12

What Youll Learn

What determines global
weather patterns.
How air masses move
and change.
How the strengths and
weaknesses of weather
forecasts differ.
How to create a weather
chart.
Why Its Important
Few aspects of the environment have as much
impact on our everyday
decisions as weather does.
A basic knowledge of
weather processes can
make those decisions
easier and sometimes
far safer.

To find out more about

meteorology, visit the
Earth Science Web Site
at earthgeu.com

298

Meteorology

Discovery Lab
An air mass is a large body of air
that takes on the characteristics of the
area over which it forms. You can
demonstrate the formation of a cold
air mass using simple materials.
1. Place a tray full of ice cubes on a
table with a pencil underneath
each end of the tray so that the tray
is slightly elevated.
2. Slide a liquid-crystal temperature
strip underneath the ice-cube tray.
3. Rest another temperature strip
on two pencils on top of the tray.

12.1
OBJECTIVES

Compare and contrast

weather and climate.
Analyze how imbalances
in the heating of Earths
surface create weather.
Describe how and where
air masses form.
VOCABULARY

meteorology
weather
climate
air mass
air mass modification

Model a Cold Air Mass

4. Record the temperature of each
strip at one-minute intervals for
about five minutes.
CAUTION: Always wear
protective clothing in the lab.
Observe In your science journal,
make a graph showing the temperature changes for each temperature
strip. What happened to the
temperature of the air beneath
the tray and the air above
the tray? Explain how this
model represents a cold
air mass.

The Causes of Weather

Have you ever sat back and watched the sky on a lazy summer afternoon? You might have noticed clouds of different shapes, or felt the
warmth of the sun against your face or an occasional puff of wind as
it cooled your skin. All of these phenomena are part of a highly organized sequence of events with specific causes. Those events and the
factors that cause them are all part of meteorology. Meteorology is the
study of atmospheric phenomena. The root of the word meteorologymeteoris the name given in modern times to a flaming rock
falling through space. But the ancient Greek meaning of meteor was
high in the air, and it is this meaning that pertains to meteorology.
Clouds, raindrops, snowflakes, fog, dust, and rainbows are all
types of atmospheric meteors. The primary types are cloud
droplets and forms of precipitation that contain water in any phase;
they are known as hydrometeors. Smoke, haze, dust, and other condensation nuclei are called lithometeors. Thunder and lightning are
examples of electrometeors, which are visible or audible manifestations of atmospheric electricity. These various phenomena are the
objects and events that meteorologists study.
12.1 The Causes of Weather 299

WEATHER

AND

CLIMATE

Atmospheric phenomena, shown in Figure 12-1, interact to affect

the environment and life on Earth. This is basically what we call
weather. Weather is the current state of the atmosphere. When we
speak of weather, we are referring mainly to short-term variations in
the atmosphere. These variations can take place over minutes, hours,
days, weeks, or months. Long-term variations in weather for a particular area make up the climate of that area. Climate is usually averaged over the course of 30 years or more. Youll learn more about
climate in Chapter 14. For now, simply recognize that meteorology,
weather, and climate are related. Meteorology is the study of the
atmosphere; weather is the current state of the atmosphere, including short-term variations that affect our lives; and climate describes
the average weather over a long period of time.

A QUESTION

OF

BALANCE

As youve learned, the Sun heats the surface of Earth, and Earth radiates back to space about as much energy as it receives over the course
of a year. In meteorology, a crucial question is how that radiation is
distributed around the planet. You know that the Sun feels hotter
during the afternoon, when its rays strike Earth more directly, than
it does in the early morning or evening, when its rays strike Earth at
a low angle. The Suns rays are more spread out when they
strike Earth at a low angle, as youll see in the MiniLab later in
this chapter. The same amount of energy is spread over a
larger area. As shown in Figure 12-2, the solar radiation reaching Earths surface at the poles is therefore less intense. This
explains, in part, why the tropics are warmer than the poles.
But why dont the tropics become steadily warmer if the Sun
is always directly overhead? How do regions manage to maintain fairly constant average temperatures?

A
Figure 12-1 Snowflakes
(A), lightning (B), and
fog (C) are types of
atmospheric phenomena.

B
300 CHAPTER 12 Meteorology

Figure 12-2 The Suns rays

strike Earth more directly at
the tropics than they do at
the poles. At the poles, the
same amount of solar radiation is spread over a larger
area than at the equator.
Therefore, polar regions are
never very warm.

90

66.5

30

Equ

tor

Suns
rays

Balancing the Budget The tropics and other places maintain

fairly constant average temperatures because heat energy is redistributed around the world. The continual motion of air and water reallocates heat energy among Earths surface, oceans, and atmosphere and
brings it into balance. Virtually everything that we consider to be
weatherevery atmospheric motion from the tiniest convection current to thunderstorms to large-scale weather systemsis part of this
constant redistribution of Earths heat energy.

AIR MASSES
In Chapter 11, you learned that when air over a warm surface, such
as a parking lot, becomes warmer than the surrounding air because
of conduction, the warm air rises. Now, imagine this same process
taking place over thousands of square kilometers. Imagine that the
warm air remains over this same area for days or weeks. The result
is the formation of an air mass. An air mass is a large body of air
that takes on the characteristics of the area over which it forms.
Meteorologists call the region over which an air mass forms the
source region. Air masses form over land or water. Those that form
12.1 The Causes of Weather 301

over land have less exposure to large

amounts of moisture, so they are drier than
those that form over water. Air masses take
on the temperature of the source region, too.

How does the angle of the

Suns rays differ?
Model the angle at which sunlight reaches
Earths surface. This angle greatly affects
the intensity of solar energy received in any
one place.

Procedure
1. Hold a flashlight several centimeters
above a piece of paper and point the
flashlight straight down.
2. Use a pencil to trace the outline of the
light on the paper. The outline models
how the Suns rays strike the equator.
3. Keeping the flashlight at the same distance above the paper, tilt the top of the
flashlight to roughly a 30 angle.
4. Trace the new outline of the light. This is
similar to how the Suns rays are received
at the poles.

Analyze and Conclude

1. Describe how the outline of the light differed between step 1 and step 3. Explain
why it differed.
2. How do you think the change in area covered by the light affects the intensity of
light received at any one place?
3. The flashlight models solar radiation
striking the surface of Earth. Knowing
this, compare how much heat energy
is absorbed near the equator and near
the poles.

302 CHAPTER 12 Meteorology

Classifying Air Masses Air masses are

classified exactly as we have already
described them: according to their source
regions. The main types of air masses,
shown in Figure 12-3, are warm and dry
continental tropical (cT), warm and humid
maritime tropical (mT), cold and dry continental polar (cP), cold and humid maritime
polar (mP), and arctic (A). An arctic air
mass is basically the same as a continental
polar air mass, but much colder. Its the type
you may have heard most about because it
brings the most frigid outbreaks of winter.
Extremely cold arctic air masses are usually
associated with very high pressure as a result
of the massive sinking of cold air over a
large area.
Source Regions All five main types of
air masses can be found in North America
because of the continents proximity to the
source regions associated with each air mass.
Maritime polar air forms over the cold
waters of the North Atlantic and North
Pacific. It primarily affects the West Coast,
bringing occasionally heavy rains in winter.
Continental polar air forms over the interior of Canada and Alaska and can be quite
frigid in the winter, when nights are long. In
the summer, however, cP air can bring pleasant relief from heat and humidity because of
its cool and relatively dry composition.
The origins of maritime tropical air are
tropical and subtropical oceans, such as the
Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. In the
summer, mT air brings hot, oppressively
humid weather to the eastern two-thirds of
the United States and Canada. The desert
Southwest and Mexico are the source regions

Figure 12-3 Each of the

major air masses that
affects weather in the
United States has a similar
temperature and moisture
content as the area over
which it formed.

