Bushland

We e d s
A practical guide to their management
With case studies from the Swan Coastal Plain and beyond

Kate Brown and Kris Brooks

Illustrated by Libby Sandiford

Published by and available from Environmental Weeds Action Network (Inc), PO Box 380 Greenwood, 6924, Australia.
www.iinet.net.au\~ewan

Individual artists for photographs and drawings

Environmental Weeds Action Network (Inc)

Parts of this publication may be reproduced for educational purposes with appropriate acknowledgment. A copy of any
report or publication using these materials should be lodged with the Environmental Weeds Action Network (Inc).
National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-publication entry
ISBN 0 9579001 1 2.
Disclaimer Any recommendations in this book do not necessarily represent the policy or support of the sponsoring
organisations. This book is intended as a source of information only. People should obtain independent advice before acting
on information in this publication. It is the users responsibility to ensure that any methodology adopted or adapted from this
book is suitable for the purposes intended. Read the label of herbicides for further information and registration status.
Consult the NRA website www.nra.gov.au to determine the status of permits for your situation or state. The publisher or the
authors do not accept liability however arising, including liability for negligence, or for any loss resulting from the use of or
reliance upon information in this book.
Design, typesetting and print management by West Print Management, Mosman Park, Perth, Western Australia
Cover photograph by Kate Brown Late spring in the shrublands at Brixton Street Wetlands with Pink Feather Flower
(Verticordia densiflora), Kunzea (Kunzea micrantha) and Purple Flag (Patersonia aff. occidentalis) in full flower.
Cover illustrations by Libby Sandiford Some of the weeds starting to invade the Wetlands: From left to right; Harlequin
Flower (Sparaxis bulbifera), Black Flag (Ferraria crispa), African Lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula) and Perennial Veldgrass
(Ehrharta calycina).

Acknowledgments

This manual is the culmination of a five year project that has been supported by the Environmental Weeds Action
Network. The project would not have been possible without the ongoing support of project manager, Margo
OByrne, and the project team Bob Dixon, Rod Randall and the extraordinary financial manager, Gary Matthews. Liz
Western generously stood in as manager for a year, supervising the project while Margo was away. Peter Nash and
Patrick Piggott also contributed to project management. The Swan Catchment Centre provided office space and
administrative support for three years. Sally Madden and Simone Tuten provided technical support in the early
stages of the project.
Production of the manual has been a collective effort. Kate Brown wrote the chapters on the project, managing
weeds in bushland, the geophyte weeds, the other herbaceous weeds and with Kris Brooks, the mapping
guidelines. Kris Brooks wrote the grasses, the woody weeds and the herbicides in bushland chapters. The maps
were compiled by Kris Brooks and Kate Brown.
Richard Groves, John Moore, Margo OByrne and Rod Randall provided valuable comments on various drafts, Bob
Dixon on the woody weeds chapter and Bronwen Keighery the managing weeds in bushland chapter. Their
comments greatly improved the final manuscript. Neil Gibson, Richard Groves and Janice Marshall proof read and
provided comments on the final document.
Throughout the project Greg Keighery, Bob Dixon, John Moore and John Peirce have generously shared their
knowledge of bushland weeds with us. They also provided much of the information in the weed management tables.
Community volunteers and Friends groups carried out much of the weed management work that forms the basis of
case studies outlined in the manual. They also helped us map weeds, set up trials and collect data. We would like to
thank The Friends of Shenton Bushland, in particular Janice Marshall and Dani Boase-Jelinek, Friends of Blue Gum
Lake especially Marian Watson, Friends of Brixton Street Wetlands particularly Regina Drummond, Trevor
Drummond, Nick Buters and Elizabeth Buters, Friends of Gingin Brook in particular Richard Diggins and Pauline
Diggins, and Friends of Talbot Road Reserve, especially Mark Gloyn and Helen Gardiner.
John Carter and Robyn Phillimore from Department of Conservation and Land Management, Grant McKinnon from
the City of Swan, Wayne van Lieven from the City of Gosnells, Graznya Packowskya from the City of Melville and
Steve McCabe from the City of Nedlands all went out of their way to provide invaluable on-ground support at
bushlands under their management.
The project was largely funded through a Natural Heritage Trust Grant, with the Lotteries Commission and the CRC
for Weed Management also contributing.
Kate Brown and Kris Brooks
September 2002.
All illustrations are by Libby Sandiford and all photographs by Kate Brown, unless otherwise noted.

The Environmental Weeds Action Network (EWAN) is a community group formed in 1996 to:

Promote understanding of the threat of environmental weeds to bushland.

Provide information about weed control in native vegetation.

Convince governments at all levels of the need for appropriate legislation and funding for weed control.

Encourage research into methods of weed control.

Encourage community participation.

ii

Contents

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................iv
Chapter 1. The Project......................................................................................................................................................1
Funding and administration ..................................................................................................................................................1
The sites ..................................................................................................................................................................................1
Chapter 2. Managing Weeds in Bushland: Some General Principles............................................................................5
Gathering area - specific information ..................................................................................................................................5
Regional information..............................................................................................................................................................6
Developing a weed management program..........................................................................................................................6
Implementation taking an integrated approach..............................................................................................................6
Chapter 3. Grass Weeds....................................................................................................................................................9
Impacts ....................................................................................................................................................................................9
Biology why are grasses successful weeds?..................................................................................................................11
Management and Control ....................................................................................................................................................14
Monitoring and follow-up ....................................................................................................................................................18
Case Studies ..........................................................................................................................................................................19
Weed management table grasses ....................................................................................................................................28
Chapter 4. Corms, Bulbs and Tubers: The Weeds that Die Back to Fleshy Underground Storage Organs ............32
The underground storage organs; life-cycles and reproduction....................................................................................33
Management and Control ....................................................................................................................................................39
Key points..............................................................................................................................................................................42
Case studies ..........................................................................................................................................................................44
Weed management table corms bulbs and tubers ......................................................................................................52
Chapter 5. Broadleaf Herbs, Sedges and Succulents ..................................................................................................56
Annual herbs ........................................................................................................................................................................56
Perennial herbs ....................................................................................................................................................................59
Case studies ..........................................................................................................................................................................60
Weed management table annual broadleaf herbs ........................................................................................................66
Weed management table perennial broadleaf herbs ....................................................................................................70
Chapter 6. Trees, Shrubs and Climbers: The Woody Weeds ......................................................................................74
Impacts ..................................................................................................................................................................................75
Mechanisms of spread ........................................................................................................................................................75
Resprouting, suckering and apical control ......................................................................................................................75
Management and Control ....................................................................................................................................................76
Case studies ..........................................................................................................................................................................84
Weed management table trees, shrubs and climbers ..................................................................................................86
Chapter 7. Weed Mapping in Remnant Bushland ........................................................................................................90
Equipment required ............................................................................................................................................................90
What weeds to map? ............................................................................................................................................................90
Mapping in practice ............................................................................................................................................................91
Using weed maps..................................................................................................................................................................91
In conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................................93
Chapter 8. Herbicide Use in Bushland ..........................................................................................................................94
Using herbicides in bushland ............................................................................................................................................94
Duty of care ..........................................................................................................................................................................94
Personal care ........................................................................................................................................................................94
Training ..................................................................................................................................................................................95
Legislation ............................................................................................................................................................................96
Bushland care ......................................................................................................................................................................96
Using contractors ................................................................................................................................................................97
Some herbicides used in bushland ....................................................................................................................................97
Final note ......................................................................................................................................................................100
Appendix 1: Herbicide spraying contract ..................................................................................................................101
References ....................................................................................................................................................................102

iii

Introduction

The Banksia, Tuart and Jarrah woodlands, the

shrublands and the species-rich heathlands of the Swan
Coastal Plain and Darling Plateau are wonderful places.
They contribute to Perths unique natural landscapes,
provide a window into the natural world, habitat for
native fauna and support an extraordinarily diverse
flora. They are fast disappearing though, mostly under
urban development. Those bushlands that remain face
a range of threats; one of the most serious is invasion
by environmental weeds.
The concept of environmental weeds is still relatively
new. Although the weediness of plants like Bridal
Creeper and Watsonia have become entrenched in the
public psyche, there is some way to go before the wider
community accepts the extent of the problem. For
example, Harlequin Flower (Sparaxis bulbifera) threatens
one of the last remaining clay-based wetlands on the
eastern side of the coastal plain and yet the species was
available this year from a fundraising catalogue in at
least one local primary school. Still, it is evident that
many people do recognise the threats. Increasingly,
community volunteers and state and local governments
are involved in on-ground actions to protect bushland
from the impacts of environmental weeds.
With few resources available, maximising the positive
outcomes of these professional and voluntary efforts is
critical. For those working on the ground, information
on identification and control is available from a number
of good books: Managing Perths Bushlands (Scheltema
and Harris 1995), Southern Weeds and their control
(Moore and Wheeler 2002), Bush Invaders of South-East
Australia (Muyt 2001), Western Weeds. A guide to the
weeds of Western Australia (Hussey et al. 1997) and
Environmental weeds: a field guide for SE Australia
(Blood 2001). Importantly, this kind of information
needs to be taken and applied in the context of
particular bushland areas. There are no simple
formulas and effective management begins with an
understanding and a knowledge of each site.
It was with this in mind that, in 1998, the Environmental
Weeds Action Network (EWAN), with funding from the
Natural Heritage Trust, employed a project officer to
work with community volunteers and local and state
government land managers at bushland sites across
Perths Swan Coastal Plain. The underlying objective
was to help the various land managers to develop
strategies for effective weed management in their
bushlands. This manual has grown out of that project.
The aim of the manual is firstly to bring together
information on the biology and known control methods
for the serious weeds of bushlands of the Swan Coastal
Plain and Jarrah Forest. Secondly, it is to illustrate,
with examples and case studies, how this sort of
information can be used to manage weeds in the
context of particular sites. Hopefully this will provide
the reader with the basic knowledge and the
framework needed to begin effectively managing the
weeds in their own bushlands.

iv

Chapter one provides descriptions of bushlands from

where the case studies and examples throughout the
text are drawn. Chapter two covers some general
principles that should guide weed management in
bushland, including the kind of area-specific information
required before setting weed management priorities.
The next four chapters each cover a different group or
lifeform of weeds. The first three groups are all herbs
green non-woody plants: Chapter three covers the
grasses, chapter four herbs that die back to corms,
bulbs or tubers over summer (geophytes) and chapter
five broadleaf herbs, sedges and succulents. The final
group, chapter six, includes all the woody plants and a
few climbers that are technically herbs, but have
control strategies in common with woody climbers.
Individual chapters look at the general biology of each
weed group and how it relates to dispersal, spread,
control and management. Case studies examine control
of certain species at particular sites and discuss the
management approach taken. They often describe the
set-up of trials and monitoring programs. Each weed
group has a corresponding table containing a summary
of information, gathered from a wide range of sources,
on the biology and control of weeds occurring in
bushland of the Swan Coastal Plain and Jarrah Forest.
The list is based on A Checklist of the naturalised
vascular plants of Western Australia (Keighery 1999a)
and includes species that can have an impact on
biodiversity and hamper restoration and regeneration
efforts. Finally there are chapters on how to map weed
populations in urban bushland, an integral part of weed
management and on the issues arising from the use of
herbicides in bushland.
Ideally, this manual will impart enough information for
the reader to devise a strategy for management of their
serious bushland weeds. At the same time the authors
want to highlight the complexities involved in working
in Perths bushlands; diverse and wonderful places to
get to know and understand. The following chapter
provides detailed descriptions of some of those
bushlands along with the serious weeds that threaten
them and the people who are managing them.

Chapter 1

Over four years, project officers have been involved in

work at a series of bushlands across the Swan Coastal
Plain and one in Western Australian Wheatbelt. The
major task over that time has been to work on site with
those involved in weed management and bush
regeneration, providing both on-ground and technical
support. The idea was to select a series of sites that
were representative of bushlands on a range of soils and
land forms across the coastal plain, had regionally
significant conservation values and were managed by
people actively involved in on-ground works.
The underlying objective has been to work with the
bushland managers, whoever they were, to help them
protect their bushland through carefully targeted and
strategic weed management. Initially work involved
identifying those weeds that were the greatest threats
to the conservation values of each site, then mapping
their distribution across the bushland. The greatest
efforts have been directed to consistent management of
these locally serious weeds, taking an integrated
approach, addressing the causes of invasion and
implementing a range of control strategies. Often trials
had to be carried out to determine practical and
effective methods. Project officers regularly worked
alongside Friends groups, council bushland workers,
and others who carried out on-ground works.
Sometimes they facilitated the employment of
contractors and often worked alongside them,
supervising and guiding their work. At all sites
monitoring was put in place to measure the
effectiveness of control programs and the regeneration
of native plant communities over time. For most
bushlands, field herbaria of all weeds and some native
species commonly mistaken for weeds were compiled.

Funding and administration

The project was funded through the Natural Heritage
Trust and managed and administered by a voluntary
steering committee made up of members of the
Environmental Weeds Action Network (EWAN): Bob
Dixon from Kings Park and Botanic Garden, Gary
Matthews community volunteer and EWAN treasurer,
Margo OByrne from the Department of Environmental
Protection and Rod Randall from the Western
Australian Department of Agriculture.

The Project

often colonised by annual herbs such as Slender

Podolepis (Podolepis gracilis) and after fire the annual
grass, Austrostipa compressa is noticeable, flowering
and seeding prolifically. Commonly occurring shrubs
include Hairy Yellow Pea (Gompholobium tomentosum),
Daviesia nudiflora and Grass Tree (Xanthorrhoea
preissii). Around 120 species of natives (Marshall
unpubl.) and 65 species of weeds (Brown and Brooks
unpubl.) have been recorded. Approximately 50 % of
the bushland is in good to excellent condition. The
remainder varies from good to degraded with areas of
severe localised disturbance (Ecoscape 1994,
Government of Western Australia 2000).
Weeds that threaten the undisturbed bushland include
a number of South African geophytes (plants that die
back to bulbs, corms or tubers each year), including
Yellow Soldier (Lachenalia reflexa), Freesia (Freesia alba
x leichtlinii), Watsonia (Watsonia meriana) and Black
Flag (Ferraria crispa). The perennial herbs Geraldton
Carnation Weed (Euphorbia terracina) and Rose
Pelargonium (Pelargonium capitatum) are serious
invaders and many weedy annuals are common,
particularly in the highly disturbed areas. These
include Flat Weed (Hypochaeris glabra), Ursinia (Ursinia
anthemoides), French Catchfly (Silene gallica), and
Slender Suckling Clover (Trifolium dubium). Perennial
Veldgrass (Ehrharta calycina) is one of the most serious
invaders of the bushland often establishing in
previously intact areas following fire.
For the last nine years on-ground management of
Shenton Bushland has been carried out by The Friends
of Shenton Bushland (Inc.), a community group formed
after the bushland was saved from development in 1993.
In 2000, following lobbying from community groups, a
bushcare officer was employed to carry out on-ground
management of bushlands within the City of Nedlands,
including Shenton Bushland. In the past, much of the
funding has come from government grants to the
Friends. In recent times, however, the City of Nedlands
has started to fund the continuation of works programs
initiated through grant money. The Friends have a high
level of input into management through organisation of
works programs and supervision of contractors who do
much of the weed management work.

The sites
Shenton Bushland
Shenton Bushland, a 21 hectare remnant of Banksia
(Banksia menziesii, B. attenuata), Jarrah (Eucalyptus
marginata) woodlands lies on Spearwood dunes
approximately eight kilometres west of the centre of
Perth. With only 18 % of the vegetation complex
remaining uncleared the bushland is considered
regionally significant (Government of Western Australia
2000). These species-rich woodlands occur on pale
yellow to grey calcareous sands derived from Tamala
limestone. Rich in perennial herbs, Milkmaids
(Burchardia congesta), Vanilla Lily (Sowerbaea laxiflora),
Leafy Sundew (Drosera stolonifera), Yellow Autumn Lily
(Tricoryne elatior) and the sedge Mesomelaena
pseudostygia are common. The open sandy patches are

Friends of Shenton Bushland and volunteers hand-weeding Yellow

Soldier in the Banksia woodland.

Chapter 1

The Project

Blue Gum Lake Reserve

Blue Gum Lake is part of a chain of wetlands that lie on
the interface of the Bassendean and Spearwood dune
systems. Flooded Gum (Eucalyptus rudis) Swamp
Banksia (Banksia littoralis) woodlands fringe the lake
while Banksia attenuata, B. menziesii and B. ilicifolia
woodlands occupy the drier uplands. Common in the
understorey of the woodlands around the lake are
Centella asiatica and Pale Rush (Juncus pallidus). The
drier Banksia woodlands of the uplands are very
species-rich, particularly in perennial herbs and
shrubs. Phlebocarya ciliata, Prickly Conostylis
(Conostylis aculeata) and Purple Flag (Patersonia
occidentalis) are among the commonly occurring herbs
and typical shrubs include Devils Pins (Hovea
pungens), Rose Banjine (Pimelea rosea) and Pineapple
Bush (Dasypogon bromeliifolius). The perennial native
grass Microlaena stipoides occurs occasionally in the
bushland and after fire the annual grass, Austrostipa
compressa, is very common. Around 62 species of
natives (City of Melville 1992) and 80 species of weeds
(Brown and Brooks unpubl. data) have been recorded.
Weed invasion is a major threat with around 40 % of
the bushland suffering from severe disturbance.
Serious weeds of the drier Banksia woodlands include
Perennial Veldgrass and South African geophytes such
as Freesia, Yellow Soldier and Black Flag. The Sydney
Golden Wattle (Acacia longifolia) is a major weed of the
fringing vegetation, as is Vasey Grass (Paspalum
urvillei) and Kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum). One of
the serious weed problems at the reserve has arisen
from plantings of non-local species around and through
the bushland. Many, including Sydney Golden Wattle,
Melaleuca lineariifolia, River Red Gum (Eucalyptus
camaldulensis) and Geraldton Wax (Chamelaucium
uncinatum) have become naturalised in the bushland.
Additional to this threat is the planting of species that
occur naturally in the bushland but have been grown
from seed collected a long way from the reserve. The
early flowering shrub-form of Banksia menziesii, from
the sand plains 200km to the north of Perth, has been

Vegetation Profile of the Brixton Street Wetlands

(Illustration by Margaret Pieroni: from Keighery et al. 1996)

planted in the reserve. It makes a disturbing contrast

to the later flowering form, a beautiful woodland tree
that grows naturally around Blue Gum Lake. These
plantings threaten the nature conservation values of
the bushland as much as any South African invader.
The Friends of Blue Gum Lake have played a major role
in managing the bushland for many years. They are not
an incorporated group and, accordingly, acquiring
government grants is difficult. The little funding that is
available for weed management work comes from the
City of Melville. The City has two staff dedicated to onground bushland management activities. Their work is
spread across the Citys many reserves. For herbicide
spraying the City is often obliged to use preferred
contractors.

Brixton Street Wetlands

The Brixton Street Wetlands lie 20 kilometres south east
of Perth at the foot of the Darling Scarp. A small remnant
(19 hectares) on the winter-wet flats of Guildford
formation clays, the wetlands support many rare and
restricted plant species as well as threatened plant
communities. They also support an exceedingly diverse
flora of 307 native taxa (Keighery and Keighery 1995).
Most of the wetland soils are waterlogged through the
winter months and deep pools form in clay
depressions. When the pools are full they support a
number of native aquatic plants but as water levels
start to drop a series of annual and perennial herbs
grow and flower. In late winter Flannel Flowers
(Tribonanthes species), Blue Squill (Chamaescilla
species) and Early Nancy (Wurmbea dioica) are
flowering and by late spring Swamp Wallaby Grass
(Amphibromus nervosus) is in abundance. By early
summer the pools are dry and the claypans covered in
Sundews (Drosera species) and Trigger Plants
(Stylidium species). Slightly higher in the landscape, the
flats surrounding the claypans also support a diverse
range of native herbs, sedges and rushes. Shrubs,
including Swish Bush (Viminaria juncea) and Feather
Flowers (Verticordia species), are also common. On the
sandy rises, Marri (Eucalyptus calophylla) woodlands
occur and in spring, Red and Green Kangaroo Paw
(Anigozanthos manglesii) flower throughout their
understorey. With this kind of habitat almost entirely
cleared on the Swan Coastal Plain the area is of
outstanding conservation value. Although more than 75
% is relatively undisturbed there are areas of severe
localised disturbance. Weed invasion is one of the most
serious threats with 85 species recorded (Keighery and
Keighery 1995, Brown and Brooks unpubl.).

Chapter 1

The most serious threats to plant communities across

the wetlands are South African geophytes. Harlequin
Flower (Sparaxis bulbifera) in particular is present on
the edges of the claypans, throughout the wet flats and
up into the Marri woodlands. It produces vast amounts
of viable seed that germinate each year. Other South
African geophytes that threaten the wetland flora
include Watsonia species, One Leaf Cape Tulip (Moraea
flaccida), Babiana (Babiana angustifolia), Wavy Gladiolus
(Gladiolus undulatus) and Freesia. The South African
grass Tribolium uniolae is a relatively recent invader but
frequent fire in wetlands appears to be facilitating its
movement into otherwise undisturbed areas. Annual
weeds are prolific around the disturbed edges. The
annual sedge Isolepis hystrix is a particularly serious
weed forming dense mats in low-lying wetter areas.
Most of the on-ground management at Brixton Street is
carried out by the Friends of Brixton Street Wetlands; a
community group formed to save the wetlands from
housing development in the early 1990s. The land is still
vested in the state housing authority, Homeswest, and
has been due to transfer to the Department of
Conservation and Land Management (DCLM) for the last
nine years. Management guidelines for the wetlands
have been produced by the Wildflower Society of
Western Australia (Inc.) with financial assistance from a
Community Conservation grant (Keighery and Keighery
1995). DCLM plays some role in management as the area
supports rare flora and threatened plant communities. A
management group with representatives from the
Friends, the Wildflower Society, DCLM, and the City of
Gosnells meets on an irregular basis.

The Project

them rare or restricted, occur across the bushland. It is

the most significant area of Ridgehill Shelf vegetation
remaining and the floristic communities are considered
critically endangered (Keighery and Keighery 1993,
Government of Western Australia 2000). Around 90 % of
the bushland is in good to excellent condition but there
are areas of severe localised disturbance - around drains,
paths and a gravel pit. Around 55 species of weeds occur
in the bushland (Brown and Brooks unpubl.).
The most widespread serious weed in the Talbot Road
Bushland is the South African geophyte Hesperantha
falcata. It occurs along path edges throughout the
reserve, moving into undisturbed bushland on the
heavier soils. Other South African geophytes are still
quite localised in their distribution. These include
Freesia, Babiana and Watsonia species. South African
grasses are the other group of serious weeds with
Perennial Veldgrass widespread on the sandier soils
and African Lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula) occurring
across disturbed areas of the bushland.
Talbot Road is vested in the City of Swan and managed
by a committee made up of representatives from the
Friends of Talbot Road, the Department of Environmental
Protection, DCLM and the City of Swan. Much of the onground management is carried out by the Friends with
DCLM and the City of Swan playing a significant role. A
Natural Heritage Trust grant to the management group to
implement a management plan (Environs Consulting
1999) has provided consistent funding for weed
management work over the last three years.

Funding for weed management and bush regeneration

work in recent years has come from the Perth Branch of
the Wildflower Society, DCLM and the City of Gosnells.

Green Corps team hand-removing isolated plants of Perennial

Veldgrass from along paths in Talbot Road Bushland.

Gingin Brook

Elizabeth Buters, Friends of Brixton Street Wetlands.

Talbot Road Bushland

Talbot Road Bushland, a 95 hectare remnant, lies at the
foot of Darling Scarp on the soils of the Ridgehill Shelf.
Marri, Jarrah and Wandoo (Eucalyptus wandoo)
woodlands occur on the heavier soils and Banksia
woodlands and shrublands on the sandier soils. The
woodlands support an exceedingly diverse understorey
of shrubs, herbs and sedges. Around 366 taxa, many of

The Gingin Brook, 150 kilometres north of Perth, is fed

by perennial springs arising from the hills north east of
the Gingin townsite. One of the last remaining patches
of fringing vegetation left along the brook where it
crosses the heavier soils at the base of the Dandaragan
Plateau is located in the townsite. For two kilometres
along the brook, Flooded Gum and Swamp Paperbark
(Melaleuca rhaphiophylla) form a dense canopy over an
understorey of native herbs, rushes, sedges and ferns.
The herbs, Centella asiatica, Persicaria salicifolia and
Cotula coronopifolia form ground cover in the wetter
areas while Tassel Sedge (Carex fasciculata), Tall Sedge
(Carex appressa) and the fern, Cyclosorus interruptus,
dominate the understorey.

Chapter 1

The Project

Both Arum Lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica) and Taro

(Colocasia esculenta) form dense monocultures in
different parts of the fringing vegetation. Two exotic
pasture grasses, Para Grass (Urochloa mutica) and
Reed Sweet Grass (Glyceria maxima) have also become
naturalised, smothering all native vegetation where
they invade. In places woody weeds such as Edible Fig
(Ficus carica) and Brazilian Pepper (Schinus
terebinthifolius) are displacing the native Paperbarks
and Flooded Gums.
The Friends of Gingin Brook, working closely with the
Shire of Gingin, have been responsible for all
restoration works carried out. In 1998 with support
from the shire, they received a grant from the Natural
Heritage Trust to restore the fringing vegetation in the
town site. They have carried out much of the onground works themselves, sometimes employing
contractors to assist them with weed management.
Green Corps teams have made a major contribution to
the labour force over the life of the project.

The vegetation across the reserve is mostly in

excellent condition with only a few serious weeds
present. Around an old settlement, in the Wandoo
woodland, there are a few isolated populations of
Freesia, and One Leaf Cape Tulip is starting to move
down creek lines. In other parts of the reserve a range
of annual weeds occur around old carcass dumps,
rabbit warrens, areas of nutrient run-off from adjoining
farmland and along tracks. Wild Oat (Avena barbata)
and Blowfly Grass (Briza maxima) are the most
widespread weeds across the reserve and can be found
on the more fertile soils of the York Gum Jam
woodlands, invading the understorey and displacing
the rich annual flora.
The Quairading Shire has had a temporary vesting of
the reserve for the last five years (1998-2002). There is
a reserve management committee with representation
from the Shire, the Quairading District High School, the
Land Care District Committee, Rotary, Rural Youth, the
Golf Club and the Tidy Town Committee. There are few
on-ground resources allocated to weed management or
bushland restoration. The work carried out in the
reserve was in conjunction with local farmers, local
Landcare Coordinators and the District High School. A
workshop was held in the reserve in August 2000
involving EWAN, the Wildflower Society, the local
Quairading community, DCLM and the local shire. The
aim was to foster interest in bushland restoration and
weed management issues.

Pauline Diggins, Friends of Gingin Brook.

Quairading Nature Reserve

The Quairading Nature Reserve is a 527 hectare crown
reserve, located 164 kilometres east of Perth in the
Western Australian Wheatbelt. The diverse landscape
and soils of the reserve support a range of woodlands
and shrublands. Salmon Gum (Eucalyptus
salmonophloia) and Wandoo woodlands cover the
valley floors, Acorn Banksia (Banksia prionotes) and
Sand Plain Woody Pear (Xylomelum angustifolium)
woodlands cover the deep yellow sands while a series
of shrublands occur on sands and gravel soils
(Keighery et al. 2001). Project work at Quairading was
based in the York Gum (Eucalyptus loxophleba) Jam
(Acacia acuminata) woodlands that occur on the fertile
brown loams associated with the granites. These
woodlands support a rich annual flora. Through spring
Pink Sunray (Rhodanthe manglesii), Pink Everlasting
(Lawrencella rosea) and Golden Waitzia (Waitzia nitida)
carpet the ground. Later in the season Orange
Immortelle (Waitzia acuminata var. acuminata) and
flowering perennial grasses such as Aristida contorta
and Austrostipa species are noticeable. Shrubs are
uncommon in the understorey.

Participants in a workshop held in the reserve, August 2000.

The work carried out in these bushlands over the last

four years forms the basis for much of the information
and for most of the case studies. The descriptions
highlight how diverse and complex the bushlands
around Perth and south west Western Australia can be.
Managing them for nature conservation means getting
to know individual sites. There are, however, some
universal principles and a general approach that can
underpin effective management of environmental
weeds where they are invading these areas. The
following chapter discusses some of those principles
and provides an outline of the kind of approach that
can be taken when starting out on a bushland
restoration/weed management project. Importantly, the
kind of area-specific information that is vital to
knowing and understanding individual bushlands is
also listed.

Chapter 2

M a n a g i n g We e d s
in Bushland

Some General Principles

Weed management in bushland is concerned with much
more than simply the elimination of weeds. The
underlying objective is always the protection and
restoration of diverse natural ecosystems.
South west Western Australia supports one of the
most diverse floras in the world, occurring in intricate
patterns across a variety of landscapes and soils. For
the southern Swan Coastal Plain alone, 1700 native
taxa (species, subspecies and varieties) have been
recorded occurring in at least 30 different plant
communities (Gibson et al. 1994, Keighery 1999b).
Along a 30 m long and 1 m wide transect through a
population of Harlequin Flower (Sparaxis bulbifera)
invading herblands in the Brixton St Wetlands, up to
28 native taxa and 8 introduced taxa may be found.
Bushland weed management in the region is often
about working in complex natural systems with a long
history of varying disturbances. There is a need to
recognise that effective weed management among
such diversity begins with knowing and understanding
each site; the distribution of the native plants and the
native plant communities, the patterns of disturbance
and the distribution of weeds. In particular it is
important to recognise the locally serious weeds. Only
then can weed control and management be strategic
carefully targeted, and tailored to site conditions and
available resources.

Gathering area-specific information

Note: The information listed below is often compiled when bushland
areas are being identified for retention or as part of a management
plan. When such information is not available it should be compiled as
part of the management program.

Vegetation maps
Vegetation maps of particular bushland areas provide
information on the structure and patterns of native
flora across different landscapes and soils (see
vegetation map of Quairading Nature Reserve, Box 3.2).
When carrying out bushland restoration, vegetation
maps, accompanied by a flora list, provide a vital
reference and an important guide to where in the
landscape particular native species occur and the soils
on which they generally grow.

