ).
The 14 inch and larger sizes have the OD equal to the nominal pipe size.
Tubing however is sized to the outside diameter for all applications.
Pipe Sizes 3/8'' , 1 1/4'' , 3 1/2'' , 4 1/2' and 5 inches are considered as non-standard and should
not be used except to connect to equipment having these sizes. In this case the line is increased
to a standard size as soon as it leaves the equipment.

Part I - Schedule Number

Pipes are manufactured in a multitude of wall thickness. These wall thickness have been
standardized so that a series of specific thickness applies to each size of piping. Each thickness
is designated by a schedule number rather than the actual wall thickness.
The original thickness were referred to as standard (STD), extra strong (XS) and double extra
strong (XXS). These designation or weight classes have now either been replaced or
supplemented by SCHEDULE NUMBERS in most cases.
Schedules begin with 5 and 5s followed by 10 and 10S, then progress in increments of ten
through Schedule 40 and then finally by increments of twenty to Schedule 160.
Wall thickness for Schedule 40 and STD are the same for sizes 1/8'' to 10''. Schedule 80 and XS
also have the same wall thickness for 1/8'' through 8'' dia pipe.
Schedules 5 and 10 are generally used for stainless steel piping.

Part I - Pipe Length

Pipe is usually supplied in random lengths. The shortest, longest and average length may vary
for piping of different materials, sizes and wall thickness schedules. Typically an average length
of 20 feet is used for carbon steel pipe, but double random lengths are available from most
suppliers and is generally preferred especially for rack installations.

Part I - Pipe Ends
1) Plain end
2) Bevelled end
3) Threaded ends

Plain ends (PE ) are cut square and reamed to remove burrs. This type of end is used for
mechnical couplings , socket weld fittings or slip on flanges.


Bevelled ends (BE ) are required for most butt-weld applications.

Threaded ends (TE) are used for screwed joints. Pipe order is placed as threaded both ends (
TBE ) or threaded one end (TOE)

Part I - Standard Piping Materials

Carbon Steel is one of the most commonly used pipe materials.
The specifications that cover most of the pipe used are published by the ASTM (American
Society for Testing of Materials) and ASME ( American Society Of Mechanical Engineers )
e.g.
A106 is a Carbon Steel material specification and is available in grades A,B and C.
The grades refer the tensile strength.

Stainless Steel pipe is virtually non-magnetic. There are eighteen different grades and type 304
L is the most widely used. L denotes low carbon content and is best suited for welding.


Chromium- Molybdenum Alloy pipe is commonly referred to as '' chrome- moly ''. There are ten
grades of this type of pipe material and are covered by ASTM 335. Chrome - moly pipe is used
extensively in heat exchangers. This material must be stress-relieved after being joined.
Plastic Pipe is categorized into two principal groups :

1) Thermoplastic pipe available in compositions eg Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) , Polyethylene (PE) ,
Polypropylene (PP)
2) Thermosetting ( Fiberglass) pipe


Part II - Flanges
Flanges :
Flanges are divided by classes which is normally rated by working pressure in pounds per
square inch. They are available in a variety of primary pressure ratings from 25psi to 2500 psi.

Selection of the proper flange facing depends on the combination of many factors:
a) Flange material
b) Gasket material
c) Bolt Strength
d) Operating Pressure and Temperature
Fluid Properties Contained.
Flange Facing:
a) Flat Face: They are used in conjunction with a full-face gasket.
B) Raised Face Facing: They are most commonly used. A facing height of 0.06 inch is customary
for 150 and 300 pound flanges. A facing height of 0.25 inch is common on 400 pound and higher
classes of flanges.
C) Tongue and Groove Facing has a gasket that is confined within the groove.
D) Ring Joint Facing uses a solid metal ring gasket, so the sealing surface on the flanges must
be accurately machined to a very smooth finish. The ring gasket must likewise be accurately
machined from solid metal. This style of facing is the most expensive, but it is most effective for
high operating pressure and temperature.





Types of Flange:

Weld neck flanges are the most common type of flanges used and preferred for the majority of
service conditions. The strength of the fitting increases and stress is distributed so that this style
can withstand extreme temperature. Shear, impact, bending and vibratory loading.

Socket Weld flanges are most commonly used on two inch and smaller piping.

Slip- on Flanges are sometimes preferred because of its lower installation cost and because it
can accommodate slight misalignment. The calculated strength of the slip -on flange under
internal pressure is approximately two thirds that of the weld neck style flanges and its life under
fatigue is about one-third that of the weld-neck.