Major Air Masses Over the United States

Maritime
polar
(Pacific)
air masses

Arctic
air masses

Maritime
polar
(Atlantic)
air masses

Cool,
humid
Continental polar
air masses

Cool,
humid

Dry

Winter only

Dry, hot

Warm,
humid

Continental tropical
air masses

Warm,
humid
Warm,
humid

Maritime tropical
(Atlantic)
air masses
Maritime tropical
(Gulf)
air masses

Maritime tropical
(Pacific)
air masses

of continental tropical air, which is hot and dry, especially in summer.

Arctic air develops over latitudes above 60N in the ice- and snowcovered regions of Siberia and the Arctic Basin. During the winter, this
area receives almost no solar radiation but continues to radiate heat
out to space, so it can get very cold indeed. In addition to temperature
and humidity, another important characteristic of an air mass is its
stability. The stability of air is an important factor in its ability to produce clouds and precipitation.
Air Mass Modification Like the warm air over a large city during a summer afternoon, air masses do not stay in one place indefinitely. Eventually, they move, transferring heat from one area to
another and thus establishing the heat balance discussed earlier. As an
air mass moves, it may travel over land or water that has different
12.1 The Causes of Weather 303

Table 12-1 Air Mass Characteristics

Source Region Stability
Air Mass Type

Winter

Characteristics

Summer

Winter

Summer

Stable

Bitter cold, dry

cP

Stable

Stable

Very cold, dry

Cool, dry

cT

Unstable

Unstable

Warm, dry

Hot, dry

mP (Pacific)

Unstable

Unstable

Mild, humid

Mild, humid

mP (Atlantic)

Unstable

Stable

Cold, humid

Cool, humid

mT (Pacific)

Stable

Stable

Warm, humid

Warm, humid

mT (Atlantic)

Unstable

Unstable

Warm, humid

Warm, humid

characteristics from those of its source region. The air mass then starts
to acquire some of the characteristics of the new surface beneath it.
When this happens, it is said to undergo air mass modification,
which is the exchange of heat or moisture with the surface over which
an air mass travels. Table 12-1 summarizes the characteristics of the
main types of air masses before modification.
All air masses become modified to some extent as they move away
from their source regions. Eventually, an air mass becomes modified
to such a degree that its characteristics are almost the same as the
new surface over which it is traveling. At this point, the air mass has
lost its original identity and is now simply part of the air over the
new source region it has encountered.

1. What is the difference between weather

and climate? How do both relate to the
science of meteorology?
2. What must happen to keep the poles
from steadily cooling off and the tropics
from heating up over time?
3. What method of heat transfer plays
the primary role in the formation of an
air mass?
4. Describe how the moisture in a maritime
polar (mP) air mass that formed over the
North Pacific Ocean would modify as it
moved inland over the western coast of
North America.

304 CHAPTER 12 Meteorology

5. Thinking Critically Explain why an arctic

air mass is usually more stable than a maritime tropical air mass. In other words,
why does the arctic air resist rising more
than the tropical air does?

SKILL REVIEW
6. Predicting Which type of air mass would
you expect to become modified more
quickly: an arctic air mass moving over the
Gulf of Mexico in winter or a maritime
tropical air mass moving into the southeastern United States in summer? For
more help, refer to the Skill Handbook.

earthgeu.com/self_check_quiz

12.2

Weather Systems

If Earth were either all land or all water and did not rotate on its
axis, a large convection cell would form in each hemisphere with the
colder and denser air at the poles sinking to the surface and flowing
toward the tropics. There, it would force the warm air already at the
equator to rise, and then it would cool and flow back toward the
poles. The problem with this proposal is that Earth does rotate from
west to east. This rotation causes the Coriolis effect, wherein moving particles such as air are deflected to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. The Coriolis
effect, illustrated in Figure 12-4A, combines with the heat imbalance
found on Earth to create distinct global wind systems that transport
colder air to warmer areas and warmer air to colder areas. The end
result is the balancing of heat energy on Earth.

GLOBAL WIND SYSTEMS

There are three basic zones, or wind systems, in each hemisphere, as
shown in Figure 12-4B. The first, known as the trade winds, occurs
at 30 north and south latitude. There, air sinks, warms, and moves
toward the equator in a westerly direction. When the air reaches the
equator, it rises again and moves back toward latitude 30, where it
sinks and the process starts anew. The circulation pattern for the trade
Figure 12-4 The rotation of Earth
causes the Coriolis effect (A), which,
along with the heat imbalance on
Earth, creates the three major global
wind systems (B). The convection
cells show the movement of air in
each zone.

Describe how the rotation of Earth affects the

movement of air.
Compare and contrast
wind systems.
Identify the various
types of fronts.
VOCABULARY

Coriolis effect
trade winds
prevailing westerlies
polar easterlies
jet stream
front

Sinking air

Polar easterlies

Prevailing
westerlies

Northeast
trade winds

OBJECTIVES

Northern
hemisphere
Equator

60
Sinking
air
Horse latitudes

30

Doldrums

Actual path
Southeast
trade winds

Path if
Earth did
not rotate

Rot
atio
no
f Ea

rt h

30

Rising
air

Horse latitudes

60

Equator
Southern
hemisphere

Prevailing
westerlies
Rising air
Polar easterlies

12.2 Weather Systems 305

winds closely fits a model proposed by English scientist George

Hadley in 1735; thus, this zone is sometimes known as the Hadley cell.
Around 30 latitude, the sinking air associated with the trade winds
creates a belt of high pressure that in turn causes generally weak surface winds. Spanish sailors called this belt the horse latitudes because
their ships became stranded in these waters as a result of the near-calm
winds. According to legend, they could no longer feed or water their
horses and were forced to throw them overboard.
Near the equator, the trade winds from both hemispheres move
together from two different directions, as shown in Figure 12-4. The
air converges, is forced upward, and creates an area of low pressure.
This process, called convergence, can occur on a small or large scale.
Near the equator, it occurs over a large area called the intertropical
convergence zone (ITCZ). As Figure 12-5 shows, the ITCZ migrates
south and north of the equator as the seasons change. In essence, it follows the path of the Suns rays, which are directly over the equator in
September and March. Because the ITCZ is a region of rising air, it is
characterized by a band of cloudiness and occasional showers that help
provide the moisture for many of the worlds tropical rain forests. Note
that the ITCZ is also called the doldrums. As in the horse latitudes,
sailing ships were often stranded in this belt of light winds.
Other Wind Zones The second wind system, the prevailing
westerlies, flows between 30 and 60 north and south latitude in a
circulation pattern opposite that of the trade winds. In this zone, surface winds move toward the poles in a generally easterly direction, as
shown in Figure 12-4. Note that wind is named for the direction

Yearly Movement of ITCZ

North latitude

24
20
16
12
8

ITCZ

306 CHAPTER 12 Meteorology

Equator

0
4
South latitude

Figure 12-5 The mean

position of the ITCZ
basically follows the path
of the Suns rays throughout the year. The two paths
dont match exactly because
the ITCZ responds gradually
to changes in the Suns position, and thus lags behind
the Sun.