Flora list
A flora list aims to record all taxa known to occur at a
particular site. A comprehensive flora list is a vital
reference for ensuring species not known to occur
naturally at a particular site are never introduced as a
part of bushland restoration either through planting
or direct seeding.

seeding case study 5.1). Flora lists should also include

weeds it is important to know all flora and to be able
to recognise new weeds as soon as they arrive at a site.
Lists will change over time. When our work began at
Shenton Bushland 40 species of weeds were recorded.
After three years of working and getting to know the
site, 25 additional weed species had been identified.

Vegetation condition maps

Impacts of disturbances across a bushland can be
recorded in vegetation condition maps. Fire intensity
and frequency, weed invasion, soil disturbance, disease,
rubbish dumping and past vegetation clearances
interact to impact on the species composition, cover
and structure of native vegetation. Vegetation condition
maps aim to reflect the degree of those impacts.
Combined with maps of the distribution of individual
weed species, they are useful tools for carefully
targeting weed control work to protect relatively
undisturbed bushland (Box 2.1). Mapping of vegetation
condition requires knowledge of native flora as well as
familiarity and understanding of the nature of a
particular undisturbed plant community (see Box 7.1 for
details on criteria used to map vegetation condition).

Weed maps
Maps that provide a clear understanding of where the
serious weeds occur across a bushland site are basic
planning tools. They allow for careful targeting of
limited resources and provide the information required
for strategic weed management. They can provide
useful information on the spread of weed populations
over time and also provide basic information on the
effectiveness of control programs. Not all the weeds in
the bushland need to be mapped only those that have
a serious impact. See Chapter 7 for how to create and
use weed maps and for some of the criteria that can be
used to determine the serious weeds at a particular
site.

Fauna information
Information on the areas fauna is also useful.
Sometimes weeds can provide habitat or an
opportunistic food source for native animals. A list of
the known fauna in a bushland can help determine this
at a particular site. Gradual removal of such weeds over
time may be required while animals find alternative
habitat or food sources. For example, dense stands of
Watsonia can provide important habitat for Bandicoots
in the Perth area.

In addition, flora lists will often indicate the plant

communities and associated soils and landforms where
particular species can be found growing. At Brixton
Street Wetlands for example, such a flora list provided a
guide for appropriate selection of species for direct
seeding trials located along a degraded edge of herbrich shrublands on damp, heavy clay soils (see direct

Chapter 2

M a n a g i n g We e d s i n B u s h l a n d

Regional information
Australia is divided up into a series of natural regions.
The Swan Coastal Plain and the Wheatbelt are two
such regions within Western Australia from where case
studies in the text have been drawn. An understanding
of a bushlands natural values in relation to others in
the region provides information on the areas
significance. For example, a bushland may be
representative of the more common or rare plant
communities in the region. It is important to note that
the rarest communities (Threatened Ecological
Communities) and flora (Declared Rare Flora DRF),
are protected by laws, either at the state (DRF) or the
federal (communities) level. Bush Forever, Volume 2
Directory of Bush Forever Sites (Government of
Western Australia 2000) catalogues information on
regionally significant bushland on the Swan Coastal
Plain. It provides details on the area of the bushland
type that remains uncleared in the region, how much is
in conservation reserves, the quality and condition of
those bushlands, and where similar bushland can be
found. This type of information is important in
providing a focus for weed management work, and in
gaining an understanding of bushland values that
require protection (Keighery et al. 1998).
Note: Bushland restoration carried out where rare flora occurs
requires a permit from the Department of Conservation and Land
Management (DCLM).

Developing a weed
management program
Resources for bushland restoration work are generally
limited. It is critical that these resources are carefully
targeted through strategies that prioritise management
actions, based on a knowledge of the bushland area
and the weeds that are impacting on it. Central to
these strategies are a series of principles that are
fundamental to successful weed management. Many of
the case studies throughout this manual demonstrate
the application of these principles:

Contain the spread of serious weeds and protect

intact bushland. Consider the impacts of serious
weeds on rare flora and rare plant communities.

Prevent new weed species establishing.

Consider restoration of degraded edges. Usually

this is of lower priority than protection of good
areas. Often though, degraded edges harbour
serious weeds, providing a source of propagules
that continually disperse into intact areas.

Implementation taking an
integrated approach
Prevent new weeds from establishing

Clean tools, boots, equipment and machinery

between jobs to reduce risk of spread
between sites.

Practise soil hygiene.

Check paving materials before bringing on to a

site, particularly limestone, for weed seed and
only acquire from accredited clean sources. Black
Flag (Ferraria crispa), Geraldton Carnation Weed
(Euphorbia terracina) and Pretty Betsy
(Centranthus rubra) to name a few have been
introduced to various bushland sites around Perth
in paving materials.

Avoid bringing soil or mulch from elsewhere into

bushland.

Know the plants of your bushland (native and

introduced) and immediately remove infestations
of any new weeds. This is important at individual
sites but also at a regional and state level.

See case study 5.2 on Holly-leafed Senecio

(Senecio glastifolius) a recent invader to south west
Western Australia.

Limit the spread of established weeds

Target small populations in good bush and the

outliers of dense infestations - use the maps
(Box 2.1).

Keep soil disturbance to a minimum. Disturbance

favours the establishment of many weeds. It brings
buried weed seed to the surface thereby releasing
dormancy, and creates favourable conditions for
the germination of wind dispersed weed seed.

Avoid working in areas where weeds are actively

shedding seed.

Post-fire conditions (space, light and high nutrient

availability) often favour establishment of weeds.
Weed control in the season immediately following
fire will prevent seed set in established weeds and
reduce germinating weed seedlings. It will limit the
inevitable spread of many serious bushland weeds
through the post-fire landscape.

See Box 4.2 on fire and cormous and bulbous weeds,

Box 5.1 on the weeds that move in with soil
disturbance, and Box 3.5 on limiting the spread of
Perennial Veldgrass following fire.

Chapter 2

M a n a g i n g We e d s i n B u s h l a n d

Box 2.1 Strategy for the management of Yellow Soldier (Lachenalia reflexa) invading a
Banksia woodland at Shenton Bushland.
This strategy is simply an illustration of how some of the information covered in this chapter can be
used to help set priorities and develop an effective works program.
Biology
Yellow Soldier flowers in winter and early spring, dying back to a bulb over summer. It sets prolific amounts of
viable seed (around 40 seed per flower) and up to 1700 bulbs can occur in four square metres. Seed appears to
remain viable in the soil for only a couple of years and may be dispersed by water. Plants are not killed by
summer fire, but flower well and are highly visible in the post-fire landscape. In addition high numbers of
seedlings have been observed establishing on bare ground left following fire.
Suggested Control Methods
For isolated plants in sandy soils use a knife to cut the roots and pull out with bulb in July to early August. Trials
have shown metsulfuron methyl at
2.5-5 g/ha, applied just before
flowering, in late July, provides
effective control with little impact
on co-occurring native species.
Carefully spot spray.
Recommended strategy for the
effective management of Yellow
Soldier and regeneration of the
Banksia woodland it is invading
Hand-removal of entire populations
is time consuming (up to six hours
for four square metres) and soil
disturbance results in germination
of annual weeds. Specifically
targeted herbicide treatment is
recommended for dense
infestations and hand-weeding for
isolated plants.
The populations on the eastern
side of the reserve and at the
southern end of the reserve are
both relatively small, occurring in
very good to excellent condition
bushland and should both be high
priority for eradication.
The larger population of
Yellow Soldier on the western side
of the bushland is spreading
through a more degraded area and
is not as high a priority if resources
are limited.
Following fire, resources should be
allocated for control. At this time
plants are an easy target for
herbicide control and prevention
of flowering and seed set will
limit establishment in the
post-fire landscape.
Allow indigenous species to
recolonise the treated sites
unassisted (Yellow Soldier
co-occurs with up to 25 native
species in a 2 m x 2 m plot).

Figure 1. The distribution of Yellow Soldier

Shenton Bushland.

and vegetation condition across

Bushland condition
very good - excellent

fair - good

poor

very poor

Chapter 2

M a n a g i n g We e d s i n B u s h l a n d

Understand the biology of a particular weed

species focus on how the weed reproduces
and spreads

When is it actively growing?

When is it flowering and seeding?

How long do seed or other propagules remain

viable in the soil?

How does it respond to fire?

What are the vulnerable times in the life-cycle?

Is there a preferred time for physical control?

What is the preferred time for chemical control?

See case study 3.2 on learning about the biology of

Tribolium, case study 3.4 on timing Perennial Veldgrass
control, Box 4.4 on corm exhaustion and herbicide
application and case study 6.2 on timing Fig removal.

Consider all the control options

Consider the impact of control options on

co-occurring native flora including trees, shrubs,
geophytes, grasses, and other native herbs and
on fauna.

Physical, chemical and biological methods are all

useful in managing bushland weeds.

A combination of techniques is required for

practical and effective long-term outcomes.

It is important to adapt control methods to

site-specific conditions and available resources.

See case studies 4.4 on methods used to control

Harlequin Flower (Sparaxis bulbifera) and 4.3 on
control of Taro (Colocasia esculenta).

Assist natural regeneration

Assist natural regeneration through carefully

targeted weed removal.

Stimulate germination of the native soil seedbank

with smoke products or, where the native
seedbank is depleted, consider direct seeding.
Always use locally collected seed.

Management practice that favours the

regeneration of native plants increases
competition against weeds.

See case study 5.1 on direct seeding and Box 5.3 on

assisting natural regeneration.

Keep a record of works programs over time

Keeping a record of works programs over time is an
important component of bushland restoration. A
logbook should record date, time and type of works
carried out including details of methods used, hours
worked, and site conditions.

Monitor the outcomes of weed

management work
Detailed monitoring of weed populations provides a
quantitative record of the effectiveness of
management programs, measures the impact of the
control programs on native plants and the
regeneration of the native plant community over time.
The feedback provided can be used to adapt future
management practices and to justify spending on
weed management works.
How you monitor will depend on the changes to be
detected, the scale and distribution of the infestation,
and the nature of the vegetation the weed/s are
invading. Setting up monitoring that is useful for
detecting detailed change over time is necessarily
complex. For a particularly useful reference see
Monitoring Plant and Animal Populations by Elzinga et
al. (2001). The Standard Operating Procedure for
Monitoring Weed Control by the Department of
Conservation, New Zealand (2000) is also a particularly
useful reference and is designed to provide a detailed
working framework for field officers.
Case studies in the tuberous, bulbous and cormous
weeds chapter and the grass weeds chapter illustrate
some of the methods used over the life of our project
to measure the effectiveness of weed management
work, impacts on associated native plants and in some
cases, regeneration of the native plant community.
See case studies 3.4 in the grass chapter and 4.1, 4.2,
and 4.3 in the bulbs chapter.
The following chapters illustrate how the information
outlined here underpins effective weed management in
bushland and is vital in providing a framework for the
protection of unique bushland values. The management
of grass weeds is covered first, in the next chapter.

Chapter 3

G r a s s We e d s

The grass weeds as a group, particularly the South

African perennial species, are a serious threat to
bushland around Perth. This chapter looks at grass
biology and the factors contributing to the invasion and
establishment of weed grasses, in particular fire and
canopy degradation. The influence of lifeform and
growth form on management decisions is highlighted
and the importance of growth stage on timing of
control programs discussed. Finally, a table with
information on the biology of individual species and
available control measures is presented.

(Pennisetum setaceum) and the coastal invaders,

Marram Grass (Ammophila arenaria) and Pyp Grass
(Ehrharta villosa). Horticulture has also been
responsible for the introduction of a number of serious
grass weeds, among them Pampas Grass (Cortaderia
selloana) which is still seen in Perth gardens. However,
it is important to identify unknown grass species and
not just assume that because it is a grass it is a weed
(Box 3.1).

In terms of number of individuals, biomass, area

covered and diversity of habitat, grasses are one of the
most successful plant families in the world (Gibbs
Russell et al. 1991, DAntonio et al. 2000). The
characteristics that have contributed to this success
have also enabled many grasses to become aggressive
invaders of natural ecosystems.

Introduced grasses are competitive in many native

ecosystems; they may displace the native understorey
and alter fire regimes (Humphries et al. 1991). The
impact a particular grass species has is partly
determined by the characteristics of the invaded site
(Box 3.2). In south western Australia the annual
grasses, Wild Oat (Avena barbata) and Blowfly Grass
(Briza maxima), threaten the herbaceous flora found
on the granitic soils of Wheatbelt reserves. Perennial
Veldgrass is highly invasive in the sandy, nutrient-poor
soils of the Swan Coastal Plain - soils commonly
occupied by Banksia woodland. Kikuyu, Water Couch
(Paspalum distichum) and Vasey Grass (Paspalum
urvillei) invade the more nutrient-rich wetlands and
Tambookie Grass tends to occur on the heavier soils
of the Darling Scarp. Grasses often colonise disturbed
edges or patches within bushland. This edge
colonisation allows the grass to take advantage of any
disturbance event within the bushland, establishing
rapidly after fire, clearing or soil disturbances.

Almost one third of the 709 grass species recorded in

Western Australia are exotic (Western Australian
Herbarium 1998). In south west Western Australia,
331perennial grasses were introduced and screened as
potential pasture species between 1943 and 1970 (Rogers
et al. 1979). Of these, 14 % are now naturalised in
Western Australia (Western Australian Herbarium 1998)
and many are now considered weeds of bushland of the
Swan Coastal Plain and Jarrah Forest (Keighery 1999a).
These include serious invasive grasses such as African
Lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula), Perennial Veldgrass
(Ehrharta calycina), Tambookie Grass (Hyparrhenia
hirta), Kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum), Fountain Grass

Impacts

Box 3.1 Native grasses of the Perth Region

Of the numerous native grasses occurring in Perths bushland, many are mistaken for weeds. Knotted Poa (Poa
drummondiana) is superficially similar to Winter Grass (Poa annua), while Kangaroo Grass (Themeda triandra)
is often mistaken for Tambookie Grass. Some native grasses simply look weedy to the untrained eye, including
Swamp Wallaby Grass (Amphibromus nervosus), Clustered Lovegrass (Eragrostis elongata) and Marine Couch
(Sporobolus virginicus).
Native grasses that occur in the Perth region include:
*Bold indicates that weedy species from the same genus that can be found in the Perth area.
Agropyron scabrum
Agrostis avenacea
Agrostis plebeia
Agrostis preissii
Amphibromus nervosus
Amphibromus vickeryae
Amphipogon avenaceus
Amphipogon amphipogonoides
Amphipogon debilis
Amphipogon laguroides
Amphipogon strictus var. hirsutus
Amphipogon strictus var. setifera
Amphipogon turbinatus
Aristida contorta
Aristida ramosa
Austrodanthonia acerosa
Austrodanthonia caespitosa

Austrodanthonia occidentalis
Austrodanthonia pilosa
Austrodanthonia racemosa
Austrodanthonia setacea
Austrostipa campylachne
Austrostipa compressa
Austrostipa elatior
Austrostipa elegantissima
Austrostipa flavescens
Austrostipa macalpinei
Austrostipa pycnostachya
Austrostipa semibarbata
Austrostipa tenuifolia
Austrostipa variabilis
Bromus arenarius
Deyeuxia quadriseta

Dichelachne crinita
Eragrostis elongata
Glyceria australis
Hemarthria uncinata
Microlaena stipoides
Neurachne alopecuroidea
Neurachne minor
Poa drummondiana
Poa poiformis
Poa porphyroclados
Polypogon tenellus
Spinifex hirsutus
Spinifex longifolius
Sporobolus virginicus
Tetrarrhena laevis
Themeda triandra

List from Keighery (1999b)

Chapter 3

G r a s s We e d s

Many grasses use the disturbance caused by bushfire

to get a foothold within bushland areas. In turn, grass
invasions increase fuel loads which indirectly impact on
the native ecosystem by changing fire frequency,
intensity, patchiness, size and timing (Humphries et al.
1991, Mack and DAntonio 1998). The introduction of
Buffel Grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) as a pasture species
throughout arid and semi-arid regions of Australia is
said to have drastically altered the fire regime. In areas
where the grass occurs, fuel loads are high and
continuous. Dry water courses which previously acted
as fire breaks are now bridged by fire and also act as

wicks, spreading the fire further (Humphries et al.

1991). More locally, Perennial Veldgrass, Lovegrass and
Fountain Grass are all fire adapted, resprouting
vigorously and seeding prolifically after bushfires
(Christensen and Abbott 1989, Walsh 1994, Milberg and
Lamont 1995, Benton 1997, Muyt 2001). Changes in the
fire regime can have long term impacts on the structure
and composition of the native communities (Williams
and Baruch 2000). Indeed, the change in fire regime
brought about by Buffel Grass invasion has converted
areas of the Sonoran Desert cactus forests of Central
America into grassland (Van Devender et al. 1997).

Box 3.2 Ecosystem susceptibility: Resource availability, soil structure and Wild Oat
In the Wheatbelt of Western Australia Wild Oat (Avena barbata) is often associated with York Gum
(Eucalyptus loxophleba) Jam (Acacia acuminata) woodlands. The soils of these woodlands are characterised
by high values of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. They are friable and lack a hard crust, making them
more susceptible to weed invasion (Hobbs and Atkins 1988, Arnold et al. 1998). The distribution of Wild Oat
and Blowfly Grass (Briza maxima) at Quairading Nature Reserve illustrates the association between the
woodlands and the two annual grass weeds (Figure 1).
The almost exclusive absence of Wild Oat and Blowfly
Grass from other plant communities in the reserve
may be attributed to a range of factors, poor nutrient
levels among them.
Heath and Tamar (Allocasuarina species)
communities form dense thickets, competing strongly
for resources and preventing the majority of light
from penetrating the low canopy.
Salmon Gum (Eucalyptus salmonophloia) woodlands
have an open understorey with large areas of bare
ground and only dappled shade. However, even on the
reserve edges, there is very little weed incursion. The
soils associated with these woodlands form a hard
crust, relatively impervious to seeds not adapted to
self-burial. Salmon Gums also have an extensive lateral
root system near the soil surface competing strongly
for available surface moisture and inhibiting
establishment of grass weed species (Yates et al. 2000).
Wandoo (Eucalyptus wandoo) woodlands are slightly
more prone to invasion. Like Salmon Gums, Wandoo
woodlands have a relatively open canopy, but the soil
crust appears less impervious. Where Wandoo blends
into Jam, patchy Wild Oat distribution often occurs.
Where Wild Oat occurs within other plant
communities it is associated with reserve edges or
disturbance from rabbits or machinery. The only
exception to this is two small patches growing under
the Christmas Tree (Nuytsia floribunda). This parasitic
plant may increase nitrogen within the soil by
accumulating the element from host plants. The
nitrogen is then released into the surrounding soil
when flowers and leaves are shed (Hocking 1980).
Understanding the relationship between vegetation
communities and weed invasions is important to
management. Susceptible areas can be targeted for
weed prevention and early control. Vegetation maps
can be used as a rough guide to possible weed
distribution at other sites, enabling the estimation of
resources required for control.

10

Salmon Gum Woodland

Wandoo Woodland
Wandoo Woodland on laterite
York Gum - Jam Woodland
Degraded York Gum Woodland
York Gum - Jam - Rock Sheoak Woodland
Granite outcrop
Lithic Complex
Tamar Woodland on sandy gravels
Tamar Shrubland on lateritic gravel
Tamar Shrubland on sandy clay
Heaths on deep grey sand
Tamar - Dryandra - Eremaea Shrubland on cream sand
Tamar - Eucalyptus macrocarpa Shrubland on yellow sand
Banksia prionotes - Sand Plain Woody Pear Low Woodland
Cleared
Patchy Wild Oat and Blowfly Grass cover
Dense Wild Oat and Blowfly Grass cover

Figure 1. Vegetation complexes occurring within Quairading Nature

Reserve, and the distribution and density of Wild Oat and Blowfly
Grass across the reserve.
(Vegetation map adapted from Keighery et al. 2001)

Chapter 3

Fire is less important in the establishment of weedy

grasses in wetlands and riparian zones. Instead,
invasion of weed grasses is often encouraged by poor
land management practices that increase nutrient runoff into streams and wetlands. The disturbance caused
by grazing along waterways can also promote the
spread of weed grasses. The grasses that commonly
invade wetlands are often rhizomatous, their rapid
growth and mat-forming habit smothering native plants
and preventing further recruitment. Some semi-aquatic
grasses, such as Johnson Grass (Sorghum halepense),
Reed Sweet Grass (Glyceria maxima) and Para Grass
(Urochloa mutica) grow in up to one metre of water.
These species can form large floating mats that reduce
the habitat of waterfowl, slow and change the direction
of water flow, alter silt deposition displace food sources
and reduce nesting sites (Humphries et al. 1991).

Biology why are grasses

successful weeds?

tiller buds
adventitious roots

rely entirely on seedling recruitment to establish

within an area. Annual grasses are usually tussock
forming or caespitose (Box 3.3), although occasionally
tillers of prostrate grasses may root at the nodes.
Perennial grasses reproduce vegetatively as well as by
seed, storing excess photosynthate within rhizomes,
stolons, seed and occasionally corms (swollen
underground stem bases). Perennials develop winteror summer- hardy buds capable of resuming growth
the following season (Hannaway et al. 2000). Perennials
can be sterile and still reproduce vigorously, spreading
by stolon, rhizome and dispersal of grass root
fragments in water and soil, Kikuyu and Giant Reed
(Arundo donax) being just two examples. Perennial
grasses generally fall into one of three descriptive
growth forms, caespitose or tussock-forming,
rhizomatous and stoloniferous (Box 3.3).

Reproduction, dispersal and persistence

implications for limiting spread

The structural design of grasses helps make them

highly competitive. The presence of axillary buds at
the base of each internode allows most grasses to
resprout vigorously when damaged (Gibbs Russell et
al. 1991). This advantage is compounded by the
development of crown tissue at the base of the grass
plant. Crown tissue produces buds at or below ground
level where they are largely protected from the
environment. These buds are the source of rhizomes,
stolons (Box 3.3) and tillers (new grass shoots or
culms arising at or near the base of the primary culm).
Soon after a seedling germinates, adventitious roots
develop from the crown tissue, firmly anchoring the
plant to the ground. These roots
store excess carbohydrates and
can permeate large volumes of
inflorescence
soil very efficiently, making
grasses highly competitive
for moisture and nutrients
(Hannaway et al. 2000, Gibbs
Russell et al. 1991). Grasses
are broadly grouped into
two lifeform categories,
annuals and perennials:
Annual grasses complete
their life-cycle in a single
growing season, storing all
their excess photosynthate
(plant food) within the seed
(Hannaway et al. 2000).
Annual grasses like Wild
Oat, Blowfly Grass,
Annual Veldgrass
(Ehrharta longiflora),
Silvery Hairgrass
(Aira caryophyllea)
and Barnyard Grass
(Echinochloa crus-galli) all

G r a s s We e d s

Sexual reproduction
Seed is important for the spread and establishment of
many perennial grasses. For the annual lifeform,
seedling recruitment is essential.
Dispersal: An understanding of seed dispersal
mechanisms allows us to limit further spread and reinfestation, an important, although often overlooked,
component of any management program.

Once ripe, wind dispersed seed is easily

dislodged and careless removal of grass weeds
at this stage will facilitate dispersal.
Preferably, seed heads should be removed and
bagged prior to this stage.

axillary buds
or nodes

internode

location of
crown tissue

Wind plays a central role in dispersal and many

grasses occupy open habitats subject to frequent
winds. Small, lightweight seed, suitable for wind
dispersal, is the most common form found in the
grasses. To further aid wind dispersal the outer
bracts may be covered with long soft hairs
(Davidse 1986). Seed from adjacent degraded areas
can be carried into the bushland by prevailing
winds, providing seed rain after a disturbance
event such as fire. Depending on the species this
deposited seed may establish as a seedbank, ready
to germinate given the appropriate conditions.

Water can disperse large numbers of seeds. The

light weight of many seeds allows them to float
easily. Seeds may have aerenchymous tissue, the
tiny air pockets aiding flotation. Some seeds have
a long awn that helps embed the seed when it
reaches a suitable embankment (Davidse 1986).
Run-off from rainstorms can carry grass seed
downhill and into creeks and storm drains,
concentrating vast numbers of seeds in the
wetlands they feed into.
Upstream and uphill source populations need
to be managed. Drain outlets can have
sumps incorporated to allow weed seed to
settle and collect.

11

Chapter 3

G r a s s We e d s

Box 3.3 Grass growth forms

Caespitose or tussock grasses are the dominant
grass growth form around the world. Examples
include the bushland weeds Perennial Veldgrass
(Ehrharta calycina), Pampas Grass (Cortaderia
selloana), Tambookie Grass (Hyparrhenia hirta) and
Lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula). Reproducing by seed
and/or tillers they form dense, usually erect, clumps.
As clumps age, each years old leaf material
accumulates, creating large fuel loads (Briske and
Derner 1998, Hannaway et al. 2000). Caespitose
grasses typically occupy resource-poor habitats. By
accumulating soil organic carbon and nitrogen
directly beneath clumps, they monopolise resources
(Gibbs Russell et al. 1991).
tiller buds

African Lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula)

Stoloniferous grasses are creeping or mat-forming

grasses that spread locally by stolons and include
Para Grass (Urochloa mutica) and Queensland Blue
Grass (Digitaria didactyla). A stolon is a segmented,
horizontal stem, which runs predominantly along
the soil surface. Adventitious roots and aerial shoots
arise from stolon nodes. Stolons themselves arise
from adventitious buds in the crown tissue.
Propagation is both vegetative, from stolon
fragments, and from seed. Although commonly
occupying moist, high nutrient areas, some foredune
species such as Spinifex (Spinifex sericeus) and
Saltwater Couch (Paspalum vaginatum) are
stoloniferous. Many stoloniferous grasses are
considered invasive species (Hannaway et al. 2000).

stolon
node

adventitious shoot

Para Grass (Urochloa mutica)

Rhizomatous grasses form dense mats, extending

their coverage by producing below-ground lateral
rhizomes. A rhizome is a modified underground stem
capable of rooting and shooting at nodes to develop
daughter plants. They can serve as storage tissue
for vegetative propagation and, being underground,
are protected from fire. These grasses, including
species like Reed Sweet Grass (Glyceria maxima),
Pyp Grass (Ehrharta villosa) and Johnson Grass
(Sorghum halepense), propagate vegetatively, but
may also spread by seed. Rhizomatous grasses
dominate moister, more nutrient-rich habitats and
are often invasive (Hannaway et al. 2000).
Many grasses can be both rhizomatous and
stoloniferous, Couch (Cynodon dactylon) and Kikuyu
(Pennisetum clandestinum) being just two examples.

rhizome

node

adventitious shoot

adventitious root

Reed Sweet Grass (Glyceria maxima)

12

Chapter 3

Animals can carry grass seeds on their skin and

fur. Seed bracts and/or awns may have sticky
hairs, hooks or spines that aid adhesion. Ingestion
also plays a role in grass dispersal. Grasses
evolved with grazing and several authors have
noted seeds are voided intact (Davidse 1986).
Dogs, horses, native animals and humans
(among others) readily disperse seeds along
bush tracks. Horses can spread grass weeds
from paddocks into bushland, depositing seed
with their manure.

Human activities including inappropriate

management practices, provide additional
mechanisms for grass weed dispersal:
Grading drags seed (and tillers) along road verges.
Slashing during flowering spreads seed with an
explosive action.
Lawn clippings dumped in bushland often
contain grass seed.

Soil seedbanks: Seedbanks consist of dormant seed,

which is ready to germinate given the appropriate
environmental cues. Dormancy allows seed to persist
in the soil in the absence of further seed rain.
As a general rule grass seeds are not considered to be
persistent within the soil. However, there are
exceptions. Numerous grasses have a soil seed life
greater than five years and not surprisingly many of
these are widespread weeds (eg. Fountain Grass and
Barnyard Grass). Poa pratensis and a number of
Setaria species are known to remain viable for at least
39 years (Baskin and Baskin 1998). Environmental
factors, including temperature, moisture and light
intensity can induce dormancy in seeds. For example,
deep burial induces dormancy in Wild Oat seed,
increasing its longevity from six months to anything up
to ten years (Baskin and Baskin 1998, Nugent et al.
1999). Dormancy is broken when the seed is returned
to the surface through soil disturbance.

G r a s s We e d s

Vegetative reproduction
Vegetative reproduction as a strategy in grasses is
most successful in moist, nutrient-rich conditions
(Briske and Derner 1998). Under these conditions
rhizomatous and stoloniferous grasses can easily
establish roots and rapidly disperse rhizome and
stolon fragments in soil and down streams. In Reed
Sweet Grass (and possibly other species), shoots of
young plants can be vegetative or flowering. However,
once established, the majority of new shoots produced
are vegetative. This strategy allows the plant to quickly
colonise new areas by seed, whilst increasing the
density of established plants (Department of Primary
Industries Water and Environment 2001).
Tussock-forming grasses may also propagate
vegetatively. Tillering is responsible for each seasons
new growth and the expansion in tussock area
(Hannaway et al. 2000). Tillers are also referred to as
sprouts, shoots and daughters and may break off when
disturbed.
If resources are scarce, management should focus
on controlling the invading edge(s) and new or
isolated populations.

Grass growth stages

As with all weeds the timing of grass control measures
is important. Active growth is required for herbicide
uptake and slashing can enhance leafy growth or result
in defoliation, depending on the growth stage. In most
grasses (sterile grasses are the exception) there are
three main stages of active grass growth: Vegetative,
transition and flowering.

Vegetative growth involves the production of

shoots, mostly leaf blades but also stolons and
rhizomes. Herbicides are best applied at this stage,
while slashing usually results in increased
production of leafy material.

For many species, seed longevity is not understood

and yet it is invaluable information when making
management decisions. The length of a control
program is largely determined by seedbank
persistence. The shorter lived the seed, the more
rapidly a grass infestation can be controlled
(provided the source is no longer
present or is also managed).

vegetative

transition

boot stage

flowering

13

Chapter 3

G r a s s We e d s

Transition occurs when the growing points stop

producing vegetative material and start developing
flowers and the tissue between nodes, the
internode, elongates. Because of internode
elongation, slashing or mowing at this stage can
remove many axillary buds, thereby reducing leaf
production in the regrowth.
Flowering begins when the seed head is just
emerging from the leaf sheath (boot stage) and
continues through to seeding. Some grass-selective
herbicides are only effective if applied prior to the
boot stage. Slashing or mowing during flowering
may facilitate the spread of seed.