Types of Flange:

Threaded Flanges are attached by screwing the flange onto the threaded end of the pipe. As
with other threaded fittings its use is restricted to systems having relatively low operating
temperatures and pressures.
Lap Joint Flanges are used in piping that will be frequently dismantled. The flange is free to
revolve on the pipe thus avoiding the problem of accurate alignments.
Orifice Flanges are used for instrumentation connections and are typically used in conjunction
with an orifice plate and flowmeter to measure or indicate flow.



Part II - Elbows

Elbows make an angle between adjacent pipes. There are standard elbows of 90 degrees and
45 degrees. Special order elbows are also available.

Long radius 90 deg elbow: Radius of bend = 1.5 times the nominal pipe dia

Short radius 90 deg elbow: Radius of bend = nominal diameter.

Reducing elbows are 90 deg elbows with two different size ends

180-degree return fittings are used for making 180-degree angles in piping systems.

Part II - Tees

Tees basically are of two types:

Straight Tee has three openings. Two have the same axis while the third is perpendicular to this
axis for connecting a branch line.


Reducing Tee is similar to a straight tee except that the branch line connection is smaller in size.

Part II - Reducers
Reducers are used to connect different sizes of piping and can be classified as

Concentric Reducers are pipefitting with different nominal diameters on each end while
maintaining the same centerline.

Eccentric Reducers are pipefitting with different nominal diameters on each end and the fitting
is flat on one side with an eccentric centerline. Eccentric reducers are used for connecting
different size pipes especially at centrifugal pump inlet connections for preventing air pockets
which may cause the pump to cavitate.

Part II - Pipe Caps
Pipe Caps are specialised fittings that are used to close an open end.

Part II - Lateral Pipe Fittings
Lateral Pipe fittings are of two types

Straight Lateral pipe fittings have three outlets two of which have the same axis and a third on
the side joined at 45 deg angle from the main axis.

Reducing Lateral fittings are similar to straight laterals except that the branch connection is
smaller in size.

Part II - Weldolets
Weldolets are integral reinforcement fittings used for branch connection strength.

Part II - Full Couplings and Threaded Unions Full Couplings are used to join a pipe segment
to another pipe or pipe fitting.

Screwed Unions are basically screwed joint that can be disassembled within a completed
system for subsequent maintenance.
Part II -
Swage Nipple
A Swage Nipple is a reducing fitting used to join piping of different sizes. Care must be taken in
matching the correct pipe schedules and end styles when ordering. Swages are available in both
concentric and eccentric types.
Part II - Strainers

Strainers are used to remove solid particles from liquids. They generally have a permanent
screen that can be cleaned by emptying, washing or blowdown.
Strainers are generally placed in the main line so that all of the process fluid passes through
them.
Strainers are either permanent plant components designed for the life of the plant or temporary
components for the removal of construction residue during initial start up.

Types of Strainers
Basket Strainers
Wye Strainers
Start-up Strainers
Part II -
Steam Traps
A steam trap is really a separating trap, which separates condensate and steam.
When a steam trap discharges condensate it does so from a higher pressure to a lower pressure.
With an inlet pressure greater than the outlet pressure, condensate will be discharged and
depending on the pressure differential can be made to travel quite a long way.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRAPS:
1) Mechanical
2) Thermodynamic
3) Impulse
4) Thermostatic
Part III -
Valves
What is a valve ?
A Valve may be defined as a mechanical device by which the flow of liquid or gas may be
started, stopped or regulated by a movable part that opens, shuts or partially obstructs one or
more ports or passageways.
What does a valve do ?
A Valve may be designed to direct, start, stop, mix or regulate the flow, pressure, or temperature
of a process fluid.
A Valve by nature of their design and materials can :
1)Open and Close
2)Turn on and off
3)Regulate
4)Isolate
Extremely large array of liquids and gases.
What is the range of size of valves?
A Valve may range in size from a fraction of an inch to 9mtr in diameter.

What is the range of pressure and temperature handled ?
A Valve can handle pressures ranging from vacuum to more than 140 MPA/m2 and
temperatures from the cryogenic region to 815 Deg Celcius.