8
12
16

Overhead position
of the Sun

20
24
Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan.

Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun.

Jul.

Aug. Sep.

Figure 12-6 This satellite image

shows the jet stream over the
Middle East (A). The polar jet
stream ranges from roughly 40 to
60 north latitude, and the subtropical jet stream ranges from roughly
20 to 30 north latitude (B).

B
Polar
jet stream

30
60

90

from which it blows, so that a wind blowing from

Subtropical
the west toward the east is considered a westerly
jet stream
wind. The prevailing westerlies are responsible for
much of the movement of weather across the United
States and Canada.
The last major wind zone, the polar easterlies, lies
between 60 latitude and the poles. Similar to the trade winds,
the polar easterlies flow from the northeast to the southwest in the
northern hemisphere. Note that global wind direction reverses in the
southern hemisphere. South of the equator, for instance, the polar
easterlies flow from the southeast to the northwest. In both hemispheres, the polar easterlies are characterized by cold air.

JET STREAMS
Earths weather is strongly influenced by atmospheric conditions and
events that occur at the boundaries between wind zones. On either
side of these imaginary boundaries, both surface and upper-level air
differs greatly in temperature and pressure. Remember that wind,
temperature, and pressure are related. Differences in temperature and
pressure cause wind. Therefore, a large temperature gradient in
upper-level air should result in strong westerly winds, and indeed, this
is what happens. Narrow bands of fast, high-altitude, westerly winds
called jet streams flow at speeds up to 185 km/h at elevations of
10.7 km to 12.2 km. Jet streams, shown in Figure 12-6, are so named
because they resemble jets of water. The most significant one, the
polar jet stream, separates the polar easterlies from the prevailing
westerlies. A second version, the subtropical jet stream, is located
where the trade winds meet the prevailing westerlies.
12.2 Weather Systems 307

Figure 12-7 These diagrams show the structures

of the four main types of
fronts. Symbols below each
diagram indicate how the
fronts are represented on a
weather map. A cold front
often moves quickly.
Thunderstorms may form
along the front (A). In a
warm front, precipitation
often occurs over a wide
band. High-altitude cirrus
clouds may form as water
vapor condenses (B). Light
wind and precipitation are
sometimes associated with a
stationary front (C). Strong
winds and heavy precipitation may occur along an
occluded front (D).

Large-Scale Weather Systems Disturbances form along jet

streams and give rise to large-scale weather systems that transport
surface cold air toward the tropics and surface warm air toward the
poles. Keep in mind that the position of the jet stream varies. It can
dive almost directly south or north, instead of following its normal
westerly direction. It can also split into different branches and later
reform into a single stream. Whatever form or position it takes, the
jet stream represents the strongest core of westerly winds. Together,
these winds form a sort of atmospheric railroad track, with largescale weather systems serving as the atmospheric trains. Weather systems generally follow the path of these winds. The jet stream also
affects the intensity of weather systems by moving air of different
temperatures from one region to another. Thus, despite its altitude,
it has a significant impact on weather.

FRONTS
The different temperatures and pressures of air masses have other
consequences apart from the jet stream. In the middle latitudes, air
masses with different characteristics sometimes collide, forming a
front. A front is the narrow region separating two air masses of different densities. The density differences are caused by differences in
temperature, pressure, and humidity. Fronts can stretch over thousands of kilometers across Earths surface. The interaction between
the colliding air masses can bring dramatic changes in weather. As
shown in Figure 12-7, there are four main types of fronts: cold
fronts, warm fronts, stationary fronts, and occluded fronts.

Frontal movement

Frontal movement

Warm
air

Warm
air

Cold air

Cold air
Precipitation

308 CHAPTER 12 Meteorology

Precipitation

Cold Fronts In a cold front, shown in Figure 12-7A, cold, dense air
displaces warm air and forces the warm air up along a steep front. As
the warm air rises, it cools and condenses. Clouds, showers, and sometimes thunderstorms are associated with cold fronts. A cold front is
represented on a weather map as a solid blue line with blue triangles
that point in the direction of the fronts motion.
Warm Fronts In a warm front, advancing warm air displaces cold
air, as shown in Figure 12-7B. Because the air ahead of a warm front
moves more slowly than does an advancing cold air mass, the warm air
encounters less friction with the ground and thus develops a gradual
frontal slope rather than a steep boundary. A warm front is characterized by extensive cloudiness and precipitation. On a weather chart, a
warm front appears as a solid red line with regularly spaced, solid red
semicircles pointing in the direction of the fronts motion.
Stationary Fronts Sometimes, two air masses meet and neither
advances into the others territory. In this case, the boundary
between the air masses stalls. This type of front, called a stationary
front, frequently occurs when two air masses have become so modified in their travels that the temperature and pressure gradients
between them are small. Stationary fronts seldom have extensive
cloud and heavy precipitation patterns; any patterns that do occur
are somewhat similar to those of a warm front. A stationary front is
represented on a weather map by a combination of short segments
of cold- and warm-front symbols as shown in Figure 12-7C.

Topic: Weather
To find out more about
weather fronts, visit the
Earth Science Web Site at
earthgeu.com
Activity: Obtain a weather
map showing todays
weather. Label the weather
fronts.

Stalled front

Warm

Cold

Warm

Cold

Cold

Precipitation
Precipitation

Frontal
movement

12.2 Weather Systems 309

Using Numbers

Most weather occurs

in the troposphere
between the surface
of Earth and an
altitude of 11 km.
Suppose the temperature in an area
drops about 7C for
each kilometer of
increase in altitude.
If the surface temperature is 15C, what is
the temperature at
an altitude of 3 km?

Occluded Fronts Sometimes, a cold air mass moves so rapidly

that it overtakes a warm front. The advancing cold air wedges the
warm air upward, as shown in Figure 12-7D on page 309. Recall that
a warm front involves warm air gliding over a cold air mass. When
the warm air is lifted, this cold air mass collides with the advancing
cold front. The warm air is thus squeezed upward between the two
cold air masses. This is called an occluded front and is represented on
a weather map by a line with alternating purple triangles and semicircles that point toward the direction of motion. Precipitation is
common on both sides of an occluded front.

PRESSURE SYSTEMS
You have learned that at Earths surface, rising air is associated with
low pressure and sinking air is associated with high pressure. Rising
or sinking air, combined with the Coriolis effect, results in the formation of rotating low- and high-pressure systems in the atmosphere. Air in these systems moves in a general circular motion
around either a high- or low-pressure center.
High-Pressure Systems In a surface high-pressure system, air
sinks, so that when it reaches Earths surface, it spreads away from the
center. The deflection of air to the right caused by the Coriolis effect
makes the overall circulation around a high-pressure center move in
a clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere, as shown in Figure
12-8A. Keep in mind that the Coriolis effect is reversed in the southern hemisphere; there, high-pressure systems rotate in a counterclockwise direction. Some high-pressure systems are associated with
cold air masses that move and modify; others, such as subtropical
high-pressure systems, are more stationary.