The period of active growth depends largely on

whether the plant is a cool season (C3) or warm
season (C4) grass. Cool season and warm season
grasses differ in the way they use carbon dioxide. Cool
season grasses (Wild Oat, Blowfly Grass, Perennial
Veldgrass) photosynthesise more effectively, and thus
are most actively growing, during the cooler periods of
winter and spring (15-25 C). Warm season grasses, or
summer grasses, photosynthesise best with full light
saturation and consequently their period of most
active growth is late spring and summer (25-40 C).
The summer growing Couch (Cynodon dactylon),
Kikuyu and Lovegrass are all C4 grasses.
For successful herbicide uptake grasses should be
sprayed in the season appropriate to their
photosynthetic pathway and when actively growing.

Fire and the spread of grass weeds

Many grasses, especially caespitose species, have long,
narrow, vertical leaves that are efficient in strong light
allowing sunlight to penetrate deep inside the clump
(Gibbs Russell et al. 1991). This structure allows the
production of a large biomass in a small space. Stems
die each year and new ones develop. Over time a large
biomass, much of it dead material, creates a significant
fire hazard. As a result, grass weed invasions can lead
to changes in fire frequency and intensity.
These changes are self-perpetuating as the disturbance
caused by fire tends to promote germination and
establishment of seedling grasses (Cheplick 1998,
Williams and Baruch 2000). At Shenton Bushland,
Perth, Perennial Veldgrass was mapped in the year
following an intense fire that burnt half of the site. A
comparison between a pre-fire bushland condition map
and the post-fire Veldgrass map, highlighted a
significant post-fire expansion in the population.
Previously healthy bushland now recorded 75-100 %
cover of Veldgrass (Brown and Marshall
unpublished data).
Fire contributes greatly to grass invasion in lownutrient soils, where post-fire increases in nutrients,
light and space availability are more effectively
exploited by invasive grasses than by the native flora.
It is important to reduce the possibility of fire in
bushland areas at risk of grass invasion. Where
bushfire does occur target resprouting plants and
seedlings for control before they become
established.

14

Management and control

Prevention and early intervention
Degradation of our native bushland remnants through
clearing, fire, disease and mismanagement may be of
particular relevance to the establishment and spread
of grass weeds. Often an observed decline in the
canopy cover within Banksia woodlands around Perth
correlates with an increase in the occurrence of
Perennial Veldgrass. Reduction in canopy cover leads
to an increase in light availability, a condition favoured
by many grass weeds (Williams and Baruch 2000,
DAntonio et al. 2001).
Weed grass invasion can be limited by:

Maintaining the bushland canopy. Many grasses

prefer open sunny sites and do not establish or
compete successfully in the shade.

Reducing the potential for bushfires. As

mentioned, fire can significantly increase the
establishment and spread of grass weeds.

Identifying unfamiliar grasses. It is important to

determine if grasses are introduced or native.
Early identification of grass weeds allows you to
assess the likelihood of invasion and prevents
mistaken eradication of native grasses!

Establishing weed barriers.

Weed barriers
A common grass weed problem in urban remnants is
the spread of Kikuyu, Couch or Buffalo Grass
(Stenotaphrum secundatum) from adjacent parks and
road verges. A successful weed break can be created
by embedding a physical barrier such as weed mesh or
conveyor belt vertically into the ground and using
concrete kerbing above it. This prevents rhizomes
creeping into the bushland and provides a mowing
edge for council mowers (Box 3.4). Some grasses have
rhizomes 50 to 60 centimetres below ground and any
root barrier must allow for this.
The bush itself often provides an excellent weed break
(Box 3.2). However, the sandy soils and open
vegetation of Banksia woodland or the friable soils of
York GumJam woodlands are more susceptible.
Establishing a dense cover of locally-occurring low,
medium and tall shrubs along the edges of degraded
sites and paddocks could act as a sieve, preventing
entry of wind and water carried seed. Knowing the
prevailing wind direction, position in the landscape
and relationship to waterflow can help to determine if
the adjacent paddock, weedy rail reserve or over-run,
semi-rural backyard, is the weed source. When planting
or direct seeding, use native seed collected from the
area of bushland you are protecting and only plant
where run-off or prevailing winds are definitely
carrying weed seed in.

Chapter 3

G r a s s We e d s

Box 3.4 Spread of turf grass at Blue Gum Lake

At Blue Gum Lake in the City of Melville, parkland often adjoins bushland. In most of these sites Couch
(Cynodon dactylon) and Kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum) have been planted as turf. On one boundary
between turf and bushland a large infestation of the woody weed Geraldton Wax (Chamelaucium uncinatum)
was removed. The site revegetation project was undertaken by the Friends of Blue Gum Lake who were continually faced with Couch that kept creeping back from the grassed area. After spraying the Couch several times
an alternative solution was sought.
Creating a physical barrier by using kerbing, was an attractive option. Kerbing was multipurpose: It provided a
neat and tidy mowing edge which pleased the local residents and council, prevented the incursion of mowers
into the bushland and also limited the spread of Couch. Several stories were circulating regarding the use of
rubber conveyor belts buried into the ground vertically and used as barriers to stop rhizome and stolon
spread. When a pre-used conveyor belt was donated by Wesfarmers, and the Lotteries Commission agreed to
provide funding for the above-ground kerbing, the project was underway.
An outline was created using a rope and marked with stakes. Making an early start, the City of Melville
Bushland Works Crew, an enthusiastic Work for the Dole crew and EWAN project officers dug the trench, lay
and buried the one metre wide conveyor belt. On several occasions there was grateful acknowledgment that
the digging was in sand. In all, it took twelve people four hours. The only hiccups were several large Banksia
roots, which were dug around, and the conveyor belt cut to fit. A contractor was brought in to do the kerbing,
providing the finishing touch. With the donation of the conveyor belt, the labour or in-kind support, the project
cost $1164 for 100 metres of barrier this was all in the kerbing contractors fees.
While the amenity grass already in the revegetation area still needs to be controlled, once it is eradicated it
should be an easier job to keep new incursions out!

15

Chapter 3

G r a s s We e d s

Control techniques

Annuals prevent seed set and limit

seedling establishment
Highly disturbed areas are often dominated by annual
grasses. Continual removal by physical or chemical
means maintains the status quo. In degraded areas the
control of annual grasses over the longer term requires
the establishment of desirable vegetation (Refer to
case study 5.1). However, undisturbed native plant
communities are also susceptible to annual grass
invasion, such as the understorey of York Gum Jam
woodlands.

Perennial grass control

Caespitose grasses

Hand-weed small populations in good condition

bushland by using a knife to cut through the roots
below the crown tissue. Minimise soil disturbance
as much as possible. Care
must be taken to remove all
dormant buds at the base.
These can break off and
quickly form new plants. Many
apparently caespitose species
also produce short rhizomes
which must be removed when
hand-weeding, eg.
Tribolium (Tribolium
uniolae), Perennial Veldgrass,
Vasey Grass. For Perennial
Veldgrass, which grows in sandy
soils, hand-removal in summer,
when the grass is dormant and
the roots easily cut through,
minimises soil disturbance.

Spot spraying with a grass-selective herbicide

controls many perennial grasses. These herbicides
are highly selective for susceptible grasses and
have little impact on most other species (Preston
2000). In Banksia woodland on the Swan Coastal
Plain, Fusilade (applied at 10 mL/L or 4 L/ha) has
been found to have little impact on a wide range of
native species (Brown unpubl., Dixon unpubl.)

To control annual grasses it is essential to exhaust the

soil seedbank and limit further seed recruitment. The
most effective way of doing this is to prevent seed set
or destroy seed before it is shed. The length of the
control program will depend on the seed longevity
within the soil. The following approaches can be
successful if thoughtfully adopted:

Hand-weed small infestations occurring in good

condition bushland. Remove weeds prior to seed
set. Be aware that seeds can be spread during the
weeding process and as contaminants of clothing
and tools.

Slash prior to seed set. Timing is important; slash

plants after the flower head has emerged but
before seed is dry and ready for release. If slashed
too early, plants will flower again. Flower heads
must be bagged and removed as seed can continue
to develop after removal from the plant. Slashing
can be labour-intensive in bushland as it must be
carefully done by hand to avoid damaging native
plants.

Spray germinating weed grasses at the three to

five leaf stage with the recommended rate of a
grass selective herbicide. This approach may be
difficult to apply to species that have staggered
germination. Spray such species four to six weeks
after rains begin to ensure maximum germination
has occurred. Higher rates may be required and an
even coverage harder to obtain.
Research indicates Fusilade does not impact
seriously on established perennial native grasses,
although flowering is often inhibited. However,
many native grass seedlings appear to be
susceptible (Hobbs and Atkins 1988, Hitchmough
et al. 1994, Davies 1997, Arnold et al. 1998, Brown
and Brooks unpublished data).

Note: For many years Fusilade has been the only grass selective
herbicide registered for use in bushland in Western Australia and
some annual grass species (Poa annua, Vulpia spp) are resistant to
the fops group of herbicides to which it belongs. With these
problematic species alternatives should be sought (see weed
management table).
A number of other grass-selective herbicides are now the subject of
a minor use off-label permit in non-crop situations in Western
Australia (until September 2006). Application must comply with all
conditions of the permit.
Available from: (http://permits.nra.gov.au/PER4984.PDF).
Anyone applying herbicides should have appropriate training in the
safe use and handling of relevant chemicals (Chapter 8).

16

Prevent seedling establishment in highly degraded

areas by encouraging the growth of native species
and establishing a dense canopy cover. Most
grasses prefer open sunny sites for germination.

With established perennial grasses, grass-selective

herbicides must be applied when the plant is
actively growing but before boot stage (Parsons
1995). Water stress and nutrient deficiencies can
also be limiting factors to growth and must be
taken into account. In some grasses the periods of
vegetative growth and flowering are short and
overlapping. In this scenario there may be little
green leafy material prior to boot stage and
alternative herbicides or different approaches will
need to be tested. One option is the non-selective
herbicide glyphosate, which if applied when the
developing seed is still like milky dough, will stop
seed development and kill the grass. Because
glyphosate is non-selective the grass weed must
be carefully targeted to avoid damage to
surrounding natives. When spot spraying with any
herbicide, grass clumps should be sprayed until
wet, but without herbicide running off the leaves.
The dead material retained on the caespitose
grass provides protection to other leaves and may
result in reduced herbicide uptake. Removing the
dead material first (by slashing or taking
advantage of unplanned fires) alleviates this
problem. The lush regrowth that follows both
these events is highly susceptible to herbicide.

Chapter 3

Slashing is generally used in conjunction with a

herbicide treatment. Tussocks are slashed to the
base to remove the bulk of old material and to
promote vigorous growth; this should be done
during the vegetative phase to maximise the
regrowth of leafy green material. When regrowth is
lush and vigorous, plants are spot sprayed with
the appropriate herbicide. This method has been
used successfully by the City of Canning on
Pampas Grass invading Yagan Wetlands and is
effective in dealing with many large, tussockforming species. Do not slash when grasses are
seeding, as this will assist the spread of
propagules locally.

G r a s s We e d s

disturbance this method requires accurate timing,

consistent effort and in good bushland each plant
must be slashed individually. Resources are rarely
available for such intensive control.
Note: Slashing without follow-up herbicide treatment may
increase productivity of some grasses. This has been recorded for
Buffel Grass in the United States (The Nature Conservancy, 2002)
and appears to be true of African Lovegrass in the Perth region.

Continuous slashing of caespitose grasses during

the transition phase (when shoot apices are at a
vulnerable height) may exhaust their carbohydrate
supply, eventually killing the plant. Although
herbicide-free and causing minimal soil

Unplanned fires require an intensive follow-up

program. Resources should be allocated for
controlling seedlings and resprouts before the
grass problem increases (Box 3.5). Very hot fires
can destroy seed close to the soil surface (Smith et
al. 1999). This reduction in the soil seedbank must
be maintained by preventing further seed set from
resprouting plants and germinants. Vigorously
resprouting plants provide an easy target in the
blackened landscape and are readily treated and
highly susceptible to herbicides.

Box 3.5 Making the most of unplanned bushfires

Talbot Road Bushland consists of 60 hectares of Banksia woodland, Marri, Jarrah and Wandoo woodlands and
heath. Most is in good condition, but several infestations of weeds capable of moving further into undisturbed
bushland are present. Perennial Veldgrass (Ehrharta calycina) was one such weed recognised as a problem in
the sandier soils. In 1999 the Veldgrass was mapped and light infestations along tracks were hand-weeded to
prevent spread into bushland. The presence of
the cormous and bulbous weeds, Hesperantha
(Hesperantha falcata), Freesia (Freesia alba x
leichtlinii) and Watsonia (Watsonia bulbillifera),
meant control of the main Perennial Veldgrass
population was delayed until these serious
weeds could be adequately managed.
The Hesperantha, Freesia and Watsonia control
programs had been in place for two years when, in
the summer of 2000/2001, a fire burnt through
some 70 % of the bushland. Part of the Perennial
Veldgrass population was burnt and much of the
remaining unburnt area was infested. Amid fears
that the grass would quickly establish over a wider
area, flourishing under the post-fire conditions,
resources were made available for control.
In July, following the fire, a contractor was
employed to spray the remaining unburnt
Perennial Veldgrass before seed set. Treating the
area that had burnt was more complicated. The
Perennial Veldgrass distribution map made in 1999
was used to locate where the Perennial Veldgrass
was. Resprouting clumps were carefully spot
sprayed and seedling flushes blanket sprayed,
taking care not to trample resprouting natives. The
areas adjacent to the mapped populations and any
gullies or wash areas were also carefully searched
and seedling flushes treated. To minimise damage
to native plants the grass selective herbicide
Fusilade (10 mL/L) was used.
Note: The susceptibility of Perennial Veldgrass seedlings to
lower rates of Fusilade requires research. If lower rates were
known to control the weed, the amount of herbicide introduced
into the bushland could have been reduced.

61 - 100%

6 - 60%

0 - 5% cover

After the fire in December 2000 (lined area) a 1999 map of Perennial
Veldgrass distribution at Talbot Road Bushland was used to determine
priority areas for spraying in July 2001.

17

Chapter 3

G r a s s We e d s

Rhizomatous and stoloniferous grasses

Monitoring and follow-up

Hand-weeding should only be considered for very

small infestations (less than one meter square) when
soil is moist. It is important to remove all root, rhizome
and stolon fragments or plants will rapidly regenerate.
For some species like Para Grass and Johnson Grass,
rhizomes can extend for up to two metres. However,
because of the extensive soil disturbance involved,
hand-weeding is generally not recommended in
bushland.

It is important that grass control is done effectively

and that any control program does not simply enhance
the competitiveness of other serious weeds. With
control programs for grass weeds in small urban
bushlands costing up to $1000 per hectare, monitoring
their success is essential.

Herbicide can be blanket sprayed over the dense mats

commonly formed by rhizomatous and stoloniferous
grasses. A systemic herbicide that is translocated
through all parts of the plant, including the rhizomes
and stolons, must be used. Where native plants are
present, grass-selective herbicides are necessary to
avoid off-target damage. Without thorough foliage
coverage, the amount of herbicide absorbed into the
plant is not sufficient for effective control. Even with
good coverage, many rhizomatous grasses require
multiple spray treatments within a single season; only
a few rhizomes or stolons need to survive for the plant
to rapidly re-establish.

Regardless of the control method used, follow-up

treatment in subsequent years is usually necessary.
Plants that were missed or survived the first treatment
will need treating and soil seedbanks may take several
years to deplete. If follow-up does not take place, the
initial effort and resources will be wasted.

Key points

Herbicide use near waterways becomes an important

issue where many rhizomatous and stoloniferous
grasses are invasive. At present Roundup Biactive is
the only herbicide registered for use near water. Many
of the wetlands of the Swan Coastal Plain are seasonal
and dry up over the summer months. Luckily, summer
coincides with the active growth of most wetland
grasses and spraying can be done at this time. Grasses
that grow in permanent water bodies will need to be
either treated with Roundup Biactive or pulled from
the water and methods such as solarisation tried.

The information presented in this chapter highlights a

range of management issues concerning grass weeds and
how these relate to the biology of this group. Briefly:

Solarisation is useful for controlling summer growing

(C4) grasses in highly disturbed areas. This involves
laying heavy duty plastic sheeting (black or clear) over
part or all of the infested area. With edges firmly held
down, the plastic is left in place for four to twelve
weeks before being removed. The plastic sheeting
traps the heat, increasing the soil temperature to levels
that kill plants, seeds, plant pathogens and insects
(Bainbridge 1990). The use of clear plastic results in
higher soil temperatures, whereas black plastic
prevents photosynthesis and this contributes to plant
death. The method is most effective when applied
during the hot summer months and is only really
useful in sites where the soil is moist (Tu et al. 2001).
The area may need to be blanket sprayed after any
surviving grass has regrown vigorously.
Establishing shade along bushland edges by
encouraging the regeneration of local plants can inhibit
the spread of many amenity grasses from adjacent
parklands. Kikuyu, Buffalo Grass, Couch and similar
amenity grasses are often intolerant of shade.

18

Monitoring provides a quantitative record of the

management program, measures the impact of the
control program on native plants and ensures value for
money from contractors. How you monitor will depend
on the changes to be detected, the type and patchiness
of vegetation and the terrain. Case study 3.4 provides a
detailed example of monitoring a Perennial Veldgrass
control program in Banskia woodland.

Invasion of many grasses is often facilitated by fire

and loss of canopy cover.

Annual grasses are generally weeds of highly

disturbed areas, although there are exceptions
(Wild Oat, Annual Veldgrass). To control, prevent
seed set over successive years and establish
desirable vegetation.

Perennial grasses can threaten intact bushland.

They are grouped into the tussock-forming
caespitose grasses and the mat-forming
rhizomatous or stoloniferous grasses. Management
strategies and control techniques differ for the
different growth forms.

Recognising and treating grasses at the

appropriate growth stage is integral to a
successful outcome of any control program.

The case studies described below bring together this

information, providing an example of management in
action for an annual, a perennial caespitose and a
rhizomatous grass. A fourth case study describes the
monitoring of a Perennial Veldgrass control program
at Blue Gum Lake. Following the case studies is a
table of currently available information on the control
of grass weeds.
One aspect of their biology that has contributed
greatly to the success of the grasses is the ability to
store carbohydrate reserves in tillers and rhizomes at
the base of the plant. This strategy is taken even
further by the group of plants covered in the next
chapter. The bulbous, cormous and tuberous species
are another group successfully naturalising in south
west Western Australia. Their success, in part, is due
to an ability to die back to underground storage organs
over our long dry summers.

Chapter 3

Case study 3.1

G r a s s We e d s C a s e S t u d i e s

Managing the annual grasses Wild Oat (Avena barbata) and Blowfly Grass

(Briza maxima) at Quairading Nature Reserve

An informative case study on the
control of the annual grasses Wild
Oat (Avena barbata) and Blowfly
Grass (Briza maxima) within
bushland comes from a trial at
Quairading Nature Reserve. Wild
Oat and Blowfly Grass are wintergrowing annuals that rely on
successful seed set and recruitment
into the soil seedbank to persist.
The aim of the trial was to reduce, if
not eliminate the Wild Oat
seedbank, and give a competitive
advantage to the native annual herb
and perennial grass species. The
possibility that other annual or
perennial weeds would fill the niche
also required consideration and a
monitoring program was put in
place to record changes in
vegetation cover and species
diversity over time.

Setting up the
demonstration site
The trial was designed to reduce
external seed contamination from
surrounding weed grasses. Changes
in weed, native grass and herb
cover were monitored over three
years and the effectiveness of direct
seeding evaluated.
The design: Two large, 20 metre
square permanent plots, a control
and a treatment, each housed five
randomly placed one metre square
quadrats. A third 20 metre square
plot, for testing direct seeding, was
established in the second year of
the trial. It housed ten one metre
square quadrats of which half were
used for controls.

herbs and perennial grasses

including Neurachne alopecuroidea,
Austrostipa elegantissima,
Austrostipa tenuifolia, Waitzia
acuminata and Rhodanthe manglesii.
Data collected: Each year, in late
spring, weed and native species
present in each quadrat were
recorded, counted and their
percentage cover estimated and
assigned to a cover class: 1 (<1%),
2 (1-5%), 3 (6-25%), 4 (26-50%), 5
(51-75%) and 6 (76-100%)
(Braun-Blanquet 1965).
Table 1. Years in which plots were
sprayed, seeded and scored.

1999

2000

2001

CONTROL

score

score

score

TREATMENT

spray
+
score

spray
+
score

score

spray
score
+
seed

score

DIRECT
SEEDING

Results
Wild Oat and Blowfly Grass
control: In 1999 and 2000, the
treatment plot was almost free of
grass weeds within six weeks of
being sprayed, a distinct patch
within a sea of oats (Figure 1).

There was little further germination

as the season progressed. In
contrast, the control was a mass of
Wild Oat and Blowfly Grass.
By 2001 the Wild Oat and Blowfly
Grass seedbanks were more or less
exhausted. Even though the plot
was not sprayed again, Wild Oat
and Blowfly Grass cover remained
under 10 % compared with the
almost 80 % cover observed before
the treatment began.
Blowfly Grass probably contributed
to the majority of cover in 2001,
although this was not measured.
Blowfly Grass has a more persistent
seedbank (Raynor 1989 in McMahon
1991) than Wild Oat, which has a
seedbank half-life of six months
under non-tillage conditions
(Nugent et al. 1999). That is, half the
seed remaining in the soil dies
every six months.
Other annual grass weeds: Three
other annual grass weeds were
recorded in the plots, Silvery
Hairgrass (Aira caryophyllea), Silver
Grass (Vulpia myuros) and Annual
Veldgrass (Ehrharta longiflora).
Silver grass is known to be resistant
to the fops group of herbicides
that Fusilade belongs to (Chambers
and Andreini 2000). Therefore, it
was possible that this grass would
increase in the absence of
competition from other annual

Treatment: Fusilade (500mL/ha) +

Pulse (2 mL/L) was blanket sprayed
over the treatment and direct
seeding plots in early August when
the Wild Oat was at the three to five
leaf stage and around 10 cm high
(Table 1). A local farmer carried out
the spraying.
In August 2000, direct seeding trials
were carried out by sowing native
seed collected from the site over
the 20 m x 20 m quadrat apart from
five of the 10 subquadrats (1 m x 1
m) which were covered during the
sowing. These were the controls.
Seed was from a range of annual

Figure 1. In September 1999 the edges of the treatment plot are clearly marked by a border of
Wild Oat and Blowfly Grass.

19

Chapter 3

G r a s s We e d s C a s e S t u d i e s

grass weeds. It didnt. Silver Grass

cover remained low throughout the
three year trial period, as did cover
of Silvery Hairgrass.
In contrast, Annual Veldgrass
seedlings are susceptible to
Fusilade (Davies 1997, Brown
unpublished data) and like Wild
Oat, germination is in the few weeks
following the opening rains (Davies
1997). Like Wild Oat, two years of
treatment appeared to exhaust the
soil seedbank of Annual Veldgrass
at the site. However, there was an
indication that a single treatment
could result in Annual Veldgrass
becoming a serious weed in the
absence of Wild Oat competition.
Non-grass weeds: In total, there
were 12 weeds present at the site,
including the Wild Oat and Blowfly
Grass - none were invasive
perennials. Only Flatweed
(Hypochaeris glabra) and Ursinia
(Ursinia anthemoides) showed a
noticeable response to the removal
of Wild Oat and Blowfly Grass. The
number of Flatweed plants
increased within the treatment plot
by over 30 % from 1999 to 2001, but
decreased in the control by 80 %.
This suggests Flatweed has a
stronger competitive advantage
than the native annual flora, but is
weaker against Wild Oat and
Blowfly Grass, especially in poor
years when moisture is scarce.

The native flora

As the 1999 season unfolded, colour
erupted in the sprayed plot (Figure

2). A mass flowering of native

annuals occurred. These species,
while found in the unsprayed plot,
were largely smothered there by
Wild Oat and Blowfly Grass.
Native annual and perennial
herbs: There was little indication
that the Fusilade harmed the native
annual and geophyte flora. The
decrease in competition from Wild
Oat and Blowfly Grass appears to
have benefited the geophyte lifeform over time. Initially geophyte
numbers were significantly lower in
the treatment plot, but, after two
years of treatment, numbers were
similar in both plots.
Two native annual herbs apparently
affected by the density of Wild Oat
and Blowfly Grass were Waitzia
acuminata and Phyllangium
sulcatum. Both species decreased in
the control plot over the three
years and remained similar
(P. sulcatum) or increased
(W. acuminata) in the treatment plot.
Native grasses: Mature clumps of
eight native grasses (Aristida
contorta, Austrodanthonia
caespitosa, Austrodanthonia setacea,
Austrostipa elegantissima,
Austrostipa tenuifolia, Austrostipa
trichophylla, Eriachne ovata,
Neurachne alopecuroidea) suffered
only temporarily from the herbicide
treatment. Seedling recruitment
observed in 2001 suggests that the
removal of competition by Wild Oat
and Blowfly Grass will allow native
grasses to become more dominant
over time.

Figure 2. Looking back over the treatment plot in October 1999 - a profusion of wild flowers.

20

Herbicide treatment appeared to

inhibit flowering in the native
grasses. Aristida contorta and
N. alopecuroidea in particular
flowered profusely outside the
treatment plot, while flowers were
all but absent on tussocks inside
the plot. A reduction in flowering of
native grasses after Fusilade
treatment has also been recorded in
a study by Hitchmough et al. (1994).
Although this and other studies
(Hitchmough et al. 1994, Davies
1997) indicate mature native
grasses only suffer temporary
adverse effects to Fusilade
treatment, impacts need to be
carefully monitored. Fusilade is
highly phytotoxic at the 3-5 leaf
stage on most native grasses tested
(Hitchmough et al. 1994). The
continued treatment of an area may
inhibit recruitment of native grasses
and inevitably lead to a reduction in
native grass cover and local
diversity.

Direct seeding trials

The aim of the direct seeding trial
was to tip the competitive balance
in favour of the native flora. Exotic
grasses were controlled with the
early herbicide treatment and the
native seedbank was boosted by
direct seeding with locally collected
native herb and grass species. The
direct seeding trial plot was both
species-poor and had low cover and
numbers of native plants. Following
the direct seeding of native herbs
and grasses in August 2000 there
was no significant, or indeed
obvious, increase in these figures.
The failure of the sown seeds to
germinate can be attributed to a
number of factors. Although the
seeds were viable, the dry winter
and lack of soil moisture may have
inhibited germination. Large
amounts of seed may have blown
away. It is important to note that
any sort of soil disturbance that
may have enhanced germination of
broadcast seed would also enhance
weed invasion. Time of sowing, seed
treatment and lack of surface
preparation may all be wholly, or
partly responsible. It is possible
that the site itself did not favour the
germination of annual herbs; there
were very few areas of bare soil
within the plot. Further research
into direct seeding in these
woodlands is clearly required.

Chapter 3

Conclusion
Overall the demonstration site and
trials were a success. Wild Oat,
Blowfly Grass and Annual Veldgrass
soil seedbanks were depleted by
two years of treatment. In the right
situation native herbs flourished in
the absence of Wild Oats and native
grasses did not suffer permanent
damage. Other annual weeds failed
to become a serious problem and
with continued research into direct
seeding, the competitiveness of the
native plant community could be
further enhanced.

Case study 3.2

G r a s s We e d s C a s e S t u d i e s

Applying this information

to the control of other
annual grasses
Seedbank persistence is indicative
of the required length of the
control program.
Using this approach to control
grasses with more persistent
seedbanks may severely impact on
native grasses.
A single spray early in the season
will not be so effective on weed
grass species with staggered
germination.

It is important to know what other

opportunistic weed species may
take advantage of the space
created by removal of annual
grass weeds. It is unwise to
remove an annual grass if it will
lead to establishment of a more
serious weed.
In many circumstances the
removal of annual grasses may
leave bare areas of ground that are
open to invasion. In these
circumstances direct seeding may
be appropriate.

Managing the perennial caespitose grass, Tribolium (Tribolium uniolae),

invading threatened ecological communities in the Brixton Street Wetlands.

Tribolium (Tribolium uniolae), a
tussock-forming perennial grass, is
a native of South Africa where it is
found in the winter rainfall areas of
the Cape Province. A highly variable
species, this grass appears able to
exploit new habitats where they
arise. Common as a roadside weed it
successfully invades disturbed
ground and responds positively to
scrub fires (Linder and Davidse 1997).

Grass-selective herbicides should

normally be applied before the
boot stage (Parsons, 1995).
However, the issue of standing
water was important so it became
necessary to investigate an
application at the post-boot stage.
The initial herbicide trials took
place in November. There was still
plenty of leaf material, but plants

were flowering. Two different grassselective herbicides, Fusilade and

Sertin Plus, both with the addition
of Pulse, were tested on older
plants (characterised by much
dead material surrounding a few
actively growing leaves and stems)
and younger plants (mostly leafy
green material).

At Brixton Street Wetlands

Tribolium is invading Marri
woodlands, herb-rich shrublands
and to a lesser degree claypans.
Large clumps are displacing the
very rich annual and perennial
herbaceous flora that grows there.
In the past Tribolium has been
successfully treated at Brixton
Street with the non-selective
herbicide Roundup at 10 mL/L.
Recently the weed was recorded
spreading into undisturbed
bushland so more selective control
methods were required.

Herbicide trials and

standing water
Some areas of Brixton Street are
inundated for part of the year and
herbicide application can be
inappropriate. Unfortunately, when
the wetlands are dry from January
through to May, Tribolium is
usually dormant. Active growth
starts in June following the first
rains and by the time the wetlands
begin to dry out in late October,
flowering is underway.

Figure 1. Tribolium growing in the bushland at Brixton Street.

21

Chapter 3

G r a s s We e d s C a s e S t u d i e s

The trials were simple: Five sets of

three 2 m x 2 m quadrats were set
up within a population of mature
plants (five Fusilade, five Sertin
Plus and five control plots). For the
younger plants, which occurred at
much higher densities, three sets of
three 1 m x 1 m plots were used.
Plants were counted prior to
treatment and scored again after
the emergence of green material the
following June.
Older plants Given the small
number of actively growing leaves,
older plants were perceived as
difficult to kill and Fusilade was
applied at a high rate (15 mL/L).
Both herbicides tested on mature
flowering plants were effective,
particularly the Fusilade treatment
in which no plants survived.
However, only 48.3 % of plants in
the control plots survived the trial
period (Table 1). The high levels of
natural senescence may be the
result of an extremely dry summer
or simply reflect the age of the
population, factors that may also
have contributed to the high death
rate in the treatment plots.