What are the materials used for valves ?
In most cases the required body material is the same as the pipe material which may be Carbon
Steel, Stainless Steel or Chrome- Molubdenum Steel ( Commonly called Chrome Moly )
Carbon Steel is the ideal material for non-corrosive fluids. It is also used for steam and
condensate services.
Carbon Steel is readily available in most common general service valves and generally
inexpensive. It is recommended in temperatures upto 425 Deg Celcius in continuos service or
upto 535 Deg Celcius in non-continuos service.
Stainless Steel is very corrosion resistant, extremely strong and is commonly specified for high-
temperature application temperatures at 535 Deg Celcius and higher.
The cost of Stainless Steel is higher than carbon steel but less than other alloy steels.
Chrome - Molybdenum steel is a good material that falls between the characteristics of carbon
steel and stainless steel. It can handle higher pressure and temperatures than carbon steel
making it ideal for high pressure steam or flashing condensate applications.
Special alloys are specified for special service or severe service valves e.g. Hastealloy B & C
may be selected for a highly acidic fluid service or Monel or bronze body may be selected for a
pure Oxygen Service.
Castings, forgings or barstock:
Valve bodies are made from Castings, forgings or barstock.
Castings are the least expensive choice because of the process and higher volumes run by the
Manufacturer.
Forgings are required for special materials and / or higher pressure ratings , such as ANSI
classes 1500, 2500 or 4500.
Part III - Gate Valves
GATE VALVE
A Gate valve is a multi turn valve in which the port is closed by a flat-faced vertical disk that
slides at right angles over the seat. It is primarily designed for on-off service, where it is operated
infrequently.
It can be applied to general service, oil, gas, air slurries, heavy liquids, steam, non-condensing
gases and liquids, corrosive liquids.
TYPES OF GATE VALVE :
All Gate Valves are mainly of two types :
1. Parallel type 2. Wedge type
In the Parallel gate valve a flat disk is used as the closure element that fits between two parallel
seats :
1 Upstream seat 2 Downstream seat
The Wedge type gate valve uses two inclined seats and a slightly mismatched inclined gate that
allows for tight shutoff even against higher pressures.The inclined seats are designed 5 to 10
degrees from the vertical plane while the inclined gate is designed with a close but not exact
angle.
GATE VALVE INSTALLATION GUIDELINES
Because of their linear motion gate valves have a greater height than other manual valves and
this must be taken into consideration during installation.
Large sized Gate Valves are normally installed in horizontal lines.
Gravity tends to pull gate out of alignment with the seats in larger gate valve sizes requiring
some additional mechanical support.
User to ensure that the matching end piping flanges are aligned if the valve has flanged end
connection.
1 Gate Valves do not handle throttle operations well
2 Difficulty in opening or closing against high pressure drops.
3 Tight shut off not easily attained in some applications.
4 Cavities are formed at low pressure drop
5 Gate valves must be kept at fully open or fully closed position.
6 The throttling position often erodes the seat and disk.

Part III -
Globe Valves
What is a Globe Valve?
A Globe valve is a linear motion valve and is generally used for both on-off throttling applications.
Although the globe design can handle high-pressure classes, due to the thrust limitations of the
hand operator globe valves are usually applied to lower pressure applications.

Types of Globe Valves:
1.Tee-Pattern Globe Valves:
2. Wye-Pattern Globe Valves:
3. Angle Pattern:
Part III -
Ball Valves
What is a Ball Valve?
The valves, which are best, used for on-off service, as well as moderate throttling situations that
require minimal accuracy.
Types of Ball Valves:
They are made in three general patterns:

1.Venturi port
2.Full port
3.Reduced port
Part III -
Butterfly Valves
What is a Butterfly Valve?
In a Butterfly valve the fluid moves from the inlet to the outlet, with the disk being the only
obstruction to the flow.
Unlike gate or globe valve designs, where the closure element moves out of the flow stream, the
butterfly disk is located in the middle of the flow stream.
It creates some turbulence to the flow, even in the open position.
Types of Butterfly Valves:
1.Wafer body type.
2.Flanged body type.
3.Lug-body style.
4.Slit-body style.
5.Eccentric and Cammed Butterfly valve.
Part III -
Check Valves
What is a check Valve?
Check valves (also known as non-return valves) are automatic valves that prevent a return or
reverse flow of the process.
The check valve operation is dependent upon the flow direction of the process, which may be
created by a pump or pressure drop.
Types of Check Valves:
1.Lift Check Valves:
2. Swing Check Valves:
Part III -
Plug Valves
What is a plug Valve?
It is a quarter-turn manual valve that uses a cylindrical or tapered plug to permit or prevent
straight-through flow through the body.
Plug valves are either lubricated or non-lubricated.
For non-lubricated valves, the plug may be inserted from the top or bottom of the valve body.
Types of plug Valves:
1.Cylindrical Plug
2.Conical Plug