Figure 12-8 In the northern hemisphere, winds in a

high-pressure system rotate
in a clockwise direction (A),
and winds in a low-pressure
system rotate in a counterclockwise direction (B).
310 CHAPTER 12 Meteorology

Low-Pressure Systems In surface low-pressure

systems, air rises. The rising air must be replaced by
air from outside the system, so the net flow is
inward toward the center and then upward. In
contrast to air in a high-pressure system, air in a
low-pressure system in the northern hemisphere
moves in a counterclockwise direction, as shown
in Figure 12-8B. This movement is reversed in the
southern hemisphere.
Recall from Chapter 11 that its difficult for
clouds to form when air is sinking, as it does in highCold
pressure systems. Thus, high-pressure systems are
usually associated with fair weather, while lowpressure systems are associated with clouds and precipitation. In fact, most of Earths subtropical oceans
are dominated by large high-pressure systems with generally pleasant
conditions. One of the main producers of inclement weather in the
middle latitudes, meanwhile, is a specific type of low-pressure system
called a wave cyclone. A wave cyclone usually begins along a stationary
front. Some imbalance in temperature, pressure, or density causes part
of the front to move south as a cold front and another part of the front
to move north as a warm front. This sets up a counterclockwise or
cyclonic circulation, as shown in Figure 12-9. Eventually, if upper-level
conditions are favorable, a fully developed low-pressure system forms.
Pushed by the prevailing westerlies, this system may travel thousands
of kilometers affecting large areas in the middle latitudes.

1. Describe the main global wind systems.

Give characteristics of each.
2. Explain why most tropical rain forests are
located near the equator.
3. How does the jet stream affect the movement of air masses?
4. What is the Coriolis effect? How does it
affect air in the northern and southern
hemispheres?
5. Compare and contrast a low-pressure
system and a high-pressure system.
6. Thinking Critically Based on what you
know about the three major zones of
global air circulation, form a hypothesis

earthgeu.com/self_check_quiz

Low

Warm

Figure 12-9 The counterclockwise circulation is characteristic of a wave cyclone.

about why most of the worlds deserts

are located between 10 and 30 north
and south latitudes.

SKILL REVIEW
7. Interpreting Scientific Illustrations Refer
to the illustrations of the four types of
fronts shown in Figure 12-7. Sketch the
fronts in your science journal or use a
computer graphics program to make a
model of them. Label the warm and cold
air masses. Indicate the direction of their
movement and describe the type of
weather associated with each front. For
more help, refer to the Skill Handbook.

12.2 Weather Systems 311

12.3

Gathering Weather Data

Analyze the strengths

and weaknesses of
weather observation
systems.

When you visit a doctor, she or he first measures your temperature

and blood pressure to make an accurate diagnosis and prescribe
treatment. If the doctors data are incomplete or inaccurate, the diagnosis is likely to be inaccurate as well. The same principle applies to
meteorology. Meteorologists measure the atmospheric variables of
temperature, air pressure, wind, and relative humidity to make accurate weather forecasts. The quality of the data is critical. In fact, two
of the most important factors in weather forecasting are the accuracy
and the density of the datadensity in this case refers to the amount
of data available. Just as a doctor uses several different instruments
to assess your health, meteorologists use several types of technology
to gather information about the atmosphere.

VOCABULARY

SURFACE DATA

OBJECTIVES

Recognize the importance of accurate weather

data.
Describe the technology
used to collect weather
data.

One of the most common weather instruments is a thermometer, a

device used to measure temperature. Usually, thermometers contain
liquids such as mercury or alcohol, which expand when heated. The
height of the liquid column indicates temperature. Another common
weather instrument, the barometer, also uses mercury to obtain
weather data. Barometers measure air pressure. In a mercury barometer, changes in air pressure are indicated by changes in the height of
a column of mercury. An aneroid barometer contains a vacuum

thermometer
barometer
anemometer
hygrometer
ceilometer
radiosonde
Doppler effect

Figure 12-10 A thermometer (A),

barometer (B), anemometer (C),
and hygrometer (D) are commonly
used weather instruments.

D
312 CHAPTER 12 Meteorology

inside a metal chamber. The chamber contracts or expands with

changes in air pressure. A thermometer and a mercury barometer are
shown in Figures 12-10A and 12-10B.
Other Surface Instruments An anemometer, shown in Figure
12-10C, is used to measure wind speed. The simplest type of
anemometer has cupped arms that rotate as the wind blows. A
hygrometer measures relative humidity. One type of hygrometer,
shown in Figure 12-10D, uses wet- and dry-bulb thermometers. As
water evaporates from the wet bulb, the bulb cools, creating a temperature difference between the wet bulb and the dry bulb. This temperature difference is used in conjunction with a relative humidity
chart to determine relative humidity. See Appendix F for an example
of a relative humidity chart.
Automated Surface Observing System To make weather
forecasts, meteorologists analyze and interpret data gathered from
weather instruments. In this regard, timing is crucial. Data must be
gathered at the same time at many different locations. Why? It would
do no good to analyze how temperature and air pressure are interacting in the atmosphere if the two variables were measured at different times. Meteorologists need an accurate snapshot of the
atmosphere at a particular moment in time to develop a reliable forecast. Thus, the National Weather Service in the United States has
established a surface observation network across the country. Made
up of some 1700 official sites, the network gathers data in a consistent manner at regular intervalsusually a minimum
of once an hour. Most of these data are collected by the
Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS), shown
in Figure 12-11. In addition to the weather instruments
already discussed, the ASOS uses a rain gauge for measuring rainfall, as well as a ceilometer, which measures
the height of cloud layers and estimates the amount of
sky covered by clouds. Youll learn more about the
ASOS in this chapters Science & Technology feature.

Figure 12-11 This automated weather system

measures surface data.

UPPER-LEVEL DATA
While surface weather data are important, the weather
that we experience is largely the result of changes that
take place high in the troposphere. To make accurate
forecasts, meteorologists must gather atmospheric data
at heights of up to 30 000 m. This is a more formidable
task than gathering surface data, and therefore it
requires more sophisticated technology.
12.3 Gathering Weather Data 313

Figure 12-12 Radiosondes

are used to gather upperlevel weather data.

At present, the instrument of choice for

gathering upper-level data is a balloon-borne
package of sensors called a radiosonde,
shown in Figure 12-12. The sensors on a
radiosonde measure temperature, air pressure, and humidity. These readings are constantly sent back by radio signal to a
ground station that tracks the movements
of the radiosonde. Tracking is a crucial
component of upper-level observations
meteorologists can determine wind speed
and direction by tracking how fast and in
what direction the radiosonde is moving.
The various data are plotted on a chart, giving meteorologists a profile of the temperature, pressure, humidity, wind speed, and
wind direction of a particular part of the
troposphere. Such charts are used to forecast atmospheric changes that affect surface weather. While radiosondes provide
accurate snapshots of atmospheric conditions, they are quite expensive. It is hoped
that in the future, data from satellites will
replace or greatly supplement radiosonde
observations.