Younger plants Herbicide applied

during flowering (November 2000)
was ineffective on younger plants.
Further trials were conducted in
August when plants were actively
growing yet not quite flowering (ie.
before the boot stage). This time
herbicide treatment was effective
(Table 2). The presence of standing
water limits Fusilade application
to dry areas.

Fire
In January 2000 an unplanned fire
burnt through the southern section
of Brixton Street destroying earlier
herbicide trials. However, pre- and
post- fire counts of Tribolium
plants in the control plots provided
useful data on the weeds response
to fire. An average of only 26 % of
plants resprouted following the fire,
but by June 2000 an abundance of
seedlings was observed in the plots
and surrounding burnt area.
The fire provided an excellent
control opportunity. As well as
killing 74 % of plants in the plots,
the remaining plants were
vigorously producing tillers before

the break of season and winter

rainfall. This was also well before
most of the native vegetation had
begun to recover from the fire. In
the blackened landscape the green
Tribolium plants were highly visible
and easy targets for spraying
(Figure 2).
In May 2000 the effectiveness of
Roundup and Fusilade (both 10
mL/L) at controlling plants
resprouting from burnt clumps was
compared. The number of actively
growing plants in three sets of three
2 m x 2 m plots (three controls,
three Fusilade, three Roundup)
were counted before, and then six
weeks after treatment. At the time
of treatment Tribolium plants in
unburnt vegetation were still in the
dry dormant stage with no visible
green growth.
Both herbicide treatments were
effective. A mean of only 2.2 %
survived the Roundup treatment
and a mean of 5.4 % the Fusilade
treatment (Table 3). Furthermore,
seedlings that were prolific in postfire vegetation were effectively
controlled with Fusilade at 10 mL/L.

Table 1. Mean percentage of Tribolium plants surviving in trial plots following herbicide treatments on older flowering plants.

TREATMENT
Fusilade 15 mL/L + Pulse 2 mL/L

GROWTH STAGE

DATE

MEAN SURVIVAL (%)

older plants, flowering

Nov 2000

Sertin Plus 12 mL/L + Pulse 2 mL/L

19.5

Control

48.3

SE +/5.74
14.7

Table 2. Mean percentage of Tribolium plants surviving in trial plots following herbicide treatments on younger plants at flowering
and just prior tp flowering.

TREATMENT
Fusilade 10 mL/L + Pulse 2 mL/L

GROWTH STAGE

DATE

MEAN SURVIVAL (%)

SE +/-

younger plants, flowering

Nov 2000

54.2

11.29

Sertin Plus 12 mL/L + Pulse 2 mL/L

56.3

5.6

Control

88.8

14.7

Fusilade 10 mL/L + Pulse 2 mL/L

3.9

0.93

Fusilade 10 mL/L + DC-trate 2 mL/L

younger plants, prior to flowering

Aug 2001

11.3

4.83

Control

96.4

2.48

Table 3. Mean percentage of Tribolium plants surviving in trial plots following herbicide treatments on plants resprouting after a
January fire. Value greater than 100 % indicates recruitment.

TREATMENT
Fusilade 10 mL/L + Pulse 2 mL/L
Roundup 10 mL/L + Pulse 2 mL/L
Control

22

GROWTH STAGE

DATE

MEAN SURVIVAL (%)

resprout from Jan 2000 fire

May 2000

5.4

2.9

2.2

5.12

100.8

SE +/-

5.1

Chapter 3

G r a s s We e d s C a s e S t u d i e s

Over the winter of 2001, seedling

recruitment was also observed in
plots where there had been high
levels of senescence among mature
plants (both natural and as a result
of herbicide treatments). As tufts of
perennial grasses die back, gaps are
created that are available for
colonisation by seedlings (OConnor
and Everson 1998). Using baseline
distribution maps of the weed, it
will be necessary to systematically
monitor the bushland for seedling
recruitment over a number of years.
Knowing how long seed remains
viable in the soil is important in
management planning for follow-up
work and is an area requiring
further research.

Figure 2. Tribolium vigorously resprouting after fire.

Hand-weeding
Physical removal of Tribolium by
cutting below the base with a sharp
knife is one option appropriate for
small, isolated populations when
the soil is moist. However, this
method is labour intensive and
impractical on a larger scale. Where
the grass grows very closely among
native plants it is difficult to remove
without damaging native vegetation.
The effectiveness of hand-weeding
is somewhat compromised by the
ability of Tribolium to reproduce
from small, adventitious buds that
break off from the base.

observed around their nests

(Figure 3).
Keeping fire and other disturbances
out of the bushland is essential to
stop the spread of Tribolium.
Seedlings are able to exploit space,
light and nutrients, made available
by fire, establishing early and outcompeting regenerating native
species. Any unplanned fire,
however, should be taken as an
opportunity to effectively control
mature plants and the subsequent
seedlings. Without follow-up control
of germinants, fire will almost
certainly contribute to the further
spread of Tribolium in the bushland.

The management focus at Brixton

Street is protection of the native
plant communities, not just
eradication of Tribolium.
Consequently, plant species moving
into the gap created as the weed is
removed will need to be carefully
monitored. There are other serious
perennial weeds invading the
wetlands that have the potential to
recolonise the treated sites,
including Harlequin Flower (Sparaxis
bulbifera), Watsonia species,
Gladiolus undulatus and African
Lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula). These
are all subject to fairly intensive
control programs at present.
Source: Brown and Brooks
(In press a)

Management
Effective management of Tribolium
invading bushland relies on control
of mature plants as well as
subsequent seedling recruits. It is
clear that the weed can be
effectively controlled with grassselective herbicides. However,
chemical control of established
plants is only going to be one part
of any strategy.
As well as understanding how to
control Tribolium, it is important to
understand how the weed is
dispersing and spreading. At
Brixton Street dispersal is by the
seed, which is light in weight and
small in size. Sheet water flow
occurring across the wetlands in
winter probably carries seed into
undisturbed bushland. Ants may
also be moving seed around, with
seedling recruitment consistently

Figure 3. Tribolium plants growing vigorously around an ant nest.

23

Chapter 3

Case study 3.3

G r a s s We e d s C a s e S t u d i e s

Managing the rhizomatous Reed Sweet Grass (Glyceria maxima)

at Gingin Brook
Reed Sweet Grass (Glyceria
maxima) was introduced to
Australia as a pasture grass for
continuously and seasonally wet
areas (Humphries et al. 1991).
However, in Australia and New
Zealand it accumulates toxic levels
of hydrocyanic acid, which has
resulted in cattle deaths from
cyanide poisoning (DPIWE 2001).
A grass of temperate regions, Reed
Sweet Grass rapidly became a weed
of waterways and wet meadows in
southern Australia (Humphries et al.
1991, DPIWE 2001). Reaching heights
of over two metres, this robust
perennial is capable of rapidly
forming large infestations. Factors
contributing to its success include:

Prolific seeding throughout

summer and autumn especially
in newly establishing
populations (DPIWE 2001).

Varying levels of dormancy

(immediate germination
through to dormancy for
several years) (DPIWE 2001).

Development by seedlings of an
extensive mat of roots and
rhizomes in the first year of
growth (DPIWE 2001).

Quick expansion from the mat

of rhizomes, or underground
stems, which comprise 40-55 %
of the plants total biomass
(DPIWE 2001).

Growth in mats on water to one

metre deep, out-competing
native aquatic plants.

Spread of seed and rhizome

fragments in water, in mud on
machinery and vehicles, on
footwear and by livestock.

In Tasmania, a common control

method for larger infestations is
foliar spray using a 1-3 % solution of
glyphosate (Roundup Biactive)
during late summer through to early
autumn. Translocation of
photosynthates, and thus herbicide,
may be best at this time; the plant
is storing carbohydrates in the
rhizomes in preparation for
overwintering and growth in the
following season (DPIWE 2001).
Follow-up treatments early in the
following summer are recommended.
Plants that have more than about
one-third of their stems below water
might not be killed by herbicide.

Reed Sweet Grass at

Gingin Brook
Reed Sweet Grass is one of several
serious weeds invading the last
remaining Flooded Gum (Eucalyptus
rudis) Swamp Paperbark
(Melaleuca rhaphiophylla)
woodlands fringing the Gingin
Brook. With very little natural
vegetation remaining along the
brook, it was important to

Reed Sweet Grass forms a dense mass across the trial plot and surrounding areas.

24

implement a management strategy

that would remove the grass and
allow the native flora to recolonise
the area. Because the grass grows
closely amongst native vegetation,
the use of a non-selective herbicide
was inappropriate.
Treatment: To observe the
effectiveness of the grass-selective
herbicide Fusilade at controlling
Reed Sweet Grass, a single 5 m x 5
m plot was permanently marked.
The percentage cover of natives
and weeds was recorded and the
grass sprayed with Fusilade 10
mL/L plus Agral 3.5 mL/L late in
February, 2000.
Results: Before treatment, Reed
Sweet Grass covered 90 % of the
plot while the native Tassel Sedge
(Carex fascicularis) and Tall Sedge
(Carex appressa) covered the
remaining 10 %. By November 2000,
Reed Sweet Grass covered only 25 %
of the plot and most of this
appeared to be reinvasion from the
edges. Tassel Sedge and Tall Sedge
now covered 25 % of the plot and a
carpet of Carex seedlings and the
occasional Flooded Gum and Swamp
Paperbark seedling were recorded.
Scaling up: Given the encouraging
results, it was decided to spray the
whole population with 10 mL/L
Fusilade and Pulse. The trial plot
was also resprayed. It was planned

Reed Sweet Grass extending stolons into a

bare area.

Chapter 3

to spray the infestation twice over

summer when the area was dry.
Therefore, in contrast to the latesummer spray within the trial plot,
the initial treatment was carried out
in early summer (November 2000).
By February 2000, cover of Reed
Sweet Grass within the trial plot
(now sprayed twice) was reduced
to 5 %, Carex cover remained at
25 % and there were still many
Carex seedlings. There was also an
array of annual weeds and two
perennial weeds flourishing in the
bare soil. Outside the trial plot was

Case study 3.4

G r a s s We e d s C a s e S t u d i e s

a different story. Although Reed

Sweet Grass was damaged by the
November treatment, there was
still substantial cover across the
area. The November treatment was
clearly not as effective as the late
February treatment had been. This
may have resulted from the
different treatment time or the use
of a different wetting agent. Some
Carex plants were also damaged.
Unfortunately the second herbicide
application planned for late
summer could not be made due to
early rains that inundated the area.

Management implications: This

case study illustrates the possible
importance of timing and wetting
agent used in determining the
outcome of a particular treatment.
Before scaling up it is important to
consider all factors when looking at
the results of trials.
Note: Reed Sweet Grass quickly becomes a
large and vigorous plant and new
infestations should be treated immediately. If
control is delayed, eradication in one season
is improbable and follow-up work over at
least two or three seasons will be required
(DPIWE 2001).

Monitoring the effect of Fusilade treatment on Perennial Veldgrass

(Ehrharta calycina) and the native plant community in a Banksia woodland

At Blue Gum Lake, plots were put in
to record the effectiveness of a
Perennial Veldgrass (Ehrharta
calycina) control program and to
answer the question what will
return once Perennial Veldgrass
is controlled?.

The four year control program

adopted an integrated approach.
Contractors sprayed the dense
infestations with Fusilade at 4 L/ha
and the Friends of Blue Gum Lake
hand-weeded light infestations one
day each summer in the areas of
good bushland. Maps of the grass
distribution and density, created
prior to and after the control
program, provided a broad measure
of effectiveness (Figure 1a and 1b).
The Veldgrass density was
estimated for 20 metre squares on a
grid basis over the bushland.
Permanently marked plots to
monitor the changes in vegetation
composition, quantify the success
of the spray program and assess
the spray contractors efficiency
were put in place in August 1998.
Five treatment and five control
plots (each two metres by two
metres) were set up within a
densely infested area (Figure 2).
Mature and seedling Veldgrass
plants were counted. All other
species were recorded and the
percentage cover of weed species
within each plot estimated. When
the infestation was sprayed the
control plots were left untouched.
Each year, all plots were re-scored
immediately prior to treatment.

0 - 5%

6 - 20%

21 - 60%

61 - 100% cover

Figure 1. Perennial Veldgrass density and distribution at Blue Gum Lake in 1999 (a) and 2001 (b).

25

Chapter 3

G r a s s We e d s C a s e S t u d i e s

Figure 2. One of the 2 m x 2 m plots set up to monitor the Perennial Veldgrass control program at Blue Gum Lake

Results from counts of seedlings

showed the expected high numbers

26

a
60
control
treatment

50
40
30
20
10
0
1998

1999

2000
Year

2001

Less obvious were the changes in

species composition. In terms of
presence or absence there were no
apparent differences between
control and treatment plots.
Ursinia (Ursinia anthemoides)
increased in cover in the last year
(2001), but observations from
other bushland sites in the Perth
area suggest this was a good year
for the weed. Flatweed
(Hypochaeris glabra) cover

Mean number of Veldgrass seedlings

following the wildfire in the year

previous to the trials (Figure 3(b)).
Fire is known to enhance
germination of Perennial Veldgrass
seed (Milberg and Lamont 1995,
Myut 2001). The much lower
numbers in the control plots in
subsequent years suggests that
Veldgrass recruitment may be
density dependent, competition
from the resprouting adults limiting
seedling establishment.

Mean number of mature Veldgrass plants

In 1998 the spray contractors were

not available to treat the grass until
early September well past the
peak growth period and after the
plants had begun to flower. The kill
rate was disappointing and not
surprising given that Fusilade
should be applied pre-boot stage.
This was discussed with the
contractors who agreed to address
the matter. In 1999 the contractors
sprayed in June, which is too early!
It was not until 2000 that the plants
were sprayed at the correct time
just before flowering, in mid July.
Research at Kings Park, Perth, has
shown how crucial timing is for the
control of Perennial Veldgrass
(Dixon 1998a). It is important to
wait until the majority of the new
seasons adventitious buds are
actively growing to allow sufficient
herbicide to be taken into the plant,
but not leave it so long that
flowering has begun. The results
from monitoring plots provided the
evidence to both contractors and
local council about the importance
of timing (Figure 3(a)).

b
60
control
treatment

50
40
30
20
10
0
1998

1999

2000
Year

2001

Figure 3. Mean number of mature Perennial Veldgrass clumps (a) and Perennial Veldgrass
seedlings (b) in control and treatment plots at Blue Gum Lake from 1998 to 2001.

Chapter 3

fluctuated throughout the period

and all other weeds reduced in
cover or remained similar. There
was no influx of weeds following
the Veldgrass removal which was
encouraging but nor was there an
increase in native germination.

G r a s s We e d s C a s e S t u d i e s

The impacts of grass-specific

herbicides on native plant
communities are thought to be
minimal. The sedges, rushes and
many geophytes (orchids, native
lilies, etc.) which are monocots like
grasses, may however be

particularly susceptible. From

monitoring of plots at Blue Gum
Lake it appears that Fusilade
applied between June and
September, has little impact on a
range of native species (Table 1).

Table 1. Native species occurring in the monitoring plots unaffected by the Fusilade treatment.

Annual herbs
Crassula colorata
Homalosciadium homalocarpum
Lobelia tenuior
Perennial herbs
Conostylis aculeata
Desmocladus fasciculatus
Desmocladus flexuosa
Dianella revoluta
Isotropis cuneifolia
Lepidosperma angustatum
Lepidosperma spp
Lomandra caespitosa
Lomandra hermaphrodita
Lomandra preissii
Lomandra sp.
Lyginia barbata
Opercularia vaginata
Patersonia occidentalis
Phlebocarya ciliata
Schoenus curvifolius
Tricoryne elatior
Perennial herbs-geophytes
Burchardia congesta
Caesia micrantha
Drosera menziesii ssp menziesii
Microtis media
Pyrorchis nigricans
Sowerbaea laxiflora
Thysanotus manglesianus

Perennial grasses
Austrodanthonia caespitosa
Austrostipa compressa
Shrubs
Acacia stenoptera
Bossiaea eriocarpa
Dampiera linearis
Dasypogon bromeliifolius
Eriostemon spicatus
Eucalyptus calophylla
Gompholobium aristatum
Gompholobium tomentosum
Hardenbergia comptoniana
Hibbertia hypericoides
Hibbertia racemosa
Hovea pungens
Hovea trisperma
Hypocalymma robustum
Jacksonia furcellata
Kennedia prostrata
Lechenaultia floribunda
Leptomeria empetriformis
Macarthuria australis
Petrophile linearis
Pimelea rosea

27

Chapter 3 Grass Weeds Management Table

Species

Common name

Lifeform Growth
form

Photosynthetic
pathway

Staggered
germination

Growing
season

Flowering

Reproductive unit

Dispersal agent

Seedbank persistence
(years)

Alopecurus
myosuroides

Slender Foxtail

C3

win-spr

spr

seed

mammal

4+

Ammophila arenaria

Marram Grass

C3

spr?

spr-sum

rhizome (seed)

water, wind,
mammal

(some seed/seed sterile?)

Anthoxanthum
odoratum

Sweet Vernal Grass

r/c

C3

win-spr

spr-sum

seed, rhizomes

water, wind, bird,

mammal, slash

short-med-long?

Arundo donax

Giant Reed

C3

spr-aut

sum

rhizomes, (seed)

water
(bird, wind)

(rarely seeds)

Avena barbata

Bearded Oat

C3

no

win-spr

spr

seed

mammal, wind

3+ (shorter unburied)

Avena fatua

Wild Oat

C3

yes

win-spr

spr

seed

mammal, wind

10 (shorter unburied)

Axonopus compressus

Broad-leaved Carpet
Grass

r/s

C4

spr-sum

sum-aut

seed, stolon

wind

short

Brachypodium
distachyon

False Brome

C3

aut-win

spr

seed

mammal, wind

Briza spp
(B. maxima, B. minor)

Blowfly Grass

C3

late
aut-win

spr

seed

water, wind,
mammal, slash

Bromus diandrus

Great Brome

C3

win-spr

spr

seed

mammal, wind

short

Bromus hordeaceus

Soft Brome

C3

win-spr

spr

seed

mammal, wind

short

Bromus rigidus

Rip Gut

C3

win-spr

spr

seed

mammal, wind

short?

Cenchrus ciliaris

Buffel Grass

C4

spr-aut

opportunistic

seed, short rhizome

wind, mammal,
water, bird

5+

Cenchrus echinatus

Mossman River Grass

C4

warmer
months

opportunistic

seed

wind, mammal

mod

Cortaderia selloana

Pampas Grass

C3

win-sum

opportunistic

seed, rhizome

wind, water,
slash, mammal

Cynodon dactylon

Couch

s/r

C4

spr-aut

sum

seed, rhizome,
stolon

water, ant, wind,

slash,

3-4

Cynosurus echinatus

Rough Dog's Tail

C3

sum

seed

Dactylis glomerata

Cocksfoot

C3

variable

spr-sum

seed, tillers

water, animal,
slash,

1-4+

Digitaria ciliaris

Summer Grass

C4

spr-aut

sum

seed

Digitaria sanguinalis

Crab Grass

C4

spr-aut

sum

seed

Echinochloa crusgalli

Barnyard Grass

C4

spr-aut

sum

seed

water, bird

1-9+

C3

spr

seed

Ehrharta brevifolia

no

Ehrharta calycina

Perennial Veldgrass

c/sr

C3

cooler
months

spr (2
flushes)

seed, short rhizome

water, wind, bird,

mammal, slash

short-med

Ehrharta erecta

Panic Veldgrass

c/sr

C3

slows in hot
conditions

spr-sum
(all year)

seed, short rhizome

water, wind, bird,

slash

short 1yr/long lived?

Ehrharta longiflora

Annual Veldgrass

C3

aut-spr

win-spr

seed

water, wind,
mammal, slash

1+

Ehrharta villosa

Pyp Gras

C3

spr-sum

spr-sum

rhizome, seed?

Eragrostis curvula

African Lovegrass

C4

warmer
months

opportunistic

seed

water, wind,
mammal, slash

Glyceria maxima

Reed Sweet Grass

C3

spr-aut

sum

seed, rhizome

water

Hainardia cylindrica

Common Barbgrass

C3

win-spr

spr-sum

seed

wind, water,
mammal

Holcus lanatus

Yorkshire Fog

C3

win-spr

spr-sum

seed

wind, water,
mammal

Holcus setiger

Annual Fog

C3

yes

aut-win

spr

seed

mammal

Hordeum glaucum,
H. leporinum,
H. marinum
Hyparrhenia hirta

Northern Barley Grass,

Barley Grass, Sea Barley

C3

yes

aut-win

spr

seed

mammal

Tambookie Grass

C4

warmer
months

sum

erratic seeder,
tiller

28

yes

med-long?

Lifeform: a = annual, p = perennial. Growth form: c = caespitose, r = rhizomatous, s = stoloniferous, sr = shortly rhizomatous. Photosynthetic pathway: C3 =
cool season grass, C4 = warm season grass. Growing season: usual period of active growth. Flowering: period over which grass flowers.
Seedbank persistence: length of seed viability in years (where known).

med

4+

Chapter 3 Grass Weeds Management Table

Fire response

Suggested methods of management and control

killed

References
17, 60, 167, 242

resprouts

Dig out very small infestations; spray with glyphosate 1 % + penetrant.

281, 256, 30, 167, 242

resprouts

Cut out plants, ensure rhizomes are removed; spray with grass-selective herbicide in winter/spring. Follow-up with seedling control.

231, 260, 241, 30, 167, 242

resprouts

Cut down close to ground and paint with neat glyphosate; carefully spot spray regrowth with 1 % glyphosate before 60 cm high (requires 4-6
treatments) or Verdict 120 10 mL/L + wetting agent or Fusilade 10 mL/L + wetting agent.

162, 241, 316, 290, 300,

126, 193, 222, 167, 242

Spray at 3-5 leaf stage with Fusilade 10 mL/ 10 L (500 mL/ha) + wetting agent; repeat over following 2 years.

17, 316, 237, 60, 228, 222,

167, 242

Spray at 3-5 leaf stage with Fusilade 10 mL/ 10 L (500 mL/ha) + wetting agent; repeat over following 2 years.

17, 316, 237, 60, 228, 222,

167, 242, 156

Spray when actively growing from spring to autumn with 8 mL/L (4 L/ha) Fusilade +wetting agent.

17, 316, 222, 167, 242

Prevent seed set. Spray in winter 1 % glyphosate.

60, 222, 167, 242

Prevent seed set - hand pull or spray at 3-5 leaf stage with Fusilade 10 mL/ 10 L (500 mL/ha) + wetting agent; repeat for 2 - 3 years.

231, 212, 30, 313, 228,

222,167, 242

Prevent seed set - hand pull or spray at 3-5 leaf stage with Fusilade10 mL/ 10 L (500 mL/ha) + wetting agent; repeat following year if required.

154, 300, 60, 228, 167, 242

Prevent seed set - hand pull or spray at 3-5 leaf stage with Fusilade 5 mL/10 L (250 mL/ha) + wetting agent; repeat following year if required.

165, 60, 228, 167, 242

Prevent seed set - hand pull or spray at 3-5 leaf stage with Fusilade 10 mL/ 10 L (500 mL/ha) + wetting agent; repeat following year if required.

154, 60, 167, 242

Cut out small populations, entire plants with dormant buds must be removed; spray with Fusilade 600 mL/ha + wetting agent or spot spray with
glyphosate 1 %. Follow-up with seedling control.

241, 307, 33, 208, 300, 289,

310, 101,167, 242

Prevent seed set, spray with Verdict 520 5 mL/10 L (250 mL/ha) + wetting agent or spot spray with glyphosate 1 %. Follow-up with seedling control.

241, 248, 95, 289, 101, 222,

167, 242

resprouts

Cut out small plants, do not leave uprooted plants lying on ground - they can resprout; remove flower heads - slash/burn clumps and spray regrowth
with 1 % glyphosate . Treat young plants with 0.5 % Fusilade plus spray oil. May require more than one application.

231, 21, 152, 134, 241, 300,

30, 331, 228, 222,167, 242

resprouts

Solarisation; shade out; spray Fusilade 5 mL/L + wetting agent in late spring/summer and then in autumn or glyphosate 1 %;
follow-up always required. Particularly effective after fire.

231, 307, 241, 59, 24, 289,

53, 222, 101,167, 242

Spot spray 50g 2,2 DPA + wetter in 10 L of water.

222

Cut out plants; slash/burn clumps and spray regrowth with glyphosate 1 %. Follow-up with seedling control over following years.

231, 30, 17, 241, 298,167,

242

Spray 0.5 % glyphosate in spring/summer or Verdict 520 2 mL/10 L (100 mL/ha) + wetting agent.

241, 222, 247,167, 242

Spray 1 % glyphosate in spring.

300,167, 242

Prevent seed set; intolerant of dense shade; spray Verdict 520 5 mL/10 L (250 mL/ha) + wetting agent at 3-5 leaf stage up to first tillering.

17, 118, 222,167, 242

fire rare in habitat

but survives

resprouts, stimulates
seed production

resprouts, increases

probably killed

Spot spray 1 % glyphosate.

resprouts, enhances seed
production and germination

Cut out - ensure crown removal; spray with Fusilade 8 mL/L (4L/ha) + wetting agent - follow-up in subsequent years; utilise unplanned fires and
spray regrowth and seedlings within 4-6 weeks. Do not slash.

231, 97b, 216, 102, 289, 68,

167, 242

resprouts, enhances seed

production and germination

Cut out small populations removing all rhizomes; spray with Fusilade; utilise unplanned fires and spray regrowth and seedlings within 4-6 weeks.

231, 210, 167, 242

Hand pull; spray with Fusilade 20 mL/10 L + wetting agent before flowering stem emerges; or 10 mL/ 10 L (500 mL/ha) at 3-5 leaf stage - secondary
seedling flush often occurs - repeat if necessary.

231, 30, 228, 222, 167, 242

resprouts

Spray with Verdict 520 10 mL/ 10 L (500 mL/ha) or glyphosate 1 % + penetrant.

228, 222, 167

resprouts

Cut out small plants; spray with 1 % glyphosate; utilise unplanned fires and spray regrowth at 5-10 cm. Always requires follow-up treatment.

231, 345, 248, 92, 102, 228,

167, 242

resprouts

Spray monocultures with 1 % glyphosate + Pulse or Fusilade (10 mL/L) + Agral (3.5 mL/L) towards end of summer, respray begining of
following summer.

240, 21, 96, 167, 242

167, 242

resprouts

Spray glyphosate 0.5 %

17, 60, 30, 222, 167, 242,

222

Spray glyphosate 0.5 %

167, 242, 222

Prevent seed set - hand pull or spray with Fusilade 10 mL/ 10 L (500 mL/ha) + wetting agent 4-6 weeks after opening rains .

228, 222, 167, 242

Cut out small populations - ensure tiller bud removal; spray with 1 % glyphosate between November and March. Spray seedlings at 5 leaf stage with
Fusilade at 20 mL/10 L (1L/ha) or slash in spring and spot spray regowth when 15cm high with glyphosate.

247, 313, 209, 167, 242

29

Chapter 3 Grass Weeds Management Table

Species

Common name

Lifeform Growth
form

Photosynthetic
pathway

Staggered
germination

Growing
season

Flowering

Reproductive unit

Dispersal agent

Seedbank persistence
(years)

yes

win-spr

spr-sum

seed

mammal, wind

2-3
2-4

Lagurus ovatus

Hare's Tail Grass

C3

Lolium rigidum

Annual Ryegrass

C3

win-spr

spr-sum

seed

water, wind,
mammal

Lolium temulentum

Darnel

C3

win-spr

spr-sum

seed

water, wind

Melinis repens

Natal Redtop

C4

warmer
months

sum

seed

Parapholis incurva

Coast Barbgrass

C3

aut-win

spr

seed

Paspalum dilatatum

Paspalum

c/sr

C4

late spr-early
aut

sum

seed, short rhizome

animal, water,
wind

Paspalum distichum

Water Couch

s/r

C4

spr-aut

sum

stolon, rhizome,
seed

water

Paspalum urvillei

Vasey Grass

c/sr

C4

spr-aut

spr-sum

seed

Paspalum vaginatum

Saltwater Couch

C4

spr-aut

sum

Pennisetum
clandestinium

Kikuyu

s/r

C4

warmer
months

sum

rhizomes, stolons

water, wind

seed rare

Pennisetum
macrourum

African Feather Grass

c/r

C4

spr-aut

sum

seed, rhizomes,
tillers

water, wind

Pennisetum purpureum

Elephant Grass

c/r

C4

spr-aut

spr-sum

rhizomes, tillers,
seed?

wind, water, bird

viable seed?

Pennisetum setaceum

Fountain Grass

C4

spr-aut

spr-sum

seed

wind,water,
mammal, slash

6+

Pentaschistis airoides

False Hair Grass

C3

win

spr

seed

Pentashchistis pallida

Pussy Tail

C3

win

spr

seed

wind, ant

Phalaris minor

Lesser Canary Grass

C3

win-spr

spr-sum

seed

wind, water,
mammal

Phleum arenarium

Phleum

C3

win

spr

seed

wind, water

Phragmites australis

Common Reed

r/s

C3

spr-sum

sum

rhizomes, stolons,
(seed)

wind, water

Piptatherum
miliaceum

Rice Millet

C3

win-spr

spr-sum

seed

mammal, wind,
water

Poa annua

Winter Grass

C3

win-spr

spr

seed

wind, water

Polypogon maritimus

Coast Beardgrass

C3

win-spr

spr-sum

seed

Polypogon
monspeliensis

Annual Beardgrass

C3

win-spr

spr-sum

seed

Rostraria cristata

Annual Cat's Tail

C3

win

spr

seed

Rostraria pumilla

Rough Cat's Tail

C3

win

spr

Sorghum halepense

Johnson Grass

C4

spr-sum

sum

seed, rhizome

Spinifex sericeus

Spinifex

C4

spr-sum

late
spr-sum

stolon, seed?

Sporobolus africanus

Paramatta Grass

C4

spr-sum

late
spr-sum

seed

wind, water,
mammal

Stenotaphrum
secundatum

Buffalo Grass

C4

less active
in winter

sum

rhizomes, stolons,
some seed

water

seed rare

Tribolium uniolae

Tribolium

c/sr

C3

spr

spr-sum

seed,
short rhizome

water, wind, ant

Urochloa mutica

Para Grass

C4

late
spr-sum

irregular

stolon, (irregular
seeder)

wind, water

(seed set variable)

Vulpia bromoides

Squirrel's Tail Fescue

C3

win-spr

spr

mammal, water

persistent (med?)