Part III -
Diaphragm Valves
What is a diaphragm Valve?
Diaphragm Valves consist of a rigid body formed with a weir placed in the flow path, a flexible
diaphragm which forms the upper pressure boundary of the valve, a compressor which is used to
force diaphragm against the weir, and the bonnet and handwheel which secure the diaphragm to
the body and actuate the compressor.
They are manufactured in Variety of end connections:
Welding end socket or butt welding, flanged, screwed or threaded, clamp ends, solvent cement
joint ends for thermoplastic valves and male sanitary threaded ends.
Types of Diaphragm Valves:
1.Weir type
2. Straight through type

Part III - Safety & Relief Valves
Safety Valves
They are also known as pop safety valves.
They are spring loaded, quick opening, full flow valves for systems containing pressurized,
compressible fluids such as steam, air, or other vapors or gases.
The set pressure is adjusted by increasing or decreasing the spring compression.
The difference between the opening pressure and the closing pressure is called blowdown.
Relief Valves
They are similar to safety valve but open only slightly at set pressure.
Instead of full opening, they open wider if the pressure increase above the set pressure.
Relief valves are normally used for liquids, such as water or oil, where release of a small volume
will rapidly lower the pressure.

Part III -
Gaskets
A gasket is a malleable material, which can be either soft or hard, that is inserted between two
parts to prevent leakage between that joint.
Pressure is applied by bolting or using a clamp to compress the gasket firmly in place.
Gaskets are made from all different types of materials, depending on the temperature, pressure
or fluid characteristics of the process.
Gaskets are used in valves for three major purposes:
To prevent leakage around the closure mechanism
To prevent leakage of fluid to atmosphere
To allow the function of internal mechanisms that depend on separate fluid chambers, such as
pressure balance trim

Most Common Pipeline Sizes.............

Nominal diameter & Outside diameter

6 (150 mm)........6.625 (168 mm)
8 (200 mm)........8.625 (219 mm)
10 (250 mm)......10.75 (273 mm)
12 (300 mm).......12.75 (324 mm)
16 (400 mm).......16.00 (254 mm)
20 (500 mm)........20.00 (508 mm)
24 (600 mm)........24.00 (610 mm)
30 (750 mm)........30.00 (762 mm)
36 (900 mm).......36.00 (914 mm)


FLANGES FACING
1) Ff Flat Face
2) Rf Raise Face
3) T/G Tongue And Groove Face
4) M/F Male And Female Faces
5) Rtj Ring Type Joint Faces

TYPES OF FITTINGS
1) 90Elbow, 45Elbow (Butt Welded, Socket Welded, Threded)
2) Equal Tee, Reducing Tee do
3) Cap,Union,Plug, Half Coupling, Full Coupling, Lateral.

TYPES OF OLETS
1) Laterolet
2) Elbowlet
3) Weldolet
4) Sockolet
5) Threadolet
6) Sweepolet
7) Nippolet

TYPES OF REDUCER
1) Eccentric Reducer (Butt Welded)
2) Concentric Reducer (Butt Welded)
3) Swages (Socket Weld, Threded)


Flanges can be classified based on pipe attachment as: -

Slip on. : - The Slip-on type flanges are attached by welding inside as well as outside. These
flanges are of forged construction.

Socket Weld. : - The Socket Weld flanges are welded on one side only. These are used for small
bore lines only.

Screwed. : - The Screwed-on flanges are used on pipe lines where welding cannot be carried
out.

Lap Joint. : - The Lap Joint flanges are used with stub ends. The stub ends are welded with pipes
& flanges are kept loose over the same.

Welding Neck. : - The Welding neck flanges are attached by butt welding to the pipe. These are
used mainly for critical services where the weld joints need radiographic inspection.

Blind. : - The Blind flanges are used to close the ends which need to be reopened.

Reducing. : - The reducing flanges are used to connect between larger and smaller sizes without
using a reducer. In case of reducing flanges, the thickness of flange should be that of the higher
diameter.

Integral. : - Integral flanges are those, which are cast along with the piping
component or equipment.

How can flanges be classified based on Pressure- temperature ratings?
Answer: -
Flanges are classified based on pressure temperature ratings as: -
A. 150 .
B. 300 .
C. 400 .
D. 600 .
E. 900 .
F. 1500 .
G. 2500.
Pressure temperature rating carts in the standard ASME16.5 specify the non-shock working
gauge pressure to which the flange can be subjected to at a particular temperature.

3. How can flanges be classified based on facing?
Answer: -
Flanges are classified based on facing as: -
A. Flat face. (FF)
B. Raised face. (R/F)
C. Tongue and groove. (T/G)
D. Male and female. (M/F)
E. Ring type joint. (RTJ)