WEATHER RADAR
There are thousands of surface observation sites and 100 upper-level
observation sites across the United States. Yet the data from these
sites cannot pinpoint where rain is falling at any given moment. For
that purpose, a weather radar system is needed. The term radar
stands for radio detecting and ranging. A radar system is made of
several parts. A transmitter generates electromagnetic waves, which
leave the transmitter through antennae. In weather radar systems,
the waves are programmed to ignore small cloud droplets and to
bounce off large raindrops. The large raindrops scatter some of the
radio waves. These scattered waves, or echoes as they are often called,
are received by other antennae. An amplifier increases the wave signals of the scattered waves. A computer then processes the signals
and displays them on a screen. From this, meteorologists can compute the distance to the raindrops and the location of the rain relative to the receiving antennae. The radar system rotates in a circle,
allowing meteorologists to gauge where rain is falling within the
radars rangeusually an area with a diameter of about 400 km.

314 CHAPTER 12 Meteorology

Doppler Radar Many advanced weather radar systems take advantage of a phenomenon called the Doppler effect. The Doppler effect
is the change in wave frequency that occurs in energy, such as sound
or light, as that energy moves toward or away from an observer.
Youve probably noticed that sounds produced by a horn from an
approaching train change once the train has passed. Look at Figure
12-13. As the train approaches, the frequency and pitch of the sound
coming from the horn are high. As the train passes, the frequency
and pitch lower. This is the Doppler effect in action. Meteorologists
use Doppler radar, which is based on the Doppler effect, to plot the
speed at which raindrops move toward or away from a radar station.
Because the motion of the moving raindrops is caused by wind,
Doppler radar provides a good estimation of the wind speeds associated with precipitation areas, including those that are experiencing
severe weather such as thunderstorms and tornados. The ability to
measure wind speeds gives Doppler radar a distinct advantage over
conventional weather radar systems.

WEATHER SATELLITES
In addition to communications, one of the main uses of satellites in
orbit around Earth is to observe weather. Cameras mounted aboard a
weather satellite take photos of Earth at regular intervals. These photos are beamed back to ground stations and their data are plotted on
maps. Unlike weather radar, which tracks precipitation but not clouds,
satellites track clouds but not necessarily precipitation. By combining
data from the two types of technology, meteorologists can determine
where both clouds and precipitation are occurring.
Figure 12-13 As the train approaches, the sound
waves ahead of it are compressed. These short
waves have a high frequency, so the horn sounds
high. Behind the train, the sound waves are
stretched out. These longer waves have
a lower frequency, so the horn
sounds lower.

12.3 Gathering Weather Data 315

Figure 12-14 This infrared

image shows a huge storm
system over the eastern
United States.

Infrared Imagery Weather satellites use both visible light and invisible radiation to observe the atmosphere. The satellites discussed thus far use cameras
that need visible light to take photos. When such a
satellite is observing a portion of Earth that is in
darkness, however, its cameras are useless. Thus,
some satellites are designed to use infrared imagery.
Infrared imagery detects differences in thermal
energy, which are used to map either cloud cover or
surface temperatures. In an infrared image, such as
the one shown in Figure 12-14, objects that radiate
warmth at slightly different frequencies show up as
different colors. As you learned in Chapter 11, different types of clouds form at different levels of the
atmosphere, which are characterized by different
temperatures. Infrared images allow meteorologists
to determine the temperature of a cloud. From this,
they can infer what type it is and estimate its height.
Infrared imagery is especially useful in detecting
strong thunderstorms that extend to great heights in
the atmosphere and consequently show up as very cold areas on an
infrared image. Because the strength of a thunderstorm is related to
its height, infrared imagery can be used to establish a storms potential to produce severe weather.

1. If your goal was to vastly improve the

density of weather data in the United
States, would you focus on gathering
more surface data or more upper-level
data? Explain.
2. What is the main advantage of Doppler
radar over conventional weather radar?
3. Compare and contrast infrared imagery
and visible-light imagery.
4. What is the main disadvantage of
radiosondes?
5. Thinking Critically All else being equal,
would you expect weather forecasts to be
more accurate for the state of Kansas or a
Caribbean island? Why?

316 CHAPTER 12 Meteorology

SKILL REVIEW
6. Concept Mapping Use the following
terms to construct a concept map about
instruments that gather surface weather
data. For more help, refer to the Skill
Handbook.
1.
anemometer

2.
hygrometer

3.
humidity

4.
barometer

5.
thermometer

6.
temperature

7.
weather
instruments

8.
air pressure

9.
wind speed

earthgeu.com/self_check_quiz

Environmental Connection

12.4

Weather Analysis

After weather observations are gathered, meteorologists plot the

data on a map, using station models for individual cities or towns. A
station model is a record of weather data for a particular site at a
particular time. Meteorological symbols, such as the ones shown in
Figure 12-15, are used to represent weather data in a station model.
(For a more complete list of the symbols that meteorologists use to
represent weather data, see Appendix E.) A station model allows
meteorologists to fit a large amount of data into a small space. It also
gives meteorologists a uniform way of communicating weather data.
Youll use station models and weather maps to forecast the weather
in the Mapping GeoLab at the end of this chapter.

OBJECTIVES

SURFACE ANALYSIS

station model
isopleth
digital forecast
analog forecast

Station models provide information for individual sites. To plot data

nationwide or globally, meteorologists use isopleths, which are lines
that connect points of equal or constant values. The values represent
different weather variables, such as pressure or temperature. Lines of
equal pressure, for example, are called isobars; lines of equal temperature are called isotherms. The lines themselves are similar to the
contour lineslines of equal elevationthat you studied in Chapter 2. Just as you can make inferences about elevation by studying
contour intervals on a map, you can also make inferences about
weather by studying isobars or isotherms on a map. For instance, you
can tell how fast wind is blowing in an area by noting how closely
isobars are spaced. Isobars that are close together indicate a large

Type of middle clouds

Temperature ( C)

Type of low clouds

Distinguish between
analog and digital
forecasting.
Describe problems with
long-term forecasts.
VOCABULARY

Type of high clouds

20

Type of
precipitation
Dew point
temperature

Analyze a basic surface

weather chart.

19

188

Barometric pressure in
millibars with initial
9 or 10 omitted

12

Change in barometric
pressure in last 3 hours
(in tenths of millibars)
Wind speed
and direction

Figure 12-15 A station

model shows weather data
for a particular area at a
particular time.
12.4 Weather Analysis 317

pressure difference over a small area. A large pressure difference

causes strong winds. Conversely, isobars that are spread far apart
indicate a small difference in pressure. Winds in these areas would be
light. As shown in Figure 12-16, isobars also indicate the locations of
high- and low-pressure systems. This information is especially useful
when combined with isotherms, which identify temperature gradients and, consequently, frontal systems. Using isobars, isotherms,
and station-model data, meteorologists can analyze current weather
conditions for a particular time and place. This is crucial informationmeteorologists must understand current weather conditions
before they can move on to forecasting the weather. Youll learn more
about isobars in the Problem-Solving Lab on this page.

SHORT-TERM FORECASTS
In the early days of weather forecasting, meteorologists simply
observed current weather conditions, compared these conditions to
those that had occurred a day or two before, and then extrapolated
the changes a day or two into the future. The resulting positions of

Interpreting Scientific Illustrations

Create and analyze isobars
on a weather map Areas of
high and low pressure can be
indicated on a weather map by
lines of approximately equal
pressure called isobars.

Analysis
1. On a blank piece of paper,
trace the diagram shown
here, along with the pressure
values at various locations,
which are given in millibars
(mb).