Vulpia myuros

Silver Grass, Rat's Tail

Fescue

C3

win-spr

spr

mammal, water

2-3

yes

seed

mammal, wind,
water

explosive, wind,
water, bird

Lifeform: a = annual, p = perennial. Growth form: c = caespitose, r = rhizomatous, s = stoloniferous, sr = shortly rhizomatous. Photosynthetic pathway: C3 =
cool season grass, C4 = warm season grass. Growing season: usual period of active growth. Flowering: period over which grass flowers.
Seedbank persistence: length of seed viability in years (where known).

30

establishment rare

5+

Chapter 3 Grass Weeds Management Table

Fire response

resprouts

Suggested methods of management and control

References

Prevent seed set - spray with 10 mL/ 10 L (500 mL/ ha) Fusilade + spray oil at 2-8 leaf stage before stem elongation.

60, 30, 228, 222, 167, 242

Prevent seed set - hand pull or spray with grass-selective herbicide 4-6 weeks after opening rains.

60, 228, 167, 242

Prevent seed set -spray with 10 mL/ 10 L (500 mL/ha) Fusilade + wetting agent before stem elongation.

60, 222, 167, 242

Cut out small populations. Spray 8 mL/L (2-4L/ha) Fusilade + wetting agent.

60, 241, 101, 167, 242

Cut out small populations - ensure rhizome removal; spray with grass selective herbicide or cut near ground level and immediately wipe with 10 %
glyphosate or spray adult plants10 mL/L Fusilade + wetting agent. Follow-up seedling control - spray 1 mL/L Fusilade + wetting agent.

231, 96, 247, 241, 222, 167,

242

Spray with glyphosate 1 %, 2-3 sprays over single growing season. Plant weed break to block spread into at risk habitats.

292, 228, 167, 242

Cut out small populations - ensure rhizome removal; slash and spray regowth with grass-selective herbicide or 1 % glyphosate. Follow-up seedling
control - spray 10 mL/L Fusilade + wetting agent.

247, 167, 242

As for P. distichium
resprouts

Solarisation over warmer months; spray with 1 % glyphosate or Fusilade 10 mL/L + wetting agent, 2-3 sprays over single growing season
often required.

231, 241, 21, 247, 53, 228,

167, 242

resprouts

Dig out small infestations; slash winter and/or spray with glyphosate 1 % + penetrant in spring to autumn. Follow up treatment until regrowth ceases follow-up seedling control.

21, 96, 149, 248, 30, 122,

167, 242, 150

resprouts

Dig out small infestations; slash winter and/or spray with glyphosate 1 % + penetrant in spring to autumn. Follow up treatment until regrowth ceases follow-up seedling control.

241, 167, 242

resprouts

Dig out small infestations; slash winter and/or spray with glyphosate 1 % + penetrant in spring to autumn. Follow up treatment until regrowth ceases follow-up seedling control.

314, 241, 26, 102, 53, 190,

167, 242
60, 167, 242

Prevent seed set - cut out or spray with grass-selective herbicide.

60, 167, 242

Prevent seed set - Spray 5 mL/L Fusilade + wetting agent.

60, 167, 242

60, 167, 242

resprouts

In summer dry areas, slashing over succesive years reduces biomass; spot spray with glyphosate.

60, 167, 129, 242, 315

Cut out young plants, slash larger clumps and spot spray with glyphosate.

60, 167, 242

60, 167, 242

Spot spray 1 % glyphosate.

167, 242, 222

Spot spray 1 % glyphosate.

60, 167, 242, 222

167, 242
167, 242

resprouts

Spray during first 2 weeks of season's growth - glyphosate 1 % (during summer); or 8 mL/10 L (400 mL/ha) Verdict 520 + wetting agent; avoid soil
disturbance; follow-up with spot sprays and seedling control.

resprouts

167, 234, 53, 21, 16, 293,

78, 53, 222, 242
167, 242

resprouts

Cut and bag seed head then dig out; slash large clumps in winter/spring and spray regrowth with glyphosate at label ra tes (summer/autumn).

167, 300, 27, 242

resprouts

Solarisation over warmer months; spray with glyphosate 1 %, 2-3 sprays over single growing season or 8 mL /L (4 L /ha) Fusilade + wetting agent.
Plant weed break to block spread into at risk habitats.

167, 231, 21, 228, 222, 242

resprouts

Spot spray with glyphosate 10 mL/L or Fusilade 12 mL/L + wetting agent prior to boot stage. Spot spray resprouting clumps and blanket spray
seedling flushes with Fusilade 10 mL/L + wetting agent.

167, 43, 242

resprouts

Spray with 2 % glyphosate.

167,241, 300, 289, 242

Prevent seed set - hand pull, spray with Select 10mL/ 10 L (500 mL/ha) (resistant to 'fops' group of herbicides) prior to boot stage.

228,167, 242

Prevent seed set - hand pull, spray with Select 10 mL/ 10 L (500 mL/ha) (resistant to 'fops' group of herbicides) prior to boot stage.

309, 228, 242

seed survives most fires

31

Cor ms, Bulbs

and Tubers

Chapter 4

T h e We e d s t h a t D i e B a c k t o F l e s h y U n d e r g r o u n d
Storage Organs
Dying back to underground storage organs is a strategy
to avoid drought and fire and to cope with low-nutrient
soils (Raunkaier 1934, Pate and Dixon 1982, Ruiters et
al. 1993). This strategy is employed by plants of
Mediterranean ecosystems across the world and these
plants are known as geophytes. Around 95 % of
geophytes introduced to south west Australia come
from the Cape Region of South Africa. Pre-adapted to
the Mediterranean climate, the nutrient-poor soils and
relatively frequent fires of south west Western
Australia, they pose a serious threat to bushland in the
region. The ability to invade relatively undisturbed
bushland makes them a particularly serious group of
environmental weeds.
Geophyte weeds can be found invading a range of plant
communities and conservation reserves across the
Swan Coastal Plain and Jarrah Forest. On the
Spearwood dunes at Shenton Bushland Freesia (Freesia
alba x leichtlinii), Yellow Soldier (Lachenalia reflexa),
Watsonia (Watsonia meriana) and Pink Gladiolus
(Gladiolus caryophyllaceus) are all serious invaders of
relatively undisturbed Banksia woodland. On the
heavier winter wet soils at Brixton Street Wetlands,
Harlequin Flower (Sparaxis bulbifera) and a number of
Watsonia species are widespread in the wetland and a
serious threat to the diverse native herblands. Babiana
(Babiana angustifolia), Hesperantha (Hesperantha
falcata), One Leaf Cape Tulip (Moraea flaccida) and
Black Flag (Ferraria crispa) are all present in small
populations on the disturbed edges. At the foot of
Darling Scarp, in the Talbot Road Bushland, Harlequin
Flower, Freesia and Bulbil Watsonia (Watsonia meriana
var. bulbillifera) are invading undisturbed Marri and
Banksia woodlands, displacing the native herbs that
make up much of the understorey. Just north of Perth
along the edges of the Gingin Brook, Arum Lily
(Zantedeschia aethiopica) and Taro (Colocasia
esculenta) are a serious threat to the last remaining
patches of Swamp Paperbark (Melaleuca rhaphiophylla)
and Flooded Gum (Eucalyptus rudis) woodlands. Most of
these bushlands are listed as regionally significant and
some support rare and threatened flora and threatened
plant communities. Geophyte weeds are one of the
greatest threats to their conservation values.
This chapter deals with the weedy geophytes as a
group as they often share common life-cycles and
similar reproductive biology. This in turn often relates
to similar control methods and management strategies.

32

A single plant of Watsonia meriana on the edge of shrublands in

Talbot Road Bushland.

In this chapter the life-cycles and reproductive biology

of the corms, the bulbs and then the tubers are
described. How this relates to their dispersal, spread,
establishment and persistence over time is covered
next. Towards the end of the chapter detailed case
studies illustrate how all this information relates to
management and how it can be used to control these
weeds where they are invading particular bushlands.
Finally a table of available control and management
information for 57 species of geophyte weeds is
presented.

Chapter 4

The underground storage organs;

life-cycles and reproduction
The underground storage organs of these weeds fall
into three categories; corms, bulbs or tubers
depending on the plant part that is modified to make
up the storage organ. Understanding their life-cycles
and reproductive biology is an important part of
knowing how to prevent spread and control these
sometimes indefatigable invaders.

The corms
Corms comprise underground swollen stems or stem
bases. The following naturalised genera Babiana,
Chasmanthe, Freesia, Gladiolus, Hesperantha, Watsonia,
Moraea, Sparaxis and Ferraria all die back to corms
over summer.

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers

Life-cycles
Almost without exception the weedy cormous plants in
south west Western Australia are summer-dormant
sending up their first shoots as the temperatures drop
with the autumn rains. Almost all have annually
renewed corms (Du Plessis and Duncan 1989). That is,
each year a new daughter corm, sometimes two, is
formed as the plant is actively growing. Meanwhile the
parent corm slowly exhausts and dies. Sometimes the
remains of the parent can be observed as a series of
plates below large old corms of Watsonia or woody
tunics on corms of Hesperantha.
Black Flag is an interesting exception. It has a column
of persistent perennial corms to which a new corm is
added each year (Box 4.1). Taro, a native of southeast
Asia, is another exception. It grows actively through
summer and has a perennial corm. Although dormant
through winter it doesnt always lose its leaves.

Reproduction
Cormous weeds are able to reproduce vegetatively in a
variety of ways.

Two or more daughter corms from the one parent

corm.

Axilliary buds formed on parent corms that go to

produce new plants when the growing shoot is
removed.

Tiny seed like cormels produced around the base

of the parent corm or along stems.

Most species also reproduce by seed and seed and

cormels are the main mechanisms for medium to long
distance dispersal.

Freesia forming stem cormels just after

flowering in late spring/early summer.

Basal cormels on Wavy Gladiolus

(Gladiolus undulatus).

Stem cormels on Bulbil Watsonia in

late spring, after flowering.

33

Chapter 4

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers

The bulbs

Reproduction

Bulbs are made up of swollen leaf bases. They form the

underground storage organs for many common weeds
such as Amaryllis, Allium, Lachenalia and Oxalis. The
bulbs of Lachenalia, Oxalis and Allium are annually
renewed while others such as Amaryllis are perennial.

Bulbous weeds reproduce vegetatively in a number

of ways.
Perennial bulbs such as Amaryllis and Narcissus
produce offsets or daughter bulbs each year.

Life-cycles

Oxalis produces new bulbs and bulbils that arise from

nodes along underground stems.

Most bulbous weeds are summer dormant, sending up

leaves as the temperatures drop with the first autumn
rains. Flowering and seed set take place at the end of
the growing season, in winter to late spring. There are
exceptions though. The flowers of Easter Lily
(Amaryllis belladonna) and some others in the family
Amaryllidaceae emerge in early autumn, often long
before the first rains with the leaves appearing after
flowering is finished.

Lachenalia bulbifera, as the name suggests, has a

frightening capacity to reproduce from bulbils formed
around the base of the bulb, along underground stems
and even along the base of leaves left lying around.
Lachenalia refexa (Yellow Soldier) has also been
observed to produce bulbils on the base of leaves
and flowering stems that have become separated from
the bulb.
Most bulbous weeds produce large amounts of seed
each year and seed appears to be a major mechanism
for dispersal into relatively undisturbed bushland.

Bulb offset forming in

Narcissus.

Bulbils forming on the

base of Yellow Soldier
stems.

Bubils forming on the end

of underground stems in
Finger Leaf Oxalis
(Oxalis glabra).

Bulbils forming along the stems of Lachenalia

bulbifera at flowering time.

34

Chapter 4

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers

The tubers

Reproduction

Tubers generally comprise swollen underground

stems or roots. Asparagus (A. asparagoides - Bridal
Creeper, A. declinatus - Bridal Veil, A. densiflorus Asparagus Fern and A. scandens - Climbing
Asparagus) arise from rhizomes (underground stems)
supported by a dense tuberous root mat. Arum Lily
arises from a large tuberous root sometimes referred
to as a rhizomatous tuber.

Vegetative reproduction in Bridal Creeper is via yearly

expansion of rhizomes supported by a perennial
tuberous root mat. The mat is usually five to ten
centimetres below the soil surface and up to 10
centimetres thick. The rhizomes have a series of shoot
buds along their length and new shoots always arise
from the rhizome, never directly from a tuber. This bud
bank confers local persistence and an ability to
withstand disturbance (Willis 2000).

Life-cycles
The species of Asparagus that occur as weeds in
bushland around Perth are all dormant over the
summer months with active growth triggered by falling
temperatures and the first rains in autumn.
Arum lily will retain green leaves year round if there is
sufficient water available. On drier sites it goes into
dormancy over summer.

The perennial tubers of Arum Lily produce offsets

throughout the growing season. Spread in this way is
very localised, less than 30 centimetres per year
(Moore 1997).
Both Arum Lily and Bridal Creeper produce large
amounts of viable seed each year.

Perennial tuberous root mat of Bridal Creeper

with a shoot coming from the rhizome.

Arum Lily tuber with tiny daughter

tubers starting to form.

35

Chapter 4

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers

Spread into undisturbed bushland

Most bulbous and cormous species originally establish
at bushland sites via dumped garden rubbish or soil.
Once established, production of daughter corms or
bulbs, unless there is extensive soil movement, only
allows for local expansion of existing populations. Seed
provides the major mechanism for medium to long
distance dispersal into undisturbed bushland.
The seeds of species such as Freesia, Sparaxis and
Lachenalia have no specialised adaptation for
dispersal, relying mainly on water or soil movement.
Gladiolus, and to a lesser degree Watsonia, with their
winged seeds, can also rely on wind for medium to
long distance dispersal (Goldblatt 1989, Goldblatt and
Manning 1998). The widespread distribution of Pink
Gladiolus throughout bushland around Perth is often a
reflection of its predominantly wind dispersed seed.
Fire appears to play a major role in the seedling
establishment of many of these species, facilitating the
expansion of populations into otherwise intact
bushland (Box 4.2).
For those species that do not set seed, movement into
relatively undisturbed bushland is reliant on soil
disturbance. Soursob (Oxalis pes-caprae), Finger Leaf
(O. glabra) and Four OClock (O. purpurea) rarely set
seed in the Perth area. Spread is almost entirely
dependent on movement of bulbs or bulbils. Left
undisturbed Soursob will only spread around ten
centimetres per year (Parsons and Cuthbertson 2001).
Consequently these weeds often occur on the
degraded edges of bushland and, without soil
disturbance, rarely spread into intact areas.
The tiny cormels produced around the base of
cormous species such as Wavy Gladiolus (Gladiolus
undulatus) and around the base and in the leaf axils of
Two Leaf Cape Tulip (Moraea miniata), also provide a
mechanism for medium to long distance dispersal and
for spread into undisturbed bushland. This can be via
water, soil movement, birds and human activity.

Birds are the agents of medium to long distance

dispersal of the fleshy berries of Arum Lily and the
small red berries of Bridal Creeper and the major
mechanism for establishment of new populations in
undisturbed areas (Stansbury 1996, Moore 1997).
Water flow and, for Arum Lily, foxes (ingesting seed),
also play a role.

Persistence of propagules
The seeds
Among natural populations within the Cape Region of
South Africa, the seeds of most geophytes do not
display dormancy and do not require fire-related cues
(smoke or heat) to germinate (Keeley and Bond 1997).
Interestingly horticulturists have found that with very
few exceptions the seed of South African geophytes
germinate easily, most in the first season after ripening
(Du Plessis and Duncan 1989).
The seed contained within the fleshy berries of Bridal
Creeper generally germinate or decay within two years
(Raymond 1996) and those of Arum Lily in less than six
months (Panetta 1988).
Observations in bushland around Perth certainly
suggest that, for many species, most seed germinate in
the first winter after ripening. Each year carpets of
seedlings can be observed among invading populations
of Freesia, Sparaxis, Lachenalia, Romulea and some
species of Gladiolus. However in a season immediately
following any control program where seed set is
prevented, few seedlings can be observed. So once
adult plants have been controlled follow-up work on
seedlings could be over in a few short years. There are
bound to be exceptions though.
Effective management will rely on detailed
information and research on individual species. In the
meantime it is important to remain vigilant for at least
five years following initial control of adult plants.

Scale x 1

Scale x 2

Scale x 5

Scale x 5

Seeds of a) Watsonia, b) Pink Gladiolus, c) Freesia, d) Harlequin Flower, e) Yellow Soldier.

36

Scale x 5

Chapter 4

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers

Box 4.1 Black Flag a growing concern

Black flag (Ferraria crispa) has been around as a garden escape in the Perth area for more than 100 years. It
was first collected by the botanist Alexander Morrison from east of Perth in 1898. It is now naturalised on
sandier soils in Banksia and Tuart woodlands from Perth around the coast to Busselton, in Karri forest around
Augusta and on sandier soils in Agonis woodlands near Albany. It has also been recorded from roadsides in the
Wheatbelt, 100 km east of Perth, near Cunderdin (Western Australian Herbarium 1998).
Currently Black Flag grows mainly in discrete patches on the disturbed edges of bushland and along roadsides.
Spreading both by corms and seed, occasional infestations can be found in the middle of relatively undisturbed
areas. Once established in bushland it can form dense monocultures excluding most native flora.
The unusual biology of Black Flag makes it of particular concern to anyone trying to protect native plant
communities from exotic invaders.
Each year plants produce a new corm that is added to a column of dormant, previous years corms. In
evolutionary terms the column is thought to be
half way between a corm and a rhizome (Du Plessis
and Duncan 1989).

Any herbicide application appears to knock

only the present and sometimes the previous
years corm, leaving all others intact.

The next corm down in the column generally

sprouts the following year.

Herbicide does not appear to be translocated

between corms in the columns.

If one of the dormant corms in the column is

dislodged it will sprout and go on to produce a
new plant.

Large amounts of seed are produced in late

spring.

Preventing Black Flag from becoming wide-spread

in bushland in the short term is going to depend
on careful physical removal of small infestations
as soon as they become apparent, or, for large
infestations, repeated herbicide application over
many years. Research into the biology of Black
Flag and management options are urgently
required.
For small infestations (approx 2 m x 2 m) on the
disturbed edge of bushland think seriously about
physical removal. But be warned if extreme care
is not taken your efforts could result in spreading
Black Flag even further. You may need to sieve soil
to get all corms and the level of soil disturbance will
be extreme. All material will require very deep
burial (more than a metre) away from your
bushland site. Place excavated material in a tough
garden bag and send to the local tip for deep burial.

The vegetative parts corms, bulbs, tubers,

offsets, cormels and bulbils.
Vegetative material can sometimes have greater
persistence in the soil than seed. The cormels of Two
Leaf Cape Tulip are known to remain viable in the soil
for at least eight years (Parsons and Cuthbertson 2001)
and cormels from Bulbil Watsonia also remain viable
for many years (Lamp and Collet 1989).

Corm dormancy has been reported in Moraea,

Gladiolus and Watsonia (Box 4.2). You may think you
have the weed under control when in fact there is a
population of dormant corms lying just beneath the
soil surface waiting for the next fire or other suitable
conditions to stimulate active growth.
For many species that arise from corms or produce
bulbils or cormels, follow-up work could be required
for several years.

37

Chapter 4

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers

Box 4.2 Fire and the geophyte weeds

Fire is the major disturbance in the Mediterranean
ecosystems of South Africa from where 95 % of our
bulbous and cormous weeds have come. Consequently
many have evolved life history traits that are strongly
tied to recurrent fire.

Mechanism for survival

Dying back to an underground storage organ over the
long dry summer is an extremely effective way of
surviving fire. Soil offers very effective insulation to the
corms or bulbs and some have contractile roots that
pull the storage organs of young plants deeper into the
soil helping avoid lethal fire temperatures (Bond and
van Wilgen 1996). When dormant in summer, most
cormous, bulbous and tuberous weeds will probably
survive all but the very hottest fires.

Pink Gladiolus flowering in the spring season following a summer

fire in Banksia woodland at Shenton Bushland.

Dormancy and fire-stimulated flowering

Some cormous and bulbous weeds, to varying degrees, are dormant between fires and sometimes between
seasons. That is, the corms remain dormant in the soil producing no leaves or flowers during the growing
season. Within Cape Tulip populations, for example, up to 60 % of corms may be dormant in any one season.
Fire often brings most corms out of dormancy but seasonal conditions including soil temperature and rainfall
also play a role (Parsons and Cuthbertson 2001).
Others flower particularly well following fire with fire-stimulated flowering commonly observed among many
geophytes where they occur naturally in southern Africa (Goldblatt 1978, Richardson et al. 1984, Le Maitre and
Brown 1992). Nearly all species of Watsonia flower profusely following veld fire (Goldblatt 1989). Some, such as
Watsonia borbonica, only flower for the first few seasons following fire (Le Maitre 1984). This mass flowering
corresponds with prolific seed production. Displays of Gladiolus are also striking in the first few seasons
following a burn, particularly in the winter rainfall areas on the nutrient-poor sandstone soils of the Cape
Region (Goldblatt and Manning 1998). It is also interesting to note that horticulturists commonly use smoke to
induce flowering in South African geophytes with Narcissus tazetta, Freesia and Crinum species all responding
favourably (Tompsett 1985, Mathew 1997).
Fire-stimulated flowering also appears to occur to some degree among populations of these plants where they
are invading the Mediterranean ecosystems of southern Australia. Interestingly both corm dormancy and firestimulated flowering have been recorded in Pink Gladiolus invading Banksia woodland near Perth (Marshall
2001). In the first season following fire workers recorded a mean of 42 flowering plants per one metre square
plot. Two years after the fire a mean of only 2.6 flowering plants was recorded. The total number of plants
(flowering and non-flowering combined) decreased from a mean of 54 per plot to 7 plants per plot. This work
indicates that most corms of Pink Gladiolus seem to go into dormancy between fires. How wide-spread the
phenomenon is among weedy geophytes requires further investigation as it has important implications for
management and control of cormous and bulbous weeds.

Seeds, seedlings and spread

Generally the seeds of these plants do not require the smoke or heat of fire for germination. Rather, it is
thought that the fire-stimulated flowering is actually linked to favourable post-fire conditions. For cormous and
bulbous plants the post-fire environment offers space and light for seed germination and seedling
establishment in the absence of larger trees and shrubs (Keeley and Bond 1997, Goldblatt and Manning 1998).
With mass flowering and prolific seed production followed by favourable conditions for seed
germination and seedling establishment, fire appears to be one of the major factors facilitating the
establishment of many of these weeds into otherwise undisturbed bushland.

A window of opportunity
Fire however also offers a significant opportunity to control bulbous, cormous and tuberous weeds in
bushland. Following a summer fire these weeds will often emerge in autumn, prior to regeneration of native
vegetation. The plants are clearly visible and the resprouting flowering bulbs, corms and resprouting tuberous
mats of bridal creeper are an easy target for herbicide control. Control of established populations and
prevention of seed production and further spread are achievable. It is an ideal time to control those species
such as Cape Tulip and Pink Gladiolus that are largely dormant between fires.
Additional resources should always be made available to control bulbous, cormous or tuberous weeds
following fire.

38

Chapter 4

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers

Management and control

Physical removal

Stopping the spread

Although hand-removal can be very labour intensive

and ties up a lot of resources it is often the most
appropriate and sometimes the only method of control
available. It is particularly appropriate for small
isolated populations in good bushland.

Understand the distribution of the weed across the

bushland by mapping the spread. This is an
important first step (chapter 7). Maps are the
basis for any strategy to limit further spread and
contain existing populations.

Target small populations in good bush and the

outliers of dense infestations (use the maps).

Determine if paths and water run-off are

contributing to spread of cormels, bulbils or seed.

Determine whether the sources of infestations are

old soil or rubble dumps. Sometimes the only
option may be physical removal of these dumps
(Box 4.3).

Avoid removing plant material at times of seed or

cormel production.

Avoid working in areas where weeds are actively

shedding seed.

Control in the season immediately following fire

will prevent seed set in established plants, reduce
seedling establishment in the post fire landscape
and prevent expansion of existing populations.

Targeting these isolated populations of weeds in

good bushland and preventing their establishment
and spread is the key to protecting undisturbed
plant communities.

Minimising soil disturbance

Physically removing weeds with fleshy underground
storage organs requires extreme care in handling. Soil
disturbance can lead to the establishment of other
weeds, particularly annual herbs (Hobbs and Atkins
1988, Hobbs 1991). In Shenton Bushland the soil
disturbance caused by physical removal of Yellow
Soldier bulbs caused an increase in the cover of annual
weeds such as Flat Weed (Hypochaeris glabra) and
French Catchfly (Silene gallica). To try and minimise
soil disturbance a range of tools are used for physically
removing bulbous, cormous and tuberous weeds. Such
tools include sharp knives, long screwdrivers and
narrow trowels for smaller plants such as Freesia and
Harlequin Flower and specially designed Peter levers
for Watsonia and Arum Lily.

Box 4.3 Dealing with sources of weed invasion into undisturbed bushland.
Old rubble/garden refuse dumps throughout Shenton Bushland appear to be one of the major sources of
cormous and bulbous weed invasion into undisturbed bushland. In late winter 2000 the Friends, City of Nedlands
with a group of community service workers, Green Corps and EWAN, removed one such dump that appeared to
be the source of Freesia invasion into the Banksia woodland at Shenton Bushland. The operation took five
working days and involved moving around 30 cubic metres of rubble, taken away for deep burial at a tip site.
The remaining bare ground was direct seeded with species of native herbs, shrubs and a few trees. The seed was
collected from adjoining Banksia woodland. The following autumn Slender Podolepis (Podolepis gracilis), Prickly
Moses (Acacia pulchella), Native Wisteria (Hardenbergia comptoniana) and Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) were
among the species germinating on the removal site. A few annual weeds were also present.

Green Corps team starting to remove the soil dump .

The site on completion of removal.

39

Chapter 4

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers

Timing is everything
Understanding the life-cycle of the weedy geophytes
over the growing season can mean the difference
between effective control and unwitting spread. For
many species hand-removal should only be carried out
early in the growing season.

Late in the growing season specialised roots

(known as contractile roots) drag annually
renewed corms or bulbs deeper down into the soil.
For the relevant species hand-removal is much
easier and causes a lot less soil disturbance if
undertaken early in the growing season e.g.
Freesia, Sparaxis and Watsonia.

Stem cormels and bulbils are produced towards

the end of the growing season. These are easily
dislodged and can contribute to the spread of the
weed you are trying to control e.g. Freesia,
Sparaxis bulbifera, Lachenalia bulbifera.

Oxalis species produce bulbils at the nodes of

underground stems later in the season, just after
flowering. These are easily dislodged and handremoval, after bulbil formation has occurred,
will generally contribute to their spread e.g.
Soursob, Finger Leaf Oxalis and Four OClock.

Towards the end of the growing season, as the

days get longer and warmer, many species finish
flowering and start producing seed (often
coincides with bulbil and cormel production).
When physically removing plants that are setting
seed ensure seed is not dislodged and spread
through the bushland as material is transported.

Arum Lily produces numerous tiny daughter

tubers that become dislodged during handremoval. This appears to happen throughout the
growing season.

The rhizomes attached to the tubers of Bridal

Creeper will produce new shoots from any tiny
fragments left behind.

Note: Physical removal of weeds such as Watsonia, Arum Lily or

Bridal Creeper on steeper slopes or along creeks and riverbanks can
lead to serious soil erosion.

fruits containing
seed

stem cormels

For the following species physical removal is

hazardous at any time.

Those species that produce masses of cormels

around the base are extremely difficult to
physically remove without dislodging and
spreading cormels any time of the year. The
cormels are tiny, float in water and easily stick
with mud to boots, tools and the feet of animals.
Physical removal needs to be undertaken
in a way that avoids releasing or dropping
cormels. e.g. Wavy Gladiolus, Long Tubed
Painted Lady (Gladiolus angustus) and
Two Leaf Cape Tulip. The parent
corm often confers dormancy on
cormels and its removal is often
followed by mass germination
of those cormels left behind.

Harlequin flower (Sparaxis bulbifera); a) Summer, dormant corm b) Late autumn, corm begins to sprout c) Early spring, flowering and corm
exhaustion d) Spring to early summer, leaves begin to die back, seed and stem cormels are formed.

40

Chapter 4

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers

Slashing leaves and stems

The herbicides

Repeated removal of leaves and stems of some species

of weedy geophytes over time can reduce population
density, reproductive output and plant vigour. It is
generally labour intensive, however, and often not
effective in the longer term. The few examples below
illustrate where it can be a useful tool, under certain
circumstances.

Important note: The following herbicides are currently the subject

of a minor use off-label permit in non-crop situations in Western
Australia. Application must comply with all conditions of the permit.
Available from: (http://permits.nra.gov.au/PER4984.PDF).

If Bridal Creeper is slashed back to the stem bases

every month over the growing season for several
years plants are severely weakened (J. Moore
pers. comm.). In bushland on Garden Island, just
off the coast of Perth, continual grazing by
Tammar wallabies has prevented Bridal Creeper
from becoming wide-spread on the island
(Keighery 1993).

Trials in the fringing vegetation along Bennett

Brook in Perth suggested that slashing Arum Lily
back to the base every month over the growing
season can, in the short term at least, greatly
reduce the number of adult plants in a population.
Plants were slashed to the base every month for
seven months over the 1999 growing season. Over
80 % of plants in the population did not resprout in
the 2000 season (Brown unpubl). The slashing was
done by hand with a sharp hoe and would be very
labour intensive over a broad area. The work
would need to continue over a number of years
and if left for any length of time populations would
probably quickly return to pre-treatment levels.

Work in South Australia has found if Bulbil

Watsonia plants are slashed at 15 centimetres or
less above the ground, at the first sign of a flower
spike, neither flower spike nor bulbils will be
produced in that year. In addition the plant will
form smaller corms the following year (Wilson and
Conran 1993).

Note: simply removing flower spikes to prevent seed set can

sometimes lead to more vigorous plants the following year. Work on
Pink Gladiolus in south west Western Australia found that removal of
flowers just as they were opening resulted in a larger replacement
corm (and presumably more vigorous plants that would be harder to
kill) the following year (Hocking 1992).

Chemical control methods

Chemical control of bulbous, cormous and tuberous
weeds is often the only practical option available for
dense infestations invading good bushland. It can be
practical on a large scale, avoids soil disturbance and
prevents soil erosion.
Herbicide application needs to be done by experienced
operators with the correct equipment, knowledge of
herbicides and an understanding of bushland and of
the native flora. Regardless of the herbicide,
application needs to be carefully timed to be effective
on many of the species dealt with in this chapter,
particularly the annually renewed bulbs and corms
(Box 4.4).
Note: Anyone applying herbicides should have appropriate training
in the safe use and handling of relevant chemicals (Chapter 8).

Glyphosate
When applied at the correct stage of the life-cycle, this
non-selective herbicide has been found to be effective
against a number of South African bulbous, cormous
and tuberous species. These include Freesia (Freesia
alba x leichtlinii), Ixia species (Dixon and Keighery
1995), Watsonia (Day 1993) and Bridal Creeper
(Pritchard 2002). Glyphosate is an acceptable option
where the weeds occur in dense monocultures on the
disturbed edges of bushland. However these weeds
often grow closely amongst native vegetation and the
use of non-selective herbicides can lead to
unacceptable off-target damage unless the application
method is very carefully targeted (Box 4.2 and Box 4.3).

Metsulfuron methyl
Following the introduction of the sulfonylurea group of
herbicides in early 1980s, metsulfuron methyl (Brushoff, Ally) in particular has been found to be very
effective against a number of South African
bulbous/cormous species. These include Soursob
(Peirce 1998), Bridal Creeper (Pritchard 1991, Dixon
1996), Freesia (Dixon 1998b), Harlequin Flower (Meney
1999, Brown and Brooks in press c) and Yellow Soldier
(Brown et al. 2002). Interestingly, some of these studies
suggest that many native species are resistant to the
effects of metsulfuron methyl at rates of 5 g/ha and
below (Dixon 1996, Meney 1999, Moore 1999, Brown et
al. 2002, Brown and Brooks in press c). This is an area
that requires further study and any use of the
sulfonylurea group of herbicides in bushland needs
very careful consideration. Metsulfuron methyl can
remain active in dry alkaline soils and is absorbed by
roots for many months following application (Parsons
1995, Noy 1996, Sarmah et al. 1998).

Chlorsulfuron
Also of the sulfonylurea group of herbicides,
chlorsulfuron (Glean) is known to be effective on
Arum Lily (Moore and Hoskins 1997), Cape Tulip
(Parsons and Cuthbertson 2001) and Harlequin Flower
(Brown and Brooks 2002). The impacts of chlorsulfuron
on native plants that co-occur with these weeds are
not well understood. Trials on Harlequin Flower
invading herb-rich shrublands in the Brixton Street
Wetlands indicated chlorsulfuron had an impact on
some native herbs (Brown and Brooks in press c).
Important note: Both metsulfuron methyl and chlorsulfuron can
inflict damage to vegetation at very low concentrations. Both can
remain active in the soil for some months following application. They
should only be spot sprayed on target species invading native
bushland and always by well-qualified responsible operators with a
thorough knowledge of the native flora.

2,2-DPA
Reported to successfully control Watsonia invading
remnant native vegetation. Sprayed at a rate of 10 g/L,
2,2-DPA has little impact on a range of native species
(Moore and Fletcher 1994, Brown and Brooks unpubl.).

41

Chapter 4

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers

Targeted application techniques

Sometimes the only option for effective control is a

non-specific herbicide such as glyphosate. The
herbicide needs to be carefully targeted so that only
the weed, often growing closely amongst native
vegetation, is treated. An example of a successful
targeted application technique in practice is the
effective control of Watsonia invading native bushland
on the Darling Scarp (Day 1993). Using a 500 mL spray
bottle with a sponge wired over the nozzle, a 10 %
solution of glyphosate is wiped onto individual leaves
just before flowering, at corm exhaustion. Community
volunteers have controlled large populations of Watsonia
and contained the spread of the weed using this method.
The effectiveness of this treatment was recorded at
three bushland sites
across the Swan
Coastal Plain from
1999-2001 with some
interesting results
(case study 4.2).

Wiping Watsonia leaves in spring in

Shenton Bushland.

For the smaller

cormous and bulbous
species wiping leaves
of individual plants is
not practical. In
Shenton Bushland for
example there were
up to 1700 bulbs of
Yellow Soldier in a
single 2 m x 2 m plot.
With limited resources
available wiping
individual plants was
not an option (case
study 4.1).

Biological control
Biological control is presently available for Bridal
Creeper. In 1999 CSIRO released a leafhopper that
weakens the plant by sucking sap, causing a silver
patterning on leaves and reducing seed set. It is a very
useful tool for preventing the spread of large
infestations that are either inaccessible or beyond the
resources of current control programs. A rust fungus
has been released and is also available for the control
of Bridal Creeper. Infected plants shed leaves early and
are severely weakened. The rust is slow to spread
through established populations of Bridal Creeper.

Recording effectiveness of control methods

and regeneration of native plant communities
It is important to have in place objective methods for
assessing effectiveness of control methods over time
so treatments and management strategies can be
adjusted accordingly.

42

Maps of a particular weed species in a patch

of bush: These provide good base line
information for a control program, and over time,
if updated, will provide a record of the
effectiveness of that program.

Fixed photo points: Although an interesting

record, fixed photo points do not provide
quantitative information on the overall success of
the program or the degree of follow-up required.
They also provide very limited information on the
impact of a control program on the native plant
community. As long as the limitations are
recognised, photo points can be a useful tool for
recording change over time. Photos were
particularly useful for recording the highly visable
changes that occurred following removal of Taro
along the Gingin Brook, (case study 4.3), and for
recording the change in Watsonia treatment sites,
as long as they were accompanied by a detailed
species list. They were not so useful for recording
change following the removal of smaller cormous
weeds such as Harlequin Flower in the diverse
plant communities at Brixton Street.

For more information Elzinga et al. (2001) provides

very detailed information on setting up photo point
monitoring and studies where repeat photography has
been used to monitor long-term change.
Importantly though, distribution maps and photos will
not record in any detail changes in weed populations.
Recording the density and frequency of particular
weeds from year to year is often vital in assessing the
effectiveness of a control program. Also, when
undertaking any weed management program in
bushland, the focus is not simply on eliminating weeds
but on protection of intact native plant communities. It
is important to have an understanding of what impacts
the control work is having and what moves in once the
target weed/s have been controlled. In the incredibly
diverse flora of south west Western Australia this can
be a complex task. At one site on the eastern side of
the Swan Coastal Plain there are over 300 native plant
species in only 19 hectares and up to 80 in a 10 m x 10
m plot. It is important to know and understand these
systems if they are to be managed effectively for nature
conservation. Some methods used to collect
information on change over time in populations of
weeds that die down to underground storage organs
and co-occurring native species are described in case
studies on Yellow Soldier (case study 4.1), Watsonia
(case study 4.2), Taro (case study 4.3) and Harlequin
Flower (case study 4.4).
Note: With bulbous, cormous and tuberous weeds, until they begin
active growth in the growing season following herbicide application,
it is often not possible to know how many plants including the
storage organ, have been killed. It may be nine months after
treatment before you can assess effectiveness of a control program.

Key points

South African geophytes are one of the most

serious groups of bushland weeds in south west
Western Australia.

Once established on disturbed edges they can

invade relatively undisturbed bushland, generally
via seed or cormels, form dense monocultures and
displace native plant communities.

Fire appears to facilitate establishment of

seedlings and expansion of populations.

Chapter 4

Fire also offers a valuable window of opportunity

for control.

Understanding the life-cycles of these weeds is an

integral part of effective chemical and physical
control and preventing spread into intact
bushland.

Dealing with weedy geophytes invading bushland can

be a complex task. The information in the following
case studies illustrates that with a consistent and
carefully targeted effort over time, effective control and
containment of populations can be achieved. The case

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers

studies cover managing and controlling the spread of

the Yellow Soldier, two species of Watsonia, Harlequin
Flower and Taro where they are invading wetlands and
woodlands around Perth. The final table provides
detailed, species-specific information on control
techniques where they are known. The information in
the table also highlights the many species of weedy
geophytes that have similar life-cycles and reproductive
biologies. The next chapter looks at a much more
diverse group of weeds, the broadleaf herbs that are
not geophytes and the sedges and the succulents.

Box 4.4 Timing herbicide treatment

Annually renewed corms and bulbs
For those species with annually renewed corms and bulbs, the
most effective time for herbicide application is when the parent
corm or bulb has shrivelled and the new daughter corm/bulb has
only partly developed. This usually occurs just before or just at
flowering. Apply the herbicide too early and the parent corm/bulb
could have enough reserves to survive; too late and the daughter
corm/bulb will not be affected.
In addition herbicide application at this time prevents the
development of bulbils in many species. This is particularly
important with Oxalis pes-caprae, O. glabra and O. purpurea where
new bulbils are formed on the nodes of underground stems each
year (Du Plessis and Duncan 1989, Peirce 1990, 1998). If herbicide
application takes place after bulbils have begun to develop they
will probably survive and go on to produce new plants the
following season.

Perennial corms

developing daughter
corm
exhausted
parent corm
remains of
previous years
corms

Corm exhaustion in Watsonia meriana late winter.

Only two species dealt with here arise from perennial corms, Black
Flag (Ferraria crispa) and Taro (Colocasia esculenta). Timing for
control of Black Flag is quite problematic as the parent corm does not shrivel and die as the new corm
develops, so effectively there is no corm exhaustion. In addition there is a series of previous years corms
below the parent which appear to be joined by a fine thread of living tissue and it is not known if herbicides
can be translocated between these corms (Box 4.1)
Effective control of Taro was obtained by cutting and painting the bases in early to mid summer with
glyphosate and spraying regrowth in late summer with glyphosate and metsulfuron methyl (Case Study 4.3).
Some workers have noted that excessive sap movement when cutting bases early in the season prevents cut
stumps from taking up herbicide.

Perennial bulbs
The lowest dry weight of a perennial bulb generally occurs just when all the leaves are up but before flowering
(Dafni et al.1981). This is probably the time plants would be most vulnerable to herbicide application. An
interesting exception is the Easter Lily (Amaryllis belladonna) which belongs to a group of bulbs that flower as
temperatures drop with the first rains before the leaves come up. Dry weight in the perennial bulbs with this
kind of life-cycle is generally lowest as the new leaves emerge, a couple of months after flowering (Dafni et al.
1981) and this is probably the best time to apply herbicide.

Perennial tubers
Herbicide application to Arum Lily is effective throughout its period of active growth (Moore and Hoskins 1997,
Brown unpublished data). Early herbicide application prevents the majority of the population flowering and
setting seed but misses tubers that begin active growth later in the season.
Studies on Bridal Creeper (Asparagus asparagoides) have shown herbicide application to have an impact from
flowering through to the green berry stage, although is most effective at flowering (Pritchard 2002).

43

Chapter 4

Case study 4.1

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers Case Studies

Managing the spread of Yellow Soldier (Lachenalia reflexa)

in a Banksia woodland
Impacts on natives

This study investigated the

effectiveness of hand-removal and
two herbicide treatments on the
control of Yellow Soldier
(Lachenalia reflexa). Trials took
place in the species-rich
Banksia/Jarrah woodland in
Shenton Bushland. The impact of
each treatment on the native flora
was also recorded.

Effectiveness of treatments
Hand-removal (1998 & 1999) over
two seasons left all natives intact
but was very labour intensive,
reducing cover of Yellow Soldier by
only 44 %. It also triggered
germination of annual weeds.
Wiping the leaves (1998) of
individual plants with a 10 %
glyphosate solution was not
effective and was also very labour
intensive.
Spot spraying (1999) with
metsulfuron methyl at 0.2 g/15 L (5
g/ha) reduced the cover of Yellow
Soldier by 65 % in one season and
appeared to have no significant
impact on native shrubs or herbs
including native geophytes.

Carefully hand-removing Yellow Soldier in

Shenton Bushland.

Measuring cover of all species

in treatment plots
The point quadrat method
(Bonham 1989) was used to
determine percentage-overlapping
cover (referred to as cover) for all
species using 200 points within
each plot (2 m x 2 m). There were
five replicates of each treatment.

44

Percentage cover

The control (do nothing) Yellow

Soldier increased in cover by over
30 % between 1998 and 2000.

55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5

control
hand removal
herbicide

control
hand removal
herbicide

15
Percentage cover

Yellow Soldier (Lachenalia reflexa).

The herbicide treatments did not

significantly affect native shrubs or
perennial herbs, with both groups
increasing in cover in the treatment
plots over two years. Although the
impacts of the metsulfuron
treatment on native geophytes
appeared not to be significant it was
difficult to assess. There was a large
variation across the trial sites in
both cover (which is naturally low),
and in species. Of the eight species
present only one, Milkmaid
(Burchardia congesta), was present
in all 15 plots. Leafy Sundew
(Drosera stolonifera), Vanilla Lily
(Sowerbaea laxiflora), Climbing
Fringe Lily (Thysanotus
manglesianus), and Haemodorum
spp. were present in most plots
with Pale Grass Lily (Caesia
micrantha) and Red Beak Orchid
(Pyrorchis nigricans) occurring only
occasionally.

10

1998

1999
Year

2000

Figure 2. Cover of native geophytes in

control, hand-removal and herbicide
treatment plots in 1998, 1999 and 2000.
The bars indicate standard errors.

Implications for management

1998

1999
Year

2000

Figure 1. Cover of Yellow Soldier in control,

hand-removal and herbicide treatment plots
in 1998,1999 and 2000. The bars indicate
standard errors.

Yellow Soldier still comprised 12 %

of cover in 2000 therefore indicating
that any broad scale application
would need to be carefully followed
up for a number of years following
initial application to ensure reinvasion does not occur.
In the species-rich Banksia
woodland at Shenton Bushland,
Yellow Soldier co-occurs with up to
25 native species in a 2 m x 2 m plot

Chapter 4

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers Case Studies

and the current policy is to allow

indigenous species to recolonise
treated sites unassisted.
One of the major weeds that
invades sites where bulbous weed
control has taken place on the
sandy soils of the Swan Coastal
Plain is Perennial Veldgrass
(Ehrharta calycina). A spray
program using Fusilade is
successfully controlling this weed
over much of Shenton Bushland
including the study site.

Stopping the spread

The distribution of Yellow Soldier in
Shenton Bushland is not dependent
on disturbance, with populations
extending into relatively intact
bushland (Figure 1, Chapter 2).
Preventing spread into undisturbed
areas is the primary aim of the
control program.
Yellow Soldier spreads within the
bushland via seed. The populations
are generally quite discrete
suggesting seed is not easily
dispersed over long distances.

Water movement and human

activity play a role in the spread.
Fire reduces competition from the
native vegetation and creates bare
areas where the seed can
germinate.
Fire, however, can also create
opportunities for land managers to
prevent further spread and
establishment. After fire, Yellow
Soldier plants are clearly visible and
the reduced cover of native
vegetation makes the resprouting
flowering bulbs an easy target for
herbicide control.
Understanding the current
distribution of the weed allows any
new infestations to be recognised,
recorded and targeted for control.
Note: In this trial, the metsulfuron methyl
was, where possible, targeted at Yellow
Soldier and not applied as a blanket
treatment over all vegetation. This is not a
difficult or time consuming task but does
require responsible operators with a
reasonable knowledge of the flora. There is
evidence from other studies that some native
species, particularly seedlings, are
susceptible to metsulfuron methyl at 5 g/ha
(Moore 1999).

How the study was used

In the two years since the results of
the study became available to the
Friends of Shenton Bushland, they
have secured funding to implement
control of Yellow Soldier across the
bushland. The map helped provide
information for costing the project
and indicated clear objectives to
funding bodies. The Friends have
since hired an experienced
contractor with knowledge of the
flora who has carried out the work.
With approximately one hectare of
bushland currently invaded the cost
of control is relatively low. In the
first year funding was obtained
through a state government grant
and in the second year the local
government authority agreed to
fund the follow-up work and should
continue to do so until the
populations require only occasional
hand-removal.

Table 1. Costing of Yellow Soldier control over time.

YEAR

TREATMENT

COST/HECTARE

AREA

2001
2002

COST

Brush-off @ 2.5 - 5 g/hectare + pulse@2 mL/L.

$300.00/hectare

~ 1 hectare (from maps)

$300.00

Brush-off @ 2.5 - 5 m/hectare + pulse@2 mL/L.

$300.00/hectare

check 1 hectare

$300.00

2003

As above but also consider hand weeding isolated plants.

$300.00/hectare

check 1 hectare

$300.00?

2004

Now only hand weeding isolated plants may be required.

check 1 hectare

Source: Brown et al. (2002).

45

Chapter 4

Case study 4.2

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers Case Studies

Monitoring and managing Watsonia (Watsonia meriana and Watsonia

meriana var. bulbillifera) invading wetlands and woodlands across the Swan Coastal Plain
a

transects, the number of Watsonia in

each quadrat counted, all other
species occurring in each quadrat
recorded and each quadrat
photographed. This procedure was
repeated in 2000 and again in 2001.
Treatments at each site varied as
outlined in Table 1.

Shenton Bushland
Introduction and spread The
bushland has a long history of
having garden rubbish dumped
along its boundaries. Alternatively,
plant material may have been
brought in with laterite gravel in
World War II. Spread appears to be
by slow expansion of the main
population via corms and seed.

Transect running through Bulbil Watsonia population in Brixton Street Wetlands in a) August
1999 and b) August 2001.

While working on Watsonia

populations at three different sites
across the Swan Coastal Plain, the
importance of monitoring the
effectiveness of weed management
work and of having an
understanding of the biology of the
target species became apparent. At
all sites W. meriana and/or
W. meriana var. bulbillifera formed
dense monocultures, appearing to
displace much of the herbaceous
flora and seriously impact on native
plant diversity.

Mapping, monitoring and

managing the populations
In 1998 the populations of Watsonia
at Shenton Bushland, Brixton Street
Wetlands and Talbot Road Bushland
were mapped. Between July and
September 1999 a transect was run
through the length of each
population, from the highly
disturbed edge, through the
Watsonia and into intact bushland. A
series of quadrats (1 m x 1 m) were
placed at regular intervals along the

Distribution Watsonia meriana

occurs in a relatively small discrete
population in BanksiaJarrah
woodland at the southern end of
the bushland.
Response to treatment Two years
after treatment a relatively high
number of plants remained in the
plots (Figure 1) indicating that
intensive follow-up will be required
for a number of years. Before
treatment the W. meriana
population consisted mostly of
large adult plants. One year after
treatment the population consisted
mostly of small single leafed plants,
less than 10 cm high. Those smaller
plants arose from corms and were
not seedlings.

Table 1. Management actions and herbicide treatment over the monitoring period.

46

SHENTON BUSHLAND

BRIXTON ST

TALBOT RD

1999

Green Corps team and Friends wiped

entire population with 1:10 glyphosate
over 2 days in early September.

Friends and volunteers physically

removed plants from the clay flats
throughout the season and in early
September wiped all plants in the
population.

Contractor employed to spray dense

infestations on disturbed edge and wipe
plants growing closely among natives.
(They do not follow instructions and spray
glyphosate over native vegetation resulting in
loss of some native plants).

2000

Green Corps team again employed to do

follow- up wiping. One days work.

Friends continued hand-removal and in

early September Green Corps team
assisted wiping the population.

Green Corps employed to do follow-up, wiping

individual plants.

2001

Green Corps team employed to do

follow-up on the remaining smaller plants.
One day.

Plants left now quite numerous but too

small for wiping individually and so
Friends carry on hand-removal program.

Numbers of plants so reduced that only a few

isolated plants left for Friends to deal with.

1999
2000
2001

300

much smaller plants arising from

small corms not seed, made up the
population in the years following
the initial treatment.

250
200
150

350

100

300

50
0

20
40
60
80
Distance along transect (m)

Figure 1. Number of Watsonia meriana in

plots (1 m x 1 m) along a transect through
the population in Shenton Bushland in 1999,
2000 and 2001.

Number of Watsonia

Number of Watsonia

350

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers Case Studies

1999
2000
2001

250
200

Distribution: Only a few scattered

plants of W. versfeldii and
W. borbonica have been found in the
wetlands. The one dense infestation
of W. meriana that was invading the
highly disturbed area of Viminaria
shrubland has been eradicated by
the Friends of Brixton Street. The
focus of this study was a dense
infestation of W. meriana var.
bulbillifera invading understorey of
the Marri woodland.
Response to treatment: The
number of W. meriana var.
bulbillifera plants remaining after
two years treatment (Figure 2)
indicates that intensive follow-up
will be required for a number of
years in this site also. Once again

1999
2000
2001

300
250
200
150
100
50
0

150

10
20
30
40
50
Distance along transect (m)

100
50
0

10 20 30 40 50
Distance along transect (m)

Brixton Street Wetlands

Introduction and spread: There
are at least four species of Watsonia
in the Brixton Street Wetlands;
W. borbonica, W. versfeldii,
W. meriana and W. meriana var.
bulbillifera. At present only
W. meriana and W. meriana var.
bulbillifera form dense infestations.
Garden refuse, soil movement and
work along the adjoining railway
line could all have brought in seed
and vegetative material. Seed or
cormels may also have come in
with water movement or birds.
Spread appears to be mainly by a
slow expansion of populations via
corms, cormels and possibly
seed. Occasionally however,
isolated plants are found 100
metres or more from the main
population in undisturbed bushland
indicating cormels or seed are
dispersed by birds, other animals
or human activity.

350
Number of Watsonia

Chapter 4

Figure 2. Number of Watsonia meriana var.

bulbillifera in plots (1 m x 1 m) along a
transect through the population in Brixton
Street Wetlands, 1999, 2000 and 2001.

Talbot Road Bushland

Introduction and spread: Bulbils
or seeds may have come in on
maintenance machinery doing
works along a drain near the main
infestation. Water and soil
movement may also have brought
material in. Movement into good
bushland appears to have been
facilitated by soil disturbance
associated with track maintenance.
Distribution: A dense infestation
of W. meriana var. bulbillifera
occurs in disturbed Marri woodland
on the eastern boundary, extending
into good bushland for around 40
metres. Occasional isolated plants
are found in undisturbed bushland
a long way from the main
infestation suggesting birds or other
animals are playing a role in spread
of cormels and perhaps seed.
Response to treatment: The
population of W. meriana var.
bulbillifera was effectively
controlled in the first year of
treatment. No smaller plants came
back into the sites and the small
amount of follow-up required was
on large plants missed the first time
around (Figure 3).

What do the results tell us?

Figure 3. Number of Watsonia meriana var.

bulbillifera in plots (1 m x 1 m) along a
transect through the population in Talbot
Road Bushland, 1999, 2000 and 2001.

Road was initially sprayed with a 1

% solution of glyphosate rather
than wiped with 10 % solution, but
site differences may also have
played a role. Brixton Street is a
denser population on a much
wetter site. Whatever the cause,
intensive follow-up will be required
at the Brixton Street site for a
number of years. Spraying
glyphosate is not an option in
bushlands where Watsonia grows
closely among native flora. The
Shenton Bushland population of
W. meriana is also going to require
intensive follow-up for a number of
years. Why large numbers of
smaller plants continue to come up
each year at this site also is difficult
to explain age and density of the
population and site conditions may
all be playing a role.
Understanding the biology of
Watsonia and monitoring
populations is clearly important if
this weed is to be effectively
managed. This case study highlights
the importance of assessing invasive
weeds on a site-specific basis and
the necessity of resources to be
made available over the long term.
The results of the monitoring also
provided the impetus to look for
more effective methods and trials
with the herbicide Dalapon (2,2-DPA)
in Shenton Bushland are looking
promising. This herbicide has been
used on roadside populations of
Watsonia in the Albany region for
many years (J. Moore pers. comm.).

Watsonia meriana var. bulbillifera

responded quite differently to
treatment at Talbot Road than at
Brixton Street. It appears this is
because the population at Talbot

47

Chapter 4

Case study 4.3

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers Case Studies

Control of Taro (Colocasia esculenta) and subsequent regeneration of the

native plant community a case study from along the Gingin Brook
Physically removing isolated
population in summer 1999

Results from the

monitoring transect

Physically removing small (up to 10

m x 10 m) outlying populations, was
initially tried in the summer of 1999.
The work was quite labour intensive
with corms weighing around five
kilos and the biomass left to dispose
of significant. Follow-up work was
required for the next two years and
involved removing small plants that
was regrowth from pieces left
behind. Although effective on smaller
populations, physical removal was
not practical for larger infestations.

Information collected along a

transect run from the native
vegetation into the Taro infestation
showed the treatment was
effective (Table 1).

Herbicide treatment in the

summer of 2000

The study site was located along a

section of the Gingin Brook in the
town site where Swamp Paperbark
(Melaleuca rhaphiophylla) and
Flooded Gum (Eucalyptus rudis)
form the main overstorey in the
fringing vegetation and Tall Sedge
(Carex appressa), Tassel Sedge
(Carex fascicularis) and the fern
Cyclosorus interruptus the
understorey. Where Taro invades it
completely displaces the
understorey and allows no
regeneration of overstorey species.

In December 2000, following some

preliminary trials, all Taro (around
one hectare) was cut to the base
and the bases painted with a 50 %
glyphosate solution. These plants
were up to two to three meters high
and beyond the reach of a backpack
unit. Six weeks later the regrowth,
less than one metre high, was
carefully spot sprayed with a 2 %
glyphosate solution + metsulfuron
methyl (0.05 g/L + Pulse 2 mL/L). A
small 750 mL hand held sprayer was
used to carefully target Taro
regrowth. The glyphosate provided
a relatively fast knock-down of top
growth so the area covered could
easily be seen.

Small population of Taro, before treatment

May 1999.

A bare open patch was left following

removal in February 2000.

Illustration: IFAS Center for Aquatic

Plants 1996.

48

Regeneration of the native plant

communities photo points
from the preliminary trials
Preliminary trials over the summer
of 1999/2000 provided the basis to
treat the entire population of Taro in
this way. Fixed photo points at those
trial sites showed the treatment was
effective. In addition, they showed
rapid regeneration of the native
plant community. Photo points can
provide useful information when the
changes are visually dramatic and
the plant community relatively
simple. In this case the plant
community went from almost 100 %
cover of Taro to 100 % cover of
native species over a couple of
years. Only six species of natives
made up that cover; Tall Sedge,
Tassel Sedge, Swamp Paperbark and
Flooded Gum all spread by seed,
often in water flow, while Cyclosorus
interruptus and Native Knotweed
(Persicaria decipiens) spread rapidly
by vegetative means.
Source: Brown and Brooks (in
press b).

By May 2001 native sedges, ferns and

seedling paperbarks had colonised the
open ground.

Chapter 4

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers Case Studies

Table 1. December 2000before treatment, February 2000the regrowth, February 2002one year after regrowth sprayed. Cover
values: 1 (<1 %), 2 (1-5 %), 3 (6-25 %), 4 (26-50 %), 5 (51-75 %), 6 (75-100 %) cover.
DATE

NUMBER OF TARO PLANTS IN 10 (1 X 1 M) QUADRATS ALONG A 20 M TRANSECT WITH COVER VALUE IN BRACKETS
1

10

Dec. 2000

4 (3)

17 (6)

13 (6)

22 (6)

28 (6)

17 (6)

16 (6)

13 (6)

Feb. 2001

3 (1)

8 (3)

1 (1)

6 (4)

10 (5)

14 (6)

10 (6)

Feb. 2002

5 (1)

1 (2)

2 (2)

1 (2)

Distance
along transect

1m

3m

5m

7m

9m

11m

13m

15m

17m

19m

Case study 4.4

Protecting threatened plant communities in the Brixton Street Wetlands an integrated approach.
Work on Harlequin Flower (Sparaxis
bulbifera) in the Brixton Street
Wetlands illustrates that it is
possible to prevent the spread of
invasive geophytes into relatively
undisturbed bushland. The work
highlights the importance of:

Understanding and knowing

particular bushland sites.

Understanding the biology of

geophyte weeds.

Considering a range of control

techniques.

Mapping and recording works

programs.

Monitoring data providing

information for management
actions.

Consistency and accuracy in

control work.

Maintaining funding long enough

to achieve sustainable results.

Understanding and knowing

the site
One of the major threats to the
native flora and to the plant
communities of the Brixton Street
Wetlands is invasion and
competition from weeds such as
Harlequin Flower. This South African
cormous species is a serious
invader of clay-based wetlands on
the Swan Coastal Plain (Hussey et
al.1997). Once established it forms
dense monocultures displacing
herbaceous flora in particular. Given
that around 50 % of the native flora
at Brixton Street are annual or
perennial herbs, many of them rare

Harlequin Flower (Sparaxis bulbifera).

or restricted taxa (Keighery and

Keighery 1995), Harlequin Flower
poses a significant threat to the
conservation values of this wetland.

Some observations on the

biology of Harlequin Flower

Although plants produce small

cormels up the stems as they
die down at the end of each
season, populations appear to
spread mainly by seed.

Each plant produces around 75

soft, thin, papery coated seeds,
in late spring and within the
wetlands at least, water
appears to be a major
dispersal agent.

Mapping reveals that

populations move mainly
through low-lying wet areas
along creeks and drains
(Figure 1.). Sheet water flow
occurring across the wetland in
winter may explain small
populations occurring in
undisturbed bushland.

Fire facilitates the

establishment of new
populations in the wetland.

Harlequin Flower seed appears

to be relatively short-lived in
the soil. Prolific seedling
recruitment was observed
throughout the populations of
Harlequin Flower before the
management program began.
One year following removal of
all flowering plants from
isolated populations, little or
no seedling recruitment was
observed in those locations.

Timing
Although much of the soil across
wetlands is water-logged
throughout winter, only in the pools
of the heavier clay soils is there
standing water. These pools fill with
the winter rains. In spring, as the
rainfall starts to decrease and the
days start to warm up, the water
level begins to drop and by
November/December they may be
completely dry. Flowering and corm
exhaustion in Harlequin Flower
generally occurs in late
September/early October when the
pools are low and the soil is
drying out.

49

Chapter 4

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers Case Studies

An integrated approach
Initially it was thought the
population could be managed with
an intensive hand-weeding program.
The first year this was tested it
became evident it was going to be
extremely labour intensive and
expensive. Effective, affordable and
appropriate control in the wetlands
required a combination of carefully
targeted hand-weeding and
herbicide application.

infestations in more disturbed areas

and on the drier sites.
To be effective over the three years
the project has relied on workers
having an understanding of the
distribution of Harlequin Flower
across the Brixton Street Wetlands.
The populations were mapped at
the start of the project in 1998.