2. A 1004-mb isobar that encircles one location on this map

has been drawn and labeled.
Complete and label the
1000-mb isobar that has
been started. Finally, draw a
996-mb isobar and a 992-mb
isobar. The isobars may not

318 CHAPTER 12 Meteorology

completely encircle
a location in a map
of this scale.

Thinking Critically
3. What is the contour
interval of the isobars on this map?

4. A blue letter H and

991

994

992

997

992

996
996
1004
999
1000

a red letter L in the

centers of closed
isobars mark the areas of
highest and lowest pressure,
respectively. On your map,
place a blue H or a red L
whichever is appropriate
inside the closed 1004-mb
isobar.

5. What type of weather is commonly associated with this

pressure system?

1006
1001

1000

1000

Air-Pressure Data

ME
WA
ND

MT

VT
NY NH
MA

MN

OR
ID

WY

WI

SD
IA

NE
MO

20

LA MS

AL

GA

12

10
16

TX

SC

AR

10

NM

NC

TN

16

OK

MD

VA

KY

10

12

AZ

DE

10

KS

UT

RI

NJ

PA

WV

6
99 0
0
10 4
0
10
08
10

CO

OH

IN

IL

10

1008

1012

NV

4
102
0
102
1016

CA

CT

MI

FL

Figure 12-16 This map shows air-pressure data for the United
States. Where would you expect light winds?

the weather systems served as the basis for their forecasts. Weather
forecasting, however, is too complicated to rely on extrapolating the
past movements of weather systems. Weather systems change directions, speed, and intensity with time. These changes take place in
response to changes in the upper atmosphere, so a reliable forecast
must analyze data from different levels in the atmosphere.
Digital Forecasts The key to unlocking the forecast puzzle lies in
the fact that the atmosphere behaves much like a fluid. Thus, we can
apply many of the same principles to the atmosphere and its variables,
such as temperature, pressure, density, and so on, that we can apply to
a fluid. Furthermore, these principles can be expressed in mathematical equations to determine how atmospheric variables change with
time. For meteorologists to solve these equations on a global or
national level would take an impossibly large amount of time.
Fortunately, high-speed computers can do the job. A forecast such as
this that relies on numerical data is known as a digital forecast.
Digital forecasting is the main method used by modern meteorologists, such as the one shown in Figure 12-17. It is highly dependent on
the density of the data availablebasically, the more data, the more
accurate the forecast.

Figure 12-17 This meteorologist is preparing a

weather forecast.

12.4 Weather Analysis 319

Figure 12-18 This

graph shows that
forecast uncertainty
increases with time.
Forecast lead time

Long-Term vs. Short-Term Forecasts

Months

Seasons

Years

814 days
610 days
Days
Hours
Minutes
Forecast uncertainty

Analog Forecasts Another type of forecast, an analog forecast,

involves comparing current weather patterns to patterns that took
place in the past. The assumption is that weather systems behave in
a similar fashion. Analog forecasting is so called because meteorologists look for a pattern from the past that is analogous, or similar to,
a current pattern. To ensure an accurate analog forecast, meteorologists must find a past event that is similar to a current event through
all levels of the atmosphere, and also over a large area. This is the
main drawback of analog forecasting. Still, analog forecasting is useful for conducting monthly or seasonal forecasts, which are based
mainly on the past behavior of cyclic weather patterns. Lets explore
the strengths and weaknesses of long-term forecasts.

LONG-TERM FORECASTS
Regardless of the forecasting method used, all forecasts become less
reliable when they attempt to predict long-term changes in the weather.
Why? Even high-tech computers cannot model every factor that affects
the weather. Recall that mountains, valleys, rivers, lakes, cities, and
countless other features on Earths surface affect the amount of heat
absorbed in a particular location. This, in turn, affects the pressure and
therefore the wind of that area, which in turn affects cloud formation
and virtually all other aspects of the weather. Over time, all these factors interact to create progressively more complicated scenarios.
The most accurate and detailed forecasts are short-term in
nature, as shown in Figure 12-18. For hourly forecasts, extrapolation is a reliable forecasting method because the current weather
is dominated by small-scale weather features that are readily observable by radar and satellite. Forecasts in the one- to three-day range,
320 CHAPTER 12 Meteorology

however, are no longer based on the movement of

observed clouds and precipitation, which change
by the hour. These forecasts are dependent on the
behavior of larger surface and upper-level features, such as low-pressure systems. A one- to
three-day forecast can somewhat accurately predict whether the day will be rainy or dry, and, if
rainy, when the precipitation will occur. At this
range, however, the forecast will not be able to
pinpoint an exact temperature or sky condition at
a specific time.
Accuracy Declines with Time At the fourto seven-day range, forecasts must attempt to predict changes in surface weather systems based on
circulation patterns throughout the troposphere and lower stratosphere. Meteorologists can estimate each days weather but can offer
little detail as to when or what exact weather conditions will occur.
At the one- to two-week range, forecasts are based on changes in
large-scale circulation patterns. Thus, these forecasts are vague and
based mainly on analogous conditions.
Long-term forecasts involving months and seasons are based
largely on patterns or cycles. Several of these cycles, such as the one
shown in Figure 12-19, involve changes in the atmosphere, ocean
currents, and solar activity, all of which might be occurring at the
same time. The key to future improvement in weather forecasts lies
in identifying the many influences involved, understanding these
influences and how they interact, and finally, determining their ultimate effect on weather over progressively longer periods of time.

1. Find an example of a station model in

your local newspaper and describe the
symbols on the model.
2. Compare and contrast analog and digital
forecasting.
3. Explain why long-term forecasts arent
always accurate.
4. Thinking Critically Based on what you
have learned about digital forecasting,
what single improvement do you think

earthgeu.com/self_check_quiz

Figure 12-19 Changes in

ocean-surface temperatures
can trigger changes in
weather patterns. This satellite image shows a cyclic
event known as El Nio
wherein the Pacific Ocean
warms along the equator
and triggers short-term
climatic changes.

would be necessary to increase the

reliability of this type of forecasting?

SKILL REVIEW
5. Forming a Hypothesis For a time period
of three days or less, hypothesize which
would be more accurate: digital forecasting or analog forecasting. Explain your
hypothesis. For more help, refer to the
Skill Handbook.

12.4 Weather Analysis 321

Interpreting a
Weather Map

ts time to put your knowledge of meteorology into action.

The surface weather map on the following page shows
actual weather data for the United States. In this activity, you
will use the station models, isobars, and pressure systems on
the map to forecast the weather.

Preparation
Problem
How can you use a surface weather map
to interpret information about current
weather and to forecast future weather?

Materials
pencil
ruler

Procedure
1. The map scale is given in nautical

miles. Refer to the scale when calculating distances.

2. The unit for isobars is millibars (mb).
In station models, pressure readings

are abbreviated. For example,

1021.9 mb is plotted on a station
model as 219 but read as 1021.9.
3. Wind shafts point in the direction
from which the wind is blowing.

Analyze
1. What is the contour interval of the

isobars?
2. What are the highest and lowest iso-

4. What and where are the coldest and

warmest temperatures that you can

find in the continental United States?

bars? Where are they located?

3. In which direction are the winds

blowing across Texas and Louisiana?