These maps helped set priorities

and allowed for a carefully targeted
works program revisiting small
isolated populations over a number
of years. The maps also enabled us
to accurately record works carried
out over time and will provide some
information on the effectiveness of
the management strategy.

From 1999-2002 bush regenerators

were employed in the wetlands
through September/October to
manually remove small isolated
populations in undisturbed areas
and populations growing around the
edges of claypans where herbicide
use is inappropriate. At this time of
the year the wetland soils are still
soft and entire plants including
corms come out quickly and easily
with minimal soil disturbance.

Figure 1. Distribution of Harlequin Flower across the Brixton Street Wetlands, September 1998.
Deep claypan (clay) - Melaleuca lateritia shrubland, Amphibromus grassland
Wet flats - Viminaria juncea tall shrubland/dry flats - mixed low shrublands
Shallow claypans (wet) - Pericalymma open heath
Melaleuca shrubland
Uplands - Marri Woodlands
Disturbed areas
Table 1. Native flora co-occurring with Harlequin Flower in the trial plots.

Workers hand-removing Harlequin Flower in

the wetlands

Herbicide trials have indicated that

Harlequin Flower can be controlled
effectively with metsulfuron methyl
(Brush-off) at 2.5 g/ha (0.1 g/15 L)
with limited impact on co-occurring
native species in the Brixton Street
Wetlands (Brown and Brooks in
press c, Table 1). The Harlequin
Flower populations are generally
fairly discrete and are only ever
spot sprayed. A spray contractor
with a knowledge of the flora and a
background in bushland work has
been employed to carry out
chemical control on heavier

50

Annual Herbs

Perennial Herbs-Geophytes

Aphelia cyperoides

Burchardia congesta

Centrolepis aristata

Burchardia multiflora

Drosera glanduligera

Drosera menziesii ssp. menziesii

Goodenia micrantha

Philydrella drummondii

Hydrocotyle alata

Sowerbaea laxiflora

Isolepis cernua

Tribonanthes longipetala

Schoenus odontocarpus

Utricularia violacea

Siloxerus humifusus

Shrubs

Perennial Herbs

Acacia lasiocarpa var. bracteolata

Borya scirpoidea

Kunzea micrantha ssp. micrantha

Chorizandra enodis

Pimelea imbricata var. major

Chorizandra multiarticulata

Verticordia densiflora

Cyathochaeta avenacea

Viminaria juncea

Juncus capitatus
Lomandra spp
Meeboldina canus
Mesomelaena tetragona

Chapter 4

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers Case Studies

Table 2. Management actions across Harlequin Flower populations in 1998 to 2001.

YEAR

ACTION/TREATMENT

1998

Transects put in place over population. Numbers of Harlequin Flower in each 1 m x 1 m plot counted. No treatment.

1999

Numbers of Harlequin Flower in plots counted again. Population appears to be expanding rapidly. Hand-weeding program
attempted across wetlands and all plots hand-weeded.

2000

Plots rescored. Also this year recorded cover estimates (Braun-Blanquet 1965) for all other species, weeds and natives, in plots.
Hand-weeding program this year restricted to isolated populations and those in wetter areas. This population (being monitored)
sprayed 2.5 g/ha Brush-off + Pulse 2 mL/L.

2001

Plots rescored and control program continued as for 2000.

More detailed monitoring

over time

over time and to gain an

understanding of the effectiveness
of the management actions.

Average number of Sparaxis by

year and distance from edge

Average number of plants

25

1-2 m
6-7 m
12-13 m
18-19 m
24-25 m
29-30 m

20
15
10
5
0

The populations of mature (Figure

2a) and juvenile Harlequin Flower
(Figure 2b) increased from 1998 to
1999 before a management program
was in place. Hand-weeding was
very effective (1999-2000) and so
was the herbicide treatment (20002001). The increase in Harlequin

b Average number of juvenile Sparaxis

Average number of plants

In September 1998 three 30 metre

long transects were run from the
disturbed edge of the bushland,
through the Harlequin Flower
population. Along each transect
quadrats (1 m x 1m) were placed at
five metre intervals. The aim was to
monitor changes in the density of
the Harlequin Flower population

by year and distance from edge

500
1-2 m
400
300

6-7 m
12-13 m
18-19 m
24-25 m
29-30 m

200
100

1998 1999 2000 2001

Year

0
1998 1999 2000 2001
Year

Figure 2. a) Average number of mature (flowering) Harlequin Flower plants and b) juvenile
Harlequin Flower plants in plots (1 m x 1 m) along three 30 metre transects over four years
(ie three replicates used).

Flower one to two metres from the

edge over 2000-2001 may indicate
that the area missed herbicide
treatment. If so it illustrates that
there will be reinvasion of
populations if follow-up is not
consistent in the early years of the
control program.

Funding
Funds have to be sought by the
Friends of Brixton Street Wetlands
each year to continue the work.
It is anticipated that the cost will
drop after the first three years.
Unless the control program is
consistently applied each year in
the early stages, reinvasion will
probably eventuate.
The work at Brixton Street illustrates
that with some resources and a
carefully targeted and consistent
effort over time, effective control of
seriously invasive geophytes like
Harlequin Flower moving into
undisturbed bushland is possible with
minimum off-target damage to cooccurring native species.
Source: Brown and Brooks
(in press c)

Table 3. Cost of works, including funding sources, over three years. * A number of volunteers assisted the bush regenerators with
their work in the wetlands
TREATMENT

RATE

Physical removal
( 2 x bush regenerators) *

48 hrs @ $17.50 x 2

Spot spray dense

infestations (contractor)

$60.00 per hour

Total
Funding source

2000

2001

2002

$1,680.00

$1,680.00

$1,680.00

$600.00

$600.00

$300.00

$2,280.00

$2,280.00

$1,980.00

Wildflower Society W.A

(Inc.) Perth branch

Dept. of Conservation
& Land Management

Dept. of Conservation
& Land Management

51

Chapter 4
Family

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers Weed Management Table

Species

Common name

Storage organ

Reproductive unit

bulb

offsets, bulbils, seed

bulb

offsets, seed

Dispersal agent

Time to first
flowering (years)

Flowering

Seedbank
persistence
(years)

2-3

Sept-Oct

short

water, soil

Aug-Oct

Hyacinthaceae

Albuca canadensis

Alliaceae

Allium triquetrum

Angle Onion, Threecornered Garlic

Amaryllidaceae

Amaryllis belladonna

Belladonna Lily

bulb p

offsets, seed

birds, water, soil

Feb-Apr

short

Asparagaceae

Asparagus asparagoides

Bridal Creeper

rhiz/tub p

rhiz/tub, seed

birds, water, soil

2-3

Aug-Sept

2-3 if buried

Asparagaceae

Asparagus declinatus

Bridal Veil

rhiz/tub p

rhiz/tub, seed

birds, water, soil

2-3

Apr-Aug

medium?

Asparagaceae

Asparagus densiflorus

Asparagus Fern

rhiz/tub p

rhiz/tub, seed

birds, water, soil

Mar

medium?

Asparagaceae

Asparagus scandens

Climbing Asapargus

rhiz/tub p

rhiz/tub, seed

birds, water, soil

Aug-Sep

medium?

Iridaceae

Babiana angustifolia

Babiana,
Baboon Flower

corm ar

offsets, seed

water, soil

Jul-Nov

medium?

Iridaceae

Babiana nana

corm ar

offsets, seed

water, soil

Aug-Sep

medium?

Iridaceae

Babiana tubulosa

corm ar

offsets, seed

water, soil

Jul-Aug

medium?

Colchicaceae

Baeometra uniflora

Iridaceae

Chasmanthe floribunda

African Corn Flag

corm ar

offsets, seed

birds, water, soil

Araceae

Colocasia esculenta

Taro

corm p

offsets, vegetativefragments

water, soil

Amaryllidaceae

Crinum moorei

Iridaceae

Ferraria crispa

Black Flag

corm p

corms, seed

soil

Iridaceae

Freesia alba x leichtlinii

Freesia

corm ar

offsets, stem-cormels,
seed

water, soil, birds

Iridaceae

Gladiolus angustus

Long Tubed
Painted Lady

corm ar

offsets, seed?, cormels

soil, water

Aug-Nov*

Iridaceae

Gladiolus caryophyllaceus

Pink Gladiolus

corm ar d

offsets, seed

wind

Aug-Nov

medium?

Iridaceae

Gladiolus undulatus

Painted Lady,
Wavy Gladiolus

corm ar

offsets, seed, cormels

soil, water

Oct-Dec*

medium?

Iridaceae

Hesperantha falcata

Hesperantha

corm ar

offsets? seed

water, soil

Aug-Oct

medium?

Iridaceae

Homoglossum watsonium

Red Afrikaner

corm

Aug-Nov

Alliaceae

Ipheion uniflorum

Spring Starflower

bulb

Sept-Nov

Iridaceae

Ixia maculata

Yellow Ixia

corm ar

cormels on stolons, seed

Aug-Oct

medium?

Iridaceae

Ixia paniculata

Tubular Corn Lily, Long

Tubed Ixia

corm ar

seed

Sep-Nov

medium?

Iridaceae

Ixia polystachya

Variable Ixia

corm ar

variable seed set

Sep-Dec

Hyacinthaceae

Lachenalia aloides

Soldiers

bulb ar

seed

water, soil

2-3

Oct

medium?

Hyacinthaceae

Lachenalia bulbifera

bulb ar

bulbils on leaves and

stolons, seed

soil, water

2-3

Sep

medium?bulbils

Hyacinthaceae

Lachenalia mutabilis

bulb ar

seed

water, soil

2-3

Sep

medium?

Hyacinthaceae

Lachenalia reflexa

Yellow Soldier

bulb ar

bulbils on leaves seed

water, soil

2-3

Jul-Aug

medium?

Orchidaceae

Monadenia bracteata

South African Orchid

tuber p

seed

wind

Oct-Nov

6+

Iridaceae

Moraea flaccida

One Leaf Cape Tulip

corm ar d

offsets seed

water, soil

2-3

Sept-Nov

less than 8

Iridaceae

Moraea fugax

corm ar

seed, cormels

Oct-Nov

Iridaceae

Moraea lewisiae

corm ar

offsets, seed

Sept-Oct

52

corm

Aug-Dec

bulb p

2-3

Jul-Oct
Mar-Jul

soil, water, birds

2-

short
Aug-Oct

medium?

Jul-Oct

short?

Storage organ: rhi=rhizome tub=tuber Renewal: ar=annually renewed p=perennial d=some dormancy between fire
Reproductive units: bold=main method of dispersal Flowering: period over which plants flower Seedbank persistence: how long seed remains
viable short=days to 1yr, medium=1-5yr

Chapter 4

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers Weed Management Table

Suggested method of management and control

Timing

References

171, 242, 108, 101,

167

Spot spray metsulfuron methyl 0.2 g/15 L + glyphosate 1% .

Spot spray glyphosate 1 % + Pulse or metsulfuron methyl 0.15 g/10 L + Pulse.

Just before flowering.

242, 231, 30, 248, 102,

108, 167, 263

Spot spray glyphosate 1 % + Pulse.

After flowering just as new leaves emerge.

242, 167, 108

Spray glyphosate 1 % + Pulse or metsulfuron methyl 0.04 g/10 L + Pulse.

Best results when flowering.

242, 167, 270, 264,

346, 222

Spray glyphosate 1 % + Pulse.

Best results when flowering.

242, 101, 167, 222

Try 1 % glyphosate + 1 g metsulfuron methyl + 25 mL Pulse in 10 L water.

Best results when flowering.

242, 101, 167, 222

Try 100 mL glyphosate + 1 g metsulfuron methyl + 25 mL Pulse in 10 L water.

Best results when flowering.

242, 167, 222

Spot spray metsulfuron methyl 0.2 g/15 L + glyphosate 1 % .

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

242, 167, 196, 101

Spot spray metsulfuron methyl 0.2 g/15 L + glyphosate 1% .

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

242, 167, 196, 101

Spot spray metsulfuron methyl 0.2 g/15 L + glyphosate 1% .

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

242, 167, 196, 101,

181
242, 167

Spot spray glyphosate 1 % + Pulse.

Before flowering.

242, 167, 108, 222

Cut plants to base, paint metsulfuron methyl 0.05 g/L + glyphosate 50 % . Six weeks later carefully spray
regrowth metsufuron methyl 0.05 g/L + glyphosate 1 % + Pulse.

In summer when actively growing. Some reports suggest

later in summer is more effective.

44, 128, 41, 167

108, 167

Hand-remove very small populations, sift soil to find all corms. Some control spraying metsulfuron methyl
0.2 g/15 L + glyphosate 1 % .

When flowering.

242, 167, 108, 101

Spot spray metsulfuron methyl 0.2 g/15 L + Pulse (2.5-5 g/ha).

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

242, 167, 108, 253

Spot spray metsulfuron methyl 0.2 g/15 L + glyphosate 1 % + Pulse in degraded sites. Physical removal
can result in spread of cormels.

Just on flowering? Once parent corm killed cormels in soil

lose dormancy and germinate.

242, 167, 108, 140

Wipe individual leaves glyphosate 10 % , spray dense infesations in degraded area 1 % glyphosate.

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

242, 167, 108, 160,

140

Spot spray metsulfuron methyl 0.2 g/15 L + glyphosate 1 % in degraded sites. Physical removal can result in
spread of cormels.

Just on flowering? Once parent corm killed cormels in soil

lose dormancy and germinate.

181, 242, 108, 140

Spot spray metsulfuron methyl 0.2 g/15 L + Pulse (2.5-5 g/ha).

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

242, 167, 108

266, 167
Spot spray metsulfuron methyl 0.2 g/15 L + glyphosate 1 %.

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

242, 101, 167

Spot spray metsulfuron methyl 0.2 g/15 L + glyphosate 1 %.

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

242, 101, 266, 167

Spot spray metsulfuron methyl 0.2 g/15 L + glyphosate 1 %.

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

181, 167

Try as for L. reflexa.

Just on flowering at bulb exhaustion.

242, 167, 109

Try as for L. reflexa. Physical removal can result in spread of bulbils.

Just on flowering at bulb exhaustion.

242, 167, 109

Try as for L. reflexa.

Just on flowering at bulb exhaustion.

242, 167, 109

Spot spray metsulfuron methyl 0.2 g/15 L + Pulse (2.5g-5g/ha).

Just on flowering at bulb exhaustion.

242, 46, 167, 109

Spot spray glyphosate 1 % + Pulse.

Just on flowering.

30, 242, 101, 167

Spot spray metsulfuron methyl 0.1 g/10 L or chorsulfuron 0.2 g/10 L + Pulse.

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

242, 167, 248, 138,

253,

Try as on M. miniata.

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

108, 167

Try as on M. miniata.

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

242, 167, 138, 108, 5

53

Chapter 4
Family

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers Weed Management Table

Species

Common name

Storage organ

Two
TwoLeaf
LeafCape
CapeTulip
Tulip

corm ar d

Reproductive unit

Dispersal agent

offsets, cormels on stem water, soil, birds,

and base
Cyclone Albey

Time to first
flowering (years)

Flowering

Seedbank
persistence
(years)

2-3

Jul-Nov

cormels 8

Sept-Jan

Iridaceae

Moraea miniata

Iridaceae

Moraea setifolia

Thread
Thread
Iris Iris

Hyacinthaceae

Muscari comosum

GrapeHyacinth
Hyacinth
Grape

Amaryllidaceae

Narcissus papyraceus

Paperwhite
Paperwhite

Alliaceae

Nothoscordum gracile

Hyacinthaceae

Ornithogalum thyrsoides

Oxalidaceae

Oxalis depressa

Oxalidaceae

Oxalis flava

Pink Bulb Soursob

bulb ar

bulbils

soil

May

Oxalidaceae

Oxalis glabra

Finger
LeafLeaf
Oxalis
Finger
Oxalis

bulb ar

bulbils

soil

May-Aug

Oxalidaceae

Oxalis incarnata

bulb ar

bulbils

soil

Aug-Nov

Oxalidaceae

Oxalis pes-caprae

Soursob
Soursob

bulb ar

bulbils

soil

Jun-Oct

Oxalidaceae

Oxalis purpurea

Four o'clock, Largeflowered Wood Sorrel

bulb ar

bulbils

soil

May-Sep

Amaryllidaceae

Pancratium maritimum

bulb

offsets, seed

Iridaceae

Romulea flava

corm ar

seed

Iridaceae

Romulea obscura

corm ar

seed

Iridaceae

Romulea rosea

Guildfordgrass
grass
Guildford

corm ar

seed

Aug-Oct

medium?

Iridaceae

Sparaxis bulbifera

HarlequinFlower
Flower
Harlequin

corm ar

offsets, cormels on stem,

seed

2-3

Sep-Oct

short?

Iridaceae

Sparaxis pillansii

HarlequinFlower
Flower
Harlequin

corm ar

seed

Sep-Oct

short?

Iridaceae

Watsonia borbonica

corm ar d

offsets, seed?

wind, water, soil

2-3

Sep-Nov

medium?

Iridaceae

Watsonia marginata

Fragrant Bugle Lily

corm ar d

offsets, seed

water, soil, wind

2-3

Oct-Dec

medium?

Iridaceae

Watsonia meriana

BugleWatsonia
Watsonia
Bugle

corm ar d

offsets, seed

water, soil, wind

2-3

Sep-Dec

medium?

Iridaceae

Watsonia meriana
var.bulbillifera

BulbilWatsonia
Watsonia
Bulbil

corm ar d

offsets, cormels on stem

and base, seed

water, soil, wind

2-3

Sep-Dec

medium?

Iridaceae

Watsonia versfeldii

corm ar d

offsets, seed

water, soil, wind

2-3

Sep-Nov

medium?

Araceae

Zantedeschia aethiopica

tub/rhiz p

offsets, seed

water, birds, soil

Jun-Nov

short

corm ar

offsets, seed

water, soil

bulb

offsets, seed

water, soil, birds

Sep

bulb p

offsets, seed

soil, water

Aug-Sep

False Onion
Onion Weed
Weed
False

bulb

bulbils, seed

soil, water

Oct-Jan

Cincherinchee
Cincherinchee

bulb

seed

water

Oct-Nov

bulb ar

Pale-flowered
Pale-floweredOxalis
Oxalis

ArumArum
Lily Lily

May-Jun

Aug-Oct

water, soil

Jul-Sep

medium?

Storage organ: rhi=rhizome tub=tuber Renewal: ar=annually renewed p=perennial d=some dormancy between fire
Reproductive units: bold=main method of dispersal Flowering: period over which plants flower Seedbank persistence: how long seed remains
viable short=days to 1yr, medium=1-5yr

54

medium?

Chapter 4

Corms, Bulbs and Tubers Weed Management Table

Suggested method of management and control

Timing

References

Spot spray metsulfuron methyl 0.1 g/10 L or chorsulfuron 0.2 g/10 L + Pulse. Physical removal can result
in spread of cormels.

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

242, 167, 248, 138,

253, 5

Try as on M. miniata.

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

242, 167, 138, 108

Spray metsulfuron methyl 0.2 g/15 L + glyphosate 1 %.

Just before flowering.

108, 167

Try 1 % glyphosate + 0.1 g metsulfuron methyl + 25 mL Pulse in 10 L water.

Just on flowering.

101, 167, 222

Try 1 % glyphosate + 0.1 g metsulfuron methyl + 25 mL Pulse in 10 L water.

222

1 g of metsulfuron methyl in 10 L of water + Pulse gives partial control.

Before flowering.

300, 228, 167, 222

As for O. pes-caprae.

At bulb exhaustion, generally just on flowering.

242, 2, 167

As for O. pes-caprae.

At bulb exhaustion, generally just on flowering.

242, 167, 40

As for O. pes-caprae.

At bulb exhaustion, generally just on flowering.

242, 167, 40

At bulb exhaustion, generally just on flowering.

242, 167, 181, 40

Spot spray metsulfuron methyl 0.2 g/15 L + Pulse, or 1 % glyphosate . Physical removal can result in
spread of bulbils.

At bulb exhaustion, generally just on flowering.

242, 167, 248, 252, 40

As for O. pes-caprae.

At bulb exhaustion, generally just on flowering.

242, 167, 250, 40

181, 167

Try as for R. rosea.

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

181, 108, 167

Try as for R. rosea.

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

181, 108, 167

Spot spray metsulfuron methyl 0.2 g/15 L + Pulse.

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

102, 108, 167

Spot spray metsulfuron methyl 0.1 g/15 L +Pulse or chlorsulfuran 0.3 g/10 L + Pulse

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

242, 167, 45, 222

Try as for S. bulbifera.

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

242, 167

As for W. meriana var. bulbillifera.

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

242, 194, 108, 167

As for W. meriana var. bulbillifera.

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

242, 139, 108, 167

As for W. meriana var. bulbillifera.

Just on flowering at corm exhaustion.

242, 139, 108, 167

Wipe individual leaves glyphosate 10 % or spray dense infesations 2,2-DPA 10 g/L + wetting agent or in
degraded area 1 % glyphosate.

Just as flower spikes emerge at corm exhaustion.

242, 139, 108, 167

As for W. meriana var. bulbillifera.

Just as flower spikes emerge at corm exhaustion.

242, 139, 108, 167

Spot spray metsulfuron methyl or chlorsulfuron 0.4 g/15 L of water + Pulse. Higher concentration in one
litre hand held sprayer applying a single squirt to leaves avoids off target damage.

Any time between June and September. Early prevents

flowering and seed set but may miss later sprouting tubers.

223, 227, 270, 42, 167

55

Broadleaf Herbs,
Sedges and Succulents

Chapter 5

Annual herbs
As a group, annual herbs share similar life-cycles and
reproductive biology. They also often share common
management and control strategies.
Annual plants complete their full life-cycle from
germination to seed production within one year and then
die. As their life expectancy is short, they are favoured
where frequency of habitat disturbance is high (Hobbs
and Atkins 1988, McIntyre et al. 1995, Sheppard 2000).
They are among the most commonly occurring weeds on
the disturbed edges of bushland. Soil disturbance and
nutrient run-off in particular, facilitate the rapid
establishment of weeds with an annual life-cycle.
In south west Western Australia, most annual weeds
germinate with the first autumn rains, grow actively
over the winter spring period and set seed and die with
the onset of higher temperatures in summer. In
wetlands though, some annual weeds germinate as
water levels drop in spring, grow actively over the
summer months setting seed in autumn. Examples of
the latter include Bushy Starwort (Symphyotrichum
subulatum) and Prickly Lettuce (Lactuca serriola).
Others can germinate and go through to flowering
whenever conditions are suitable, often several times
over the one year. Caltrop (Tribulus terrestris) and
Doublegee (Emex australis) are good examples.

Impacts
Although there are large numbers of introduced annual
herbs there are only a few species that are serious
weeds of bushland in south west Western Australia.
Many co-exist among native plant communities without
having much of an impact and are often not a high
priority for management. However, it is important to
consider the impacts of particular annual weeds at
individual sites and over several seasons. There are a
number that can be serious weeds in particular plant
communities and under certain seasonal conditions.
For example, Lupins (Lupinus angustifolius, Lupinus
consentinii) are one of the more serious annual weeds in
Banksia woodland around Perth. They can form dense
stands that prevent regeneration of native plants and
alter the soil chemistry through nitrogen fixation
(Swarbrick and Skarratt 1994). Each year Fumitory
(Fumaria capreolata) grows up and smothers native
shrubs and seedlings among the understorey of Banksia
woodlands. The seed remains viable in the soil for
several years (Chancellor 1996, Peltzer and Matson 2002)
germinating with the onset of any disturbance. Isolepis

56

hystrix is emerging as a serious annual weed of clay-based

wetlands where it forms dense mats, competing with the
rich native annual flora (Keighery 1999c).
Annual weeds can have a serious impact where they
invade native herbfields on granite outcrops (Hopper et
al. 1996, Pigott and Sage 1996) and the herbaceous
understorey of York Gum (Eucalyptus loxophleba) Jam
(Acacia acuminata) woodlands. They are also often
prolific on the highly degraded edges of bushland.
Restoring these sites often involves dealing with
continual germination of annual weeds competing with
regenerating natives.

Management and control

Management and control of this group of weeds is about
preventing germination and seed set. On highly degraded
edges it may sometimes involve restoring/re-establishing
the cover of some local species that will displace and
out-compete annual weeds and prevent further dispersal
of weed seed into undisturbed areas.

Preventing establishment
Minimising soil disturbance
Persistence of annual weeds at a site is often due to a
long-lived soil seedbank that will germinate with the
onset of any disturbance. Often the soil disturbance
brought about by removal of perennial weeds is enough
to stimulate germination of annual weed seed that has
lain dormant in the soil. As soon as space and light
become available dormancy is broken, seeds germinate
and seedlings establish (Box 5.1).

Box 5.1 Black Nightshade a disturbance

opportunist
An isolated clump of Arum Lily removed from among
native sedges and ferns along the Gingin Brook was
very quickly replaced by a dense monoculture of the
annual Black Nightshade (Solanum nigrum). Seed of
Black Nightshade can remain viable in the soil for up
to eight years and dormancy can be broken by light
(Thullen and Keeley 1982). Black Nightshade will
need to be controlled until the soil seedbank is
exhausted or native perennials fill the gap and
prevent further germination.

A patch of Black Nightshade coming up where an isolated clump

of Arum Lily has been physically removed.

Illustration provided by: IFAS, Centre for Aquatic Plants University

of Florida, Gainesville, 1996

Herbs are seed plants with non-woody green stems.

Grasses and geophytes, both classified as herbs, have
been covered in previous chapters. This chapter covers
the rest of the weedy herbs. The information is
presented in two sections those broadleaf herbs with
an annual life-cycle and then the sedges, succulents and
broadleaf herbs with a perennial life-cycle. With their
small biomass and ephemeral nature, annuals are often
not serious weeds of bushland. Perennial weeds on the
other hand, are persistent over time, can form a large
biomass and tend to have a much greater impact on
native plant communities.

Chapter 5

Broadleaf Herbs, Sedges and Succulents

Other annual weeds establish by rapidly dispersing

into recently disturbed sites. Many annual weeds of the
Swan Coastal Plain and Jarrah Forest belong to the
daisy family (Asteraceae), a group with largely wind
dispersed seed. They are able to disperse effectively
into sites of soil disturbance, rapidly growing and
exploiting available resources (McIntyre et al. 1995).
Often the most prolific is the wind dispersed Flat Weed
(Hypochaeris glabra) (Box 5.2).

Box 5.2 Fire and soil disturbance in a

Banksia woodland
The disturbance caused by fire and then the handremoval of Yellow Soldier (Lachenalia reflexa), an
introduced bulb, in study plots in Shenton Bushland
encouraged the establishment of weedy annuals.

Fire
The initial increase in cover of annual broadleaf
weeds that occurred over 1998/1999 across all plots
was probably a reflection of conditions following
the October 1997 fire. The gaps created by the fire
and the increased nutrient levels provide ideal
conditions for annual weed establishment.

Soil disturbance
Where Yellow Soldier was removed by hand and
the soil disturbed, the cover of annual weeds
increased to an even greater degree. Flat Weed
(Hypochaeris glabra) was the most prolific. With its
wind dispersed seed and flat rosette of leaves it is
a prime example of a weed able to disperse
effectively and rapidly exploit available resources.
Other broadleaf annual weeds colonising the plots
included Ursinia (Ursinia anthemoides), French
Catchfly (Silene gallica), and Slender Suckling
Clover (Trifolium dubium). Any hand-removal
program aimed at controlling bulbous weeds such
as Yellow Soldier in Banksia woodland is likely to
result in colonisation by annual weeds.

Keeping out fire

Fire can also facilitate invasion of annual weeds into
bushland. Weed seed builds up in the soil seedbank
between fires. After fire many annual weed species
germinate, exploit available resources and set seed
before native species (Fisher 1998, Perez-Fernandez
et al. 2002). In the two years following fire at Shenton
Bushland, the cover of annual weeds at study sites
increased greatly (Box 5.2).

Assisting regeneration of the native plant

community
Management that favours the regeneration of native
plant communities increases competition against
weeds. Annual weeds, probably more than any other
weeds, can be displaced and prevented from
establishing through careful bush regeneration encouraging regeneration of the native plant
communities and allowing native plants to fill gaps
(Bradley 1988, Vranjic et al. 2000). This can be a
particularly useful tool when fast-growing native
perennials are present (Box 5.3).
Stimulating the native soil seedbank to germinate by
the use of smoke or smoke-derived products (Dixon
et al. 1995, Roche et al. 1998) is one way to encourage
regeneration of the native plant community. At most
disturbed sites weed management will be labour
intensive and ongoing until a cover of native species is
well established.

Direct seeding with local provenance seed

If there is no native soil seedbank remaining, as in
many degraded sites on the edge of bushland (Fisher
1998), then direct seeding the site is the next option.
Consider the following:

The great diversity of native flora of south west

Western Australia is recognised internationally.
Less well known is the diversity we cannot see,
hidden diversity in the genetic make up of our flora
(Byrne 2002). In order to protect the integrity of
that genetic diversity, always collect seed locally,
i.e. from bushland adjoining the restoration site.
Collecting seed for restoration work locally is, at
present, the only way to avoid introducing nonlocal genetic material and non-local forms of plants
to bushland. It also ensures plants established are
adapted to local conditions (Box 5.4).

Ensure that the species selected occur on the soils

and are from the plant community of the site that is
being restored. Vegetation maps, species lists and
near-by intact bushland are useful reference points.

Think about species selection. When the aim of the

project is to displace annual weeds along a
disturbed edge, think about selecting easy to
establish, fast-growing species. Remember though,
returning as much of the natural diversity to the
site as possible is the long-term objective.

Weed control will be ongoing for many years until

a cover of native plants is well established.

control
hand removal
herbicide

45

Percentage Cover

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

1998

1999
Year

2000

Figure 1. The cover of weedy annual herbs in plots (2 m x 2 m)

for three years following fire. Bars indicate standard errors.

57

Chapter 5

Broadleaf Herbs, Sedges and Succulents

Success will often depend on at least one or two

years site preparation and seed collection and a
long-term access to resources for follow-up work.

Results will vary across sites, soils, seasons, plant

communities and species selected.

Ensure appropriate permits have been acquired

before seed collection is undertaken.

Control methods
There are 60 species of annual weeds listed in the table
at the end of the chapter. Methods of control are often

going to be quite specific for each species.

Nevertheless, some useful generalisations can be made.