Conclude & Apply

1. Would you expect the weather in

Georgia and Florida to be clear or

rainy? Why?
2. Both of the low-pressure systems in
eastern Canada and off the Oregon
322 CHAPTER 12 Meteorology

coast are moving toward the east at

about 15 mph. What kind of weather
would you predict for Oregon and
for northern New York for the next
few hours? Explain.

140

135

130

125

50 100

120

300

Guayn
t

200

115

1020
400

110

Chihuahua

29

500

105

105

51

100

95

55

90

85

95

52 280 8
7
2 5
San Antonio
52
55 253
0
53

10

1024

Laredo
5
59
57 32 252
52
0
Brownsville 59 8
63 253
10
60

100

72 275
0
58 8

80

75

67 314
+3
5

90

72 284
0
8
56

70

52 3

69 298
+3
7

65

44

47

10

45

85

10

65 294
+9

est
Key W

55

60

ana
Hav

80

55

66 290
22
11
61065
i
0 1028
Miam
53 0

e
hal
1024
1020
1008 1012
1016
Churchill
1020
1024
1028
1028
1024
22 286
yW
1020
G re
9
1028
3
4 213
35 0
nd
0
22
Isla
Fairview
Ft. McM
13
1032
3 0
289
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0
50
1016 2824 20
19 267
9
11
1036
28 0
32
6 211
18 28
10
21
Po
15
30
12 0
rtla
1004
1012
Ed
21 0
m
n
on
to
d
n
1040
16
3
18
th
9
+7
15
64
1028
260
ou
20
Hudson H
29
30 0
ec 25
arm
Y
37
31
ueb
399
Q
15 1 15
60
60
9
Calgary
26 390
5
1000
3 296
7
1008
64
39 0
15
15
1 211
4 12
258
0
18
16
34
0
996
22
3
+80
Swift Curre
4
45
42
nt
and
37
l
27
085
Winnipeg
1 284
ort
+113
992 10
3/8
47
8 P
International
29 440
32
26 093
9
8
1
049
17
34 5
63
8 8 88 1 8 1
9
27
37
+14
Left Bank 7 4
75 2
35
Falls
n
399
8 386
Estevan
0
Ste.
26
0
sto
255 0 Spokane
37 0
ton
Sault
+9 404 9
9 180
Bo
5
ling 4 1
12 Seattle 29 0 0
24
510
Marie
10
10
+3
23
Bur
30
7
236
e
Minas
10
34
988
rion
16
3
11
us
15
Ma
29 12
82
rac
20
1 0
Sy 10
+8
Fargo
20 10
3
120
5
He
1
06
15
361
10
le
na
10
60
5
18
+30
0
43 10
35 6
Bismarck 12 417
24 1710 29
+31
Miles City
+75
9
20 15 37 108
18
1/4
5 392 10
7 0
33
10
+15
20 4
365 1
23 249
10
12 274
10
32
+2
18
20
29 00
8 203
2
+79
+2
Bi
27
10
lli
10
19
19 305
Med
29
32
18 0
Salmon ng 23 212 9
Burr
52
10
Appleton
10
ford
3
+56
10
12
3/4
24
6
24
49 272
3
6
8
urg
0
Bo
19
36 055
10
b
30
is
35
38
e
37 205
45 002
ips
40
2 8 37 115
6
1
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Phil
10
391
10
36
22
15
21
22 0
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1004
+24
10
Portatel
5
36
29
051
La Crosse 9
185
lo
10
5
4
9
34 166
10
+24
+2
34
10
Casper 17
39
10
40
20
22
Mason City
1008
10
36 216
10
96
14 330
12
26
5
10
16
Bluff
+39
362
10
+27
52 068
11
203
10
9
+1
29 280 23
41 089
10
10
30
+22
10
19
18
+8
+11
11
321 10
40
40 23
34 196
31
47 19
North Platte 320
243
+35
33
Salt
19
Rock Springs
10
ld 43
43 086
la
k
7
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8
1012
22 311
118
20 026 0 33
232
San
35Blo262
+14
10
10
5
49 225
Fra
10
36
10
+9
+10
n
c
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isco 36 6
34 0
+34
35
10
12
10
33
16
368
17
31 28
53
48
52 240
11
126
20
48
41 275 10 33 20
25 249
10
10
45 256
38
4
+1
30 289
26 298
49
1016
10
10
9
18
8
49 67
+ 3
+56
22 274
+25 10
10
+18 10
213
20
43
10
23
35
18
Ced
5
6
ar
C
61 159
43
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335
26
18
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50
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10
26 295
48 290 10
13
Santa
13
10 41 +4
10
10
+5
+3
30
53 270 10
10
+1
47
Ana
18
56 828
+1
1032
31 257 40 251
44
Las
10
38
0
Ve
0
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40
10
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0
0
a
g
+18
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0
10
e
10
as
65 159
228
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Girard
Wilmin
20
35
53 182
45
23
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Cape
10
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10
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mphis
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M
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10
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56
fi
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ld
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Winslow
53 256
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31 348
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49 325
38 230
L
o
218
s
9
A
10
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ngele +5
10
10
47
+4
4
4
s 0
50
10
52
10
Atlanta
3
81
12
56
17
14
Yuma
36 246
53
191
10
7
Ph
Roswell
33
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+1 oenix
31
50 314
30
63 348
24
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10
+2
10
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Tucso
53 282
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30
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n
Abilene 10 57 238
48
9
+3
9
3
28
ile
10
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ob
+5
M
El Paso
52
56
Midland 10 58 218
45 330
10
32
2
3
10
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45 336
6
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3
54
10
3/4
45
2
10
10
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+1
0
rleans
43
New O49 319
47 335
65 329
10
10
+4 Tampa
+3
47

25

60
40
20

110

Polar stereographic projection true at latitude 60

Scale of nautical miles at various latitudes

115

Surface weather map

and station weather at
7:00 A.M., E.S.T.

Mapping GeoLab 323

Tracking Atmospheric Change

On July 16, 1999, John F. Kennedy Jr. piloted a small private plane
bound for Marthas Vineyard. The plane never reached its destination.
Searchers determined that the plane crashed into the Atlantic Ocean,
killing all three people on board. While no one will know exactly what
happened, the dense fog may have been a factor in the crash.
Safety is a priority in the aviation industry.
Pilots must be aware of weather conditions to
avoid crashing when landing or taking off. Prior
to 1990, National Weather Service personnel
were responsible for gathering and communicating weather data to pilots. These professionals
collected data on air pressure, wind speed,
temperature, cloud cover, and precipitation.

ASOS
Concern about possible human errors
prompted scientists to develop a more efficient
system for transmitting weather data to pilots.
The resulting computerized system, called the
Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS),
is now the cornerstone of weather forecasting
and communication in this country.

The Pros and Cons

Today, more than 1000 ASOS units are in
operation at major airports, continuously recording air pressure, temperature, wind speed and
direction, runway visibility, cloud ceiling, and precipitation intensity. Data are automatically
updated every minute. While human observations are based on what can be seen from a
given vantage point, computerized observations
are not affected by varying light and terrain conditions. For this reason, many aviation professionals believe that ASOS data are more
consistent than manually collected data.

324 CHAPTER 12 Meteorology

Some aviation professionals, however,

disagree. The National Air Traffic Controllers
Association believes that human observers were
replaced by machines primarily to save money,
and that the loss of trained weather observers is
detrimental to aviation safety. On the evening that
Kennedys plane went down, the ASOS indicated
that visibility was 13 to 16 km. In actuality, visibility was reported to be so poor by other pilots that
the lights of Marthas Vineyard could not be seen
from the air. The National Weather Service admits
that the ASOS needs to be refined and continues
to implement upgrades. Still, this group insists
that widespread use of the ASOS will reduce
weather-related aviation accidents.

Activity
Does your local airport use the ASOS?
Go to the Earth Science Web Site at
earthgeu.com to research which airports
use the ASOS, or contact your local airport.
Write to airport officials for statistics on
aviation accidents both prior to and after
the installation of the ASOS. Has there
been a change in the number of aviation
accidents since the airport implemented
the ASOS? Use this information to write
a short opinion piece on the continued
use of the ASOS.

Summary
SECTION 12.1
The Causes of
Weather

SECTION 12.2
Weather Systems

SECTION 12.3
Gathering
Weather Data

SECTION 12.4
Weather Analysis

Main Ideas
Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere. Weather is the
current state of the atmosphere, and climate is the average
weather over a long period of time.
An air mass is a large body of air that takes on the characteristics of the area over which it forms.

Vocabulary
air mass (p. 301)
air mass modification (p. 304)
climate (p. 300)
meteorology
(p. 299)
weather (p. 300)

Main Ideas
The Coriolis effect deflects air to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. The Coriolis
effect combines with the heat imbalance found on Earth to form
the trade winds, prevailing westerlies, and polar easterlies.
Weather in the middle latitudes is strongly influenced by fastmoving, high-altitude jet streams.
A front is the boundary between two air masses of different
densities. The four types of fronts are cold fronts, warm fronts,
occluded fronts, and stationary fronts.

Vocabulary
Coriolis effect
(p. 305)
front (p. 308)
jet stream (p. 307)
polar easterlies
(p. 307)
prevailing westerlies
(p. 306)
trade winds (p. 305)

Main Ideas
Two of the most important factors in weather forecasting are
the accuracy and the density of the data. Surface data are easier
to gather than upper-level data.
The most common instrument for collecting upper-level data is
a balloon-borne radiosonde. Radiosondes measure temperature,
pressure, humidity, wind speed, and wind direction.
Weather radar pinpoints exactly where precipitation occurs.
Weather satellites use both visible-light imagery and infrared
imagery to observe weather conditions on Earth.

Vocabulary
anemometer
(p. 313)
barometer (p. 312)
ceilometer (p. 313)
Doppler effect
(p. 315)
hygrometer (p. 313)
radiosonde (p. 314)
thermometer
(p. 312)

Main Ideas
A station model is a record of weather data for a particular site
at a particular time. On a weather map, lines of equal pressure
are called isobars and lines of equal temperature are called
isotherms.
Digital forecasting uses numerical data. Analog forecasting compares current weather patterns to patterns that took place in the
past. All forecasts become less reliable when they attempt to
predict long-term changes in the weather.

Vocabulary
analog forecast
(p. 320)
digital forecast
(p. 319)
isopleth (p. 317)
station model
(p. 317)

earthgeu.com/vocabulary_puzzlemaker

Study Guide 325

Understanding Main Ideas

1. Which term best describes a snowflake?
a. hydrosphere
c. lithometeor
b. hydrometeor
d. electrometeor
2. What winds blow between 30 and 60 north
and south latitude?
a. trade winds
c. polar easterlies
b. prevailing westerlies d. jet streams
3. What would be the most likely classification for
an air mass originating over Alaska and Canada?
a. mT
c. cT
b. cP
d. mP
4. What would be the most likely dominant air mass
over the eastern United States in summer?
a. cT
c. mT
b. cP
d. mP
5. What instrument is used to measure the heights
of the bases of clouds?
a. radiosonde
c. hygrometer
b. ceilometer
d. barometer
6. Which term describes changes in air motion
resulting from Earths rotation?
a. jet stream
c. Coriolis effect
b. convergence
d. Hadley cell
7. What forecast method is best for researching past
weather events?
a. digital
c. extrapolation
b. analog
d. numerical
8. Which of the following is NOT characteristic of a
high-pressure system?
a. sinking air
c. fair weather
b. dense air
d. thunderstorms

326 CHAPTER 12 Meteorology

9. Which of the following would NOT be included in

a station model?
a. humidity
c. pressure
b. wind
d. temperature
10. What does an anemometer measure?
a. humidity
c. wind speed
b. air pressure
d. wind direction
11. Describe the relationship among meteorology,
weather, and climate.
Use the surface weather chart below to answer
questions 12 and 13.

12. What location will soon experience a warm front?

13. At what location would you forecast the greatest
probability of thunderstorms? At what location
would you forecast the weather to turn colder
over the next day?

Test-Taking Tip
FOCUS While you take a test, pay absolutely no
attention to anyone other than the teacher or
proctor. If someone tries to talk with you during
a test, dont answer. Youll become distracted.
Also, the proctor may think that you were cheating. Dont take the chance. Focus on the test,
and nothing else.

earthgeu.com/chapter_test

Applying Main Ideas

14. Is meteorological data easier to gather on land or
on water? Explain your answer.
15. What is Doppler radar?
16. What happens to an air mass as it moves away
from its source region?
17. Why are rain showers common near the ITCZ?
18. In your own words, describe the global wind
systems.
19. Construct a station model using the following
data: temperature: 5F; dew point: 12F;
wind: north, 20 knots; barometric pressure:
1038.5 mb; sky: clear.

Thinking Critically
20. Forecast the weather for the next 24 hours for an
area experiencing the same conditions as those
included in the station model you constructed in
question 19.
21. Like the north pole, the south pole receives little
solar radiation during the winter. Unlike the north
pole, however, the south pole does not send outbreaks of extremely frigid air as far as the subtropics. Why? (Hint: You may want to study a
world map to answer this question.)
22. You hear on a news report that an area has
received nearly twice its normal snowfall during
the winter. What can you infer about the position
of the jet stream from this report?
23. Review Figure 12-4 on page 305, which shows
global wind systems, then note the relative positions of North America and Europe on a world
map. Hypothesize why the winds that blow
between 30 north and south latitude and the
equator are called the trade winds.

earthgeu.com/standardized_test

Standardized Test Practice

1. Which of the following types of air masses
are most likely to form over land near the
equator?
a. mP
c. cP
b. mT
d. cT
2. Which wind system flows between 30 and
60 latitude north and south of the equator
in an easterly direction toward the poles?
a. trade winds
c. prevailing westerlies
b. Coriolis effect
d. polar easterlies

INTERPRETING
DATA Use the photo
to answer question 3.
3. Meteorologists use
many different
instruments to
gather atmospheric information.
What is the instrument shown here
called?
a. a hygrometer
b. a ceilometer

c. a radiosonde
d. radar

4. What does Doppler radar monitor?

a. the motion of moving raindrops
b. atmospheric pressure
c. temperature, air pressure, and humidity
d. the height of cloud layers
5. The data gathered by Doppler radar can be
used to make a type of forecast that relies on
numerical data. What is this type of forecast
called?
a. an analog forecast c. an isopleth
b. a digital forecast
d. ASOS

Assessment 327