Physical control

Hand-removal is only useful before seed set and all

flowering material should be taken from a site. Left
behind, it may well go on to produce seed.

Mowing or brushcutting can reduce seed production

and reduce populations if carried out well before
seed set. As slashing is non-specific it is really only
useful in highly degraded sites. Work needs to be

Box 5.3 Managing annual weeds after Arum Lily control experience from the banks of
Bennett Brook
Trials on different methods to control Arum Lily along Bennett Brook highlight the invasive potential of annual
weeds. The trials were located in a very degraded patch of Flooded Gum (Eucalyptus rudis) Swamp
Paperbark (Melaleuca rhaphiophylla) woodland. The understorey in most places was a monoculture of Arum
Lily. Weeds that moved into areas where Arum Lily had been controlled included 12 species of annual weeds
(nine broadleaf herbs and three species of annual grasses) (Table 1.).
Interestingly, the only natives to move into the site were four species of herbaceous perennials, all of them
fast-growing, easily-propagated, mat-forming plants highly suitable for displacing weeds, particularly those
with an annual life-cycle. Such species are often present in disturbed wetland sites and they provide a great
opportunity to quickly fill gaps, helping prevent further germination of annual weeds.
Table 1. Weeds and natives that colonised the site following
removal of Arum Lily.

WEEDS
Annual Grasses
Annual Rye Grass

Lolium sp.

Annual Veldgrass

Ehrharta longiflora

Annual Barb Grass

Polypogon monspeliensis

Perennial Grasses
Phalaris

Phalaris aquatica

Annual Herbs
Bushy Starwort (annual or biennial) Symphyotrichum subulatum

Slender Knot Weed (Persicaria decipiens).

Pimpernel

Anagallis arvensis

Common Starwort

Callitriche stagnalis

Pattersons Curse

Echium plantagineum

Lesser Loosestrife

Lythrum hyssopifolium

Slender Birds Foot Trefoil

Lotus angustissimus

Plantain (or short-lived perennial)

Plantago major

Sow Thistle

Sonchus oleraceus

Sharp Buttercup

Ranunculus muricatus

Perennial Herbs
Clustered Dock

Rumex conglomeratus

Water Cress

Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum
Juncus microcephalus

NATIVES
Perennial Herbs

Water Buttons (Cotula coronopifolia).

58

Water Buttons

Cotula coronopifolia

Centella

Centella asiatica

Joy Weed

Alternanthera nodiflora

Slender Knot Weed

Persicaria decipiens

Chapter 5

Broadleaf Herbs, Sedges and Succulents

carefully timed; too early and some species will

resprout. Slash too late (after seed set) and the result
will be further spread of propagules and expanding
populations of the weed the following year.

Chemical control
Spot spraying with glyphosate generally well before
flowering is the recommended herbicide control for
many annual weeds. There are some species of annual
weeds not killed by glyphosate. Check the table at the
end of the chapter.

Box 5.4 Using local provenance seed in

restoration (from Keighery et al. 1998)
This is a list of species from Brixton Street
Wetlands that can be easily propagated for
restoration purposes. The list highlights the
importance of using locally collected seed.
Many species have locally occurring forms that
could be lost with the introduction of genetic
material (seeds or cuttings) from other areas.
FAMILY/SPECIES

HABITAT

PROPAGATION

Sowerbaea laxiflora

dry

division/seed

Tricoryne humilis

dry

division/seed

As glyphosate is non-specific it needs to be carefully

targeted and is only useful in degraded sites where
there is no danger of off-target damage.
In direct seeding trials, the Main Roads Department
has found that Lontrel at 500 mL/ha controls Lupins
and Cape Weed in the early stages with little off-target
damage to native species (Grist and Thompson 1997).
Clopyralid, the active ingredient of Lontrel, is
particularly effective on members of the Asteraceae
(daisy family) and the Fabaceae (pea family).
Important note: Lontrel can persist in the soil for several months, is
not bound by soil particles, and is highly soluble. It should only be
applied in bushland by well-qualified, responsible operators with a
thorough knowledge of the native flora (see Chapter 8.).

Key points

The majority of annual weeds do not have serious

impacts in bushland and are often not a priority
for management.

Annual weeds often germinate from soil stored

seed or disperse into a site following removal of
more serious perennial weeds.

Their management is then the next step in the

restoration process sometimes simply waiting for
native perennials to fill the gap.

Preventing the establishment of annual herbs in

bushland is about minimising soil disturbance,
nutrient run-off and fires.

Limiting spread is about preventing or reducing

seed set.

Restoration of native plant communities along the

disturbed edges, either through germination of the
native seedbank stored in the soil or direct
seeding, is often part of a long-term solution to
management of annual weeds.

Anthericaceae

Asteraceae
Hyalosperma cotula

dry/damp/wet

seed

damp/wet

seed

dry

seed

# Acacia lasiocarpa

dry/damp

seed

# Acacia pulchella

dry

seed

# Acacia saligna

dry

seed

Perennial herbs
Perennial plants have a life span that extends over two
or more years. The perennial herbs covered in the
table at the end of this chapter are a diverse group.
They include everything from succulents and sedges to
plants with underground storage organs, to
Pelargonium and perennial members of the daisy
(Asteraceae) family. They have a diverse range of lifecycles and mechanisms for spreading into bushland.
As management and control strategies vary
accordingly, it is not possible or useful to provide
general information for the group as a whole.

# Podolepis gracilis
Haemodoraceae
Anigozanthos manglesii
Mimosaceae

Myrtaceae
# Astartea aff. fascicularis

wet

seed

Baeckea camphorosmae

dry/damp

seed

Eucalyptus calophylla

dry

seed

Hypocalymma angustifolium

dry/damp

cuttings/seed

Hypocalymma robustum

dry

cuttings/seed

# Melaleuca rhaphiophylla

wet

seed

# Melaleuca viminea

wet

seed

damp/wet

seed

Pericalymma ellipticum
Papilionaceae
Kennedia prostrata

dry/damp

seed

Viminaria juncea

damp/wet

seed

# Grevillea bipinnatifida

dry/damp

cuttings/seed

# Hakea trifurcata

dry/damp

seed

# Hakea prostrata

dry/damp

seed

# Hakea varia

damp/wet

seed

Proteaceae

Instead, case studies are presented for three weedy

perennial herbs of the Swan Coastal Plain and Jarrah
Forest. They illustrate how some of the weeds in this
group can be managed where they are invading
bushland. Detailed control techniques and information
on the biology for specific species that are serious
weeds in the region are provided in the final table.

Key # Species with recognised local variants Habitats dry = uplands

damp = waterlogged areas wet = inundated areas.

59

Chapter 5 Broadleaf Herbs, Sedges and Succulents

Case Studies

Case study 5.1

Direct seeding to manage annual weeds along a disturbed edge of Swish

Bush (Viminaria juncea) shrublands

Site history

The site has a long history of

soil disturbance associated with
track and drain maintenance.

Before 1995: The site was

100 % covered by Watsonia
meriana with a few emergent
Swish Bushes. The Watsonia
population provided a continual
source of propagules to the
adjoining intact bushland.

1996 and 1997: The Friends

of Brixton Street sprayed the
Watsonia (1 % solution of
glyphosate as flower spikes
were emerging) for two
consecutive years eradicating
the population.

1998 and 1999: Invasion by a

large number of annual and a
few perennial weeds followed.
Early in the season Wild Radish
(Raphanus raphanistrum), Wild
Oat (Avena barbata) and
Annual Veldgrass (Ehrharta
longiflora) were prolific and
later on Slender Suckling Clover
(Trifolium dubium), Patersons
Curse (Echium plantagineum),
Lotus (Lotus angustissimus),
Vicia (Vicia sativa) and Stagger
Weed (Stachys arvensis)
covered the site.

60

There was also some

recruitment of native species,
mostly isolated seedlings of
shrubs including Swish Bush,
Running Postman (Kennedia
prostrata), and Acacia
lasiocarpa var. bracteolata. The
adjoining bushland is rich in
native herbs and some of these
also moved into the site,
tending to colonise bare soil
Yellow Autumn Lily (Tricoryne
elatior), Centrolepis aristata and
Goodenia micrantha were the
most common.
Given the resources available,
hand-weeding was not an
option. Spot spraying of 1 %
glyphosate was required four
times over the season as
germination of soil stored weed
seed continued.

The Swish Bush shrublands at Brixton Street occur on winter-wet clay soils.

The management of this site in

the longer term required
restoration of native plant
cover, particularly
fast-growing perennials to
displace, shade out and prevent
continual germination of weedy
annuals over the winter and
spring seasons.
Trials with smoke water at the
site in autumn 1999, indicated
little viable native seed
remained in the soil.

Site preparation and trials

The site was spot sprayed with

1 % glyphosate twice over the
autumn prior to setting up the
direct seeding trial.

Prior to sowing, the soil surface

in trial plots was very lightly
raked to create microsites for
seed germination and to
prevent the seed blowing away.

Trial plots measured 2 m x 2 m

and there were three replicates
of two different seed mixes
(shrubs only and shrubs and
grasses) and a control no seed.

The hard-seeded legumes

(Acacia, Kennedia and
Viminaria) were all soaked in
just-boiled water for two hours
prior to sowing.

Once seed was broadcast, plots

were sprayed with Regen 2000
(smoke water) diluted to 100
mL/L (Lloyd et al. 2000). The
aim was to break dormancy
and stimulate germination of
the Verticordia and the native
grass seed.

Heavy rains fell in the days

following sowing.

The trial
Seed collection and species
selection
Seed was collected from adjoining
Swishbush shrublands over the
summer. Species selected included
five shrubs: Acacia lasiocarpa var.
bracteolata, Swishbush, Hakea
trifurcata, Running Postman and
Verticordia densiflora. Seed was also
collected from Foxtail Mulga Grass
(Neurachne alopecuroidea) and
Clustered Lovegrass (Eragrostis
elongatus), chosen for their potential
to occupy bare ground quickly.
There was one disadvantage in using
grasses; grass-selective herbicides
could not be used in follow-up weed
control as germinating native grass
seedlings are susceptible.

Chapter 5

Broadleaf Herbs, Sedges and Succulents

Case Studies

July 2000 just after direct seeding.

Note: 1. Disturbing the soil to create a seed

bed for germination can easily facilitate
establishment of more weeds.
2. Viability of seed was not determined
before sowing but subsamples were set
aside for the purpose should germination
failure occur.

The trials were hand-weeded twice

and sprayed with grass-selective
herbicide where appropriate in the
winter season following sowing
(2000). No weed control took place
in 2001.

Establishment of natives
Two years after sowing, in June
2002, all seeded plots had 100 %
cover of natives. Hakea trifurcata
formed the greatest cover in all
plots followed by Acacia lasiocarpa,
Swish Bush, Running Postman then
Verticordia densiflora. Foxtail Mulga
Grass occurred at 25-50 % cover in
two plots and 1-5 % in the third.
Clustered Lovegrass had not
germinated in any plots. All the
controls (not seeded) had less than
1 % cover of native species.

July 2002, two years later.

Effectiveness in displacing
annual weeds
The same 6 -10 species of annual
weeds occurred across all plots,
seeded and not seeded. The most
commonly occurring were Scarlet
Pimpernel, Wild Oat, Blowfly Grass,
Slender Suckling Clover, Slender
Birds Foot Trefoil and Silver Grass
(Vulpia species). Together they
formed 100% cover in all the control
(unseeded) plots. In the seeded
plots, where native cover was
established, the weeds were more
scattered and less vigorous with
reduced flowering and seed
production.

Management implications

Although a cover of native

species was established within
two years at this site, the
complete displacement of
annual weeds is a longer-term
project.

Direct seeding will need to be

at a larger scale than the trial
plots (2 m x 2 m).

Weed control in the winter

season following sowing will
need to be very intensive to
ensure seedling establishment.

Establishment of native shrub

cover along the disturbed edges
will begin to reverse the cycle
of degradation. It will prevent
further weed encroachment
into intact bushland and, over
time, reduce resources required
for weed control.

This case study highlights the

complexities of restoring degraded
bushland edges where there are
scattered regenerating natives
among a diverse weed flora.

61

Chapter 5 Broadleaf Herbs, Sedges and Succulents

Case Studies

Case study 5.2

Preventing further spread of a recent invader Holly-leafed Senecio

(Senecio glastifolius)
Holly-leafed Senecio, a tall perennial
herb from the daisy family, occurs
naturally in the Cape Region of
South Africa. It was first recorded
as naturalised in Western Australia
in 1986 (Western Australian
Herbarium 1998). Collected from
the Mt Adelaide and Mt Clarence
Nature Reserves in the south west
town of Albany, Holly-leafed Senecio
was apparently an escapee from a
garden adjoining the reserve. A
series of fires facilitated rapid
expansion of the original infestation
and slashing of fire breaks
contributed to further spread of
seed. Holly-leafed Senecio now
occurs throughout much of the 260
hectares of Jarrah (Eucalyptus
marginata), Albany Blackbutt
(Eucalyptus staeri), and Marri
(Eucalyptus calophylla) woodlands,
as well as Allocasuarina open
woodland, in the reserves. In recent
years infestations have also been
found growing on coastal sands and
loams up to 20 kilometres from the
original infestation (Western
Australian Herbarium 1998). Hollyleafed Senecio has the potential to
become a major weed of natural
areas around much of the south
coast of Western Australia
(Keighery 1999c).

Senecio glastifolius (photograph Greg Keighery)

62

Why is it such a successful

weed?

Produces prolific amounts of

viable, wind dispersed seed.

Some evidence of persistent

soil seedbank.

Fire is a major mechanism for

establishment and facilitates
spread.

Soil disturbance also facilitates

spread and establishment.

1998: Fire followed by good

rains led to prolific germination
of Holly-leafed Senecio on the
north face of the saddle
between Mt Adelaide and Mt
Clarence. Many people who
used the reserves for their
daily walks started hand-pulling
the plants and leaving them in
the Reserves. (It was not known
at this stage that they could
form seeds after being pulled).
Three community volunteers
started a hand-removal
program in a Casuarina open
woodland area, where the
thickest infestations occurred.

1999: Holly-leafed Senecio was

hand-removed from dense
thickets of Acacia pulchella up
to 700 mm high. Hand-pulling in
this area required thick gloves
and trousers. Some of the Hollyleafed Senecio removed was
two and a half metres tall. This
time the plants were removed
from the site. We were learning!

John Moore and Dale Baker, a

board member of the first CRC
(Cooperative Research Centre)
for Weed Management Systems
ran a series of herbicide trials.
Lontrel at 500 mL/ha applied
from a backpack mister in
spring was found to be effective
on the Holly-leafed Senecio and
caused little damage to the
native species in the area.

The CRC for Weeds and the

Department of Agriculture,
Western Australia held the
state launch of Weedbuster
Week at the Mt Adelaide and
Mt Clarence Reserves in
October. Over 100 people
turned up to hand-pull Hollyleafed Senecio and the Friends
of Mt Adelaide & Mt Clarence
Reserves was formed. The
following year the Bushcarers
Group, an umbrella group for
all the Friends groups that were
starting up around the city was
formed.

Following on from the work

day, populations were sprayed
with Lontrel (500 mL/ha).

(from Williams et al. 1999)

Management
The Mt Adelaide and Mt Clarence
Nature Reserves are vested in the
City of Albany. Until very recently
few resources have been available
for weed management in the
Reserves. Although the original
infestation of Holly-leafed Senecio
threatened natural areas from
Augusta to Albany and possibly
beyond, it was never clear who was
responsible for its eradication.
Community volunteers initiated the
first control programs.
The following report comes
from Karin Baker, Friends of
Mt Adelaide and Mt Clarence
Nature Reserves

Chapter 5

Broadleaf Herbs, Sedges and Succulents

Case Studies

Further spot fires in the

following years have produced
a germination of Holly-leafed
Senecio. These have been dealt
with as quickly as time and
labour allow. Green Corps
teams have been used but are
not usually available at the time
they are most needed.
Outcome: Areas where there
is a good cover of natural
vegetation have had very little
Holly-leafed Senecio growing in
the following years. However,
along slashed firebreaks and
under power lines, germination
occurs every year. Outbreaks
should be sprayed or hand pulled in the first year following
fire, to stop the spread of seed.
Being wind dispersed, there is
probably seed all over the
reserves, and any fire will result
in further outbreaks.

As well as 260 hectares of the

nature reserves to deal with,
outlying populations also needed to
be covered as a priority and
resources were limited.
In 2000, Holly-leafed Senecio was
placed on the Alert List for
Environmental Weeds weeds
identified by Environment Australia
as likely to be a significant threat to
biodiversity. Grants to undertake onground actions to manage/control
isolated populations of weeds listed
became available. The objective was
to prevent further establishment
and expansion of listed weeds.
The Department of Agriculture,
Western Australia, City of Albany
and Albany Bushcarers jointly
applied for funding to have the
current distribution of the Hollyleafed Senecio mapped and to
implement a carefully targeted
control program. They were

successful and work will begin in

spring 2002.
The case study is an example of
community, federal, state and local
government working together to
acquire resources and to
implement effective on-ground
management of weeds invading
natural areas. With any one of the
parties not present, the work
would not be possible. It also
highlights, again, the importance of
early intervention and eradication
of small infestations of new weeds.
Source: Information for the case
study was provided by Karin Baker,
(Friend of Mt Adelaide & Mt
Clarence Reserves), Greg Keighery
(DCLM), John Moore (Western
Australian Department of
Agriculture, Albany) and Ryan
Munro (City of Albany).

Case study 5.3

Geraldton Carnation Weed (Euphorbia terracina) managing the spread of a serious invader
Geraldton Carnation Weed has
been slowly spreading south and
east over the last 60 years and
habitats at risk include bushlands
of the offshore islands and
calcareous (limestone) plant
communities throughout southern
Western Australia (Keighery and
Keighery 2000).

Reproductive biology,
dispersal and spread

possibly ants play a role in

dispersal. Often introduced
into bushland with crushed
limestone material brought in
for paths.

Is increasing on roadsides and

highways. Soil movement and
road maintenance machinery
are one of the major
mechanisms for long distance
dispersal.

Short-lived perennial herb to

one metre.

(Source: Keighery and Keighery

2000, Randall and Brooks 2000,
Parsons and Cuthbertson 2001).

Loses leaves and dies back to a

stem in summer, reshooting
with the first autumn rains.

Impacts

Often but not always killed by

fire.

Regenerates from soil-stored

seed. Seed remains viable in
the soil for at least 3-5 years.
Bulk of seed germinates with
onset of autumn rains but will
germinate after good summer
rains.

Seed released explosively

from fruits.

Water, soil movement, birds

(particularly feral doves), and

In Western Australia Geraldton

Carnation Weed can be found
invading natural ecosystems from
Geraldton to Cape Arid. It has been
recorded in coastal dune heath,
limestone heath, Tuart woodland,
Banksia woodland and ephemeral
wetlands. Once established it is
able to invade relatively
undisturbed bushland. It is a
particularly serious weed of Tuart
woodlands and one of the few
serious weeds of coastal heath in
south west Western Australia
(Keighery and Keighery 2000).

Control and Management in

Kings Park
Geraldton Carnation Weed is
invading Kings Park Banksia
woodlands in four main locations.
Management has effectively
focused on preventing spread
through the identification and
eradication of new outbreaks.

Volunteers and contractors are

able to accurately identify the
weed and new outbreaks are
mapped as soon as located.

Large infestations are initially

spot sprayed with herbicide
Brush-off (1 g/150 L) or
Brush-off + glyphosate.
Follow-up includes regular
inspection of the site and
hand-removal of remaining
plants. This continues for at
least five years.

Note: The entire plant must be removed.

Plants as young as three weeks will resprout
from any root material left behind.

63

Chapter 5 Broadleaf Herbs, Sedges and Succulents

Case Studies

The program has resulted in a

significant reduction of Geraldton
Carnation Weed invading the
bushland in Kings Park.
Effective management has relied on:

Recognising, recording and

removing new infestations.

Revisiting known populations

year after year (for at least five
years) following up previous
work.

(From Dixon 2000)

Cautionary note: The sap in the stems of
Euphorbia terracina is highly caustic and
can cause quite dramatic and painful
inflammations of sensitive skin. If the sap
gets into the eyes temporary blindness is
often reported and in some severe cases
varying vision loss has been reported. When
working with this plant, or any Euphorbia,
care should be taken to minimise direct
contact with the plant. Safety glasses or face
shields and gloves, at a minimum, with fully
enclosed shoes and neck to wrist to ankle
protection is advised.
Euphorbia terracina invading the understorey of Tuart woodland at Bold Park.

Case study 5.4

Typha orientalis an aggressive coloniser of wetlands

Two species of Typha are known

from Western Australia,
T. domingensis and T. orientalis.
Native to eastern Australia,
T. orientalis is thought to be
introduced in Western Australia and
it is an aggressive coloniser of
wetlands of the Swan Coastal Plain
and Jarrah Forest. Typha
domingensis is native and occurs
only occasionally in the region. The
native and the weed can be difficult
to tell apart.
Typha domingensis has a
leaf blade that does not
exceed 8 mm in width
and a cinnamon brown
female flower spike that
is 5 to 20 mm in diameter
and 6 to 20 times as long
as it is wide.
Typha orientalis has a leaf
blade up to 14 mm wide
with a chestnut brown
female flower that is 10 to
30 mm in diameter and 5
to 10 times as long as it is
wide. Intermediates exist
and expert help is
sometimes required for
identification.

64

Life-cycle and Reproductive

Biology of Typha orientalis

Expansion of existing
populations is rapid, occurring
via rhizomes that grow out
from the population each
season. Establishment of new
populations is via seed.
Typha orientalis can produce
220,000 seed per flower head.
The seed is very light and winddispersed, often over several
kilometres. Seed also spreads
via water and is moved around
in mud on the feet of birds,
livestock and humans.

Seed germination generally takes

place from December to April.

High temperatures (above

20 C) and high levels of light
are required for germination.
Seeds germinate in mud on the
margins of waterways and,
sometimes, under water (less
than eight centimetres deep).

Once established, seedlings

start producing rhizomes and
the diameter of the plant can
extend to three metres within
the first year.

Active growth is mainly

through summer and autumn
although in mild climates it can
occur at any time of the year.

Flowering commences in early

summer and seed is dispersed
from December onwards.

(from Parsons and Cuthbertson 2001)

Establishment and spread of

Typha orientalis at Lake
Forrestdale
A study based on a series of aerial
photographs of Lake Forrestdale
just south of Perth illustrates how
quickly the weed can spread once
established at a site (Watkins and
McNee 1985). The aerial photos
revealed that prior to 1964 no
T. orientalis occurred at the lake,
with the first stand appearing in
1967. By 1976 a fairly large stand
had established on the southern
end of the lake and by 1984
T. orientalis had colonised almost
the entire six kilometres of lake
margin. Dense colonies had in many
places displaced the native rushes
and sedges in the understorey of
the Melaleuca woodland fringing the

Chapter 5

Broadleaf Herbs, Sedges and Succulents

Case Studies

lake. Seed had been responsible

for the establishment of new
populations but existing
populations had also been
expanding rapidly over that time
(Watkins and McNee 1985).

Control of Typha
Preventing establishment of
seedlings is vital to limiting spread
of the weed. Trials at Lake
Forrestdale found cultivating
seedling populations late in
autumn, when most seed has
germinated, effectively prevented
seedling establishment. Although
water levels are at their lowest at
this time in Perth, the ground was
still soft. A Honda trike with
balloon tyres dragging a piece of
weld mesh was used to cultivate
the population (Watkins and
McNee 1985).
Maintaining a cover of native
species in fringing vegetation will
keep light levels down and prevent
germination of seeds. Juncus
species will displace seedlings.
Cutting shoots 15 cm below the
water surface two to three times in
one season when plants are
actively growing, but before seeds
are fully formed, can reduce a
stand by 95-99 % (Motivans and
Apfelbaum 2002).

As Typha often grows in water,

chemical application is sometimes
inappropriate. Roundup Biactive
(360 g/L) at 13 mL/L is registered
for use on Typha species in
Tasmania. Apply in the period
between male flowers opening, and
six weeks after female flowers
emerge. Avoid producing run-off or
spray drift (DPIWE 2001).

Typha orientalis is an
aggressive coloniser of
wetlands on the Swan
Coastal Plain. Effective
management requires an
integrated approach

Keeping disturbance out of

intact plant communities
prevents establishment of
seedlings.

Controlling seedlings as a
priority prevents establishment
of new populations.

Removing emerging flower

spikes from established
populations limits seed
production and spread.

Using both physical and

chemical techniques is
essential for effective control
of established populations.

Plants generally resprout following

fire unless fire kills rhizomes. Case
studies looking at control through
burning (low intensity) dense
infestations of Typha species in
North America, in late winter, have
shown that under certain
conditions a 70 % reduction in
populations can be achieved
(Snyder 1993).

Rhizome of Typha orientalis

65

Chapter 5 Annual Broadleaf Herbs, Sedges and Succulents Weed Management Table
Species

Common name

Timing of seed germination

Flowers

Dispersal agent

Seedbank
persistence (years)

Can be
biennial

some dormancy 8+?

Arctotheca
calendula

Cape Weed

after rains

win/spr

Aug-Nov

wind

Bellardia
trixago

White Bartsia

autumn/winter

win/spr

Sep-Jan

wind

Cakile
maritima

Sea Rocket

mostly spring but any time after

rain

win/spr

Jan-Dec

wind, water

2+

Carduus
pycnocephalus

Slender Thistle

up to 6wks after autumn rains

win/spr

Oct-Dec

wind, water, birds

10+

Carduus
tenuiflorus

Sheep Thistle

up to 6wks after autumn rains

win/spr

Sep-Nov

wind, water, birds

10+

Carthamus
lanatus

Saffron Thistle

autumn and early winter.

staggered south west W.A

win/spr

Dec-Apr

water, adhesion

Centranthus
macrosiphon

Pretty Betsy

win/spr

Aug-Nov

limestone gravel, wind?

short?

Chenopodium
album

Fat Hen

after rains

all year

Mar-Apr/OctDec

birds, machinery

20-40

Cirsium
vulgare

Spear Thistle

autumn mostly

win/spr

Jan-Dec

wind, water, machinery

30+

Conyza albida

Tall Fleabane

autumn/winter/spring

win/spr

Dec-Feb

wind

Conyza
bonariensis

Flaxleaf
Fleabane

autumn/winter/spring

win/spr

Dec-Feb

wind

Crepis
capillaris

Smooth Hawks
Beard

win/spr

Nov-Jan

wind

Crepis foetida

Stinking Hawks
Beard

win/spr

Nov-Jan

wind

Cucumis
myriocarpus

Prickly Paddy
Melon

sum

Jan-May

birds, machinery

win/spr

Aug-Nov

Dischisma
arenarium
Dischisma
capitatum

Wolly Dischisma

win/spr

Aug-Sep

Dittrichia
graveolens

Stinkwort

sum

Jan-Apr

wind, animal

Echium
plantagineum

Patersons Curse

all year

win/spr

Sep-Jan

water, machinery

6 (most in 2)

Emex australis

Doublegee

all year

win/spr

Jul-Oct

tyres, water, machinery

4+

Erodium botrys

Long Storksbill

mainly autumn/winter but spring/

summer if moisture is available

win/spr

Aug-Nov

Euphorbia
peplus

Petty Spurge

autumn to spring

win/spr

Jul-Jan

Fumaria
capreolata

Climbing
Fumitory

autumn to spring

win/spr

Aug-Nov

Fumaria
muralis

Wall Fumitory

autumn to spring

win/spr

Jun-Dec

Hypochaeris
glabra

Flat Weed

autumn/winter

win/spr

Jan-Dec

wind

autumn

win/spr

Jan-Dec

wind

win/spr

Nov

wind, machinery

Hypochaeris
radicata
Isolepis hystrix

66

Growing
season

3+

20+

<1

Chapter 5 Annual Broadleaf Herbs, Sedges and Succulents Weed Management Table
Suggested methods of management and control

Similar natives
often mistaken
for weeds

Reference

Colonises bare soil and disturbed sites. Lontrel 6 mL/10 L (300 mL/ha) in early growth stages. Glyphosate 0.2 % will control
at all growth stages.

146, 53, 96, 115, 101,

167, 242, 222

Colonises disturbed wetlands. Hand remove isolated plants before seed set. Spot spray 0.2 % glyphosate.

167, 242, 222

300, 207, 167, 242

Seedlings establish in bare open ground so establish desirable vegetation cover. Hand remove isolated plants through spring
10 mL in 10 L water
and early summer. Glyphosate applied with a rope wick provides good control or spot spray Lontrel
+ 25 mL wetting agent. Control at rosette stage.
as for Slender Thistle

300, 248, 91, 121, 228,

167, 242

as for Slender Thistle

300, 248, 96, 147, 251,

145, 120, 228, 167, 242

Hand remove small populations. Spray metsulfuron methyl 0.1 g/15 L (2 g/ha) + wetting agent.

300, 101, 167, 242

Highly susceptible to mowing before flowering. Requires bare ground for establishment and persistence. Herbicide application
most effective in early growth stages.

19, 228, 167, 242

Seedlings establish in bare open ground so establish desirable vegetation cover. Glyphosate 0.5 % provides effective control of
6 mL/10 L (300 ml/ha) + wetting agent, rosette to early flowering.
seedling and adult plants or Lontrel

248, 96, 167, 242, 222

Does not compete well under high plant density or cover. Requires disturbance to establish and persist. Establish desirable
vegetation.

333, 325, 167, 242

Does not compete well under high plant density or cover. Requires disturbance to establish and persist. Establish desirable
vegetation.

300, 333, 325, 167, 242

in 10 L of water + 25 mL Pulse .
Spot spray 1 % glyphosate + Pulseor
10 mL Lontrel

167, 242, 222

in 10 L of water + 25 mL Pulse.
Spot spray 1 % glyphosate + Pulseor
10 mL Lontrel

300, 167, 242, 222

Hand remove isolated plants before flowering. Not killed by glyphosate. Spot spray 2 mL Garlonin
10 L of water + 25 mL
wetting agent.

248, 167, 242, 222

Spot spray 0.2 % glyphosate.

167, 242

Spot spray 0.2 % glyphosate.

167, 242

Hand remove isolated plants before flowering. Slash very close to ground (can resprout).

248, 167, 242

Slashing or mowing can cause out of season flowering and seed production. Spot spray in late autumn when most seed has
germinated for the year with 0.5g/10 L chlorsulfuron + wetting agent-this will help prevent further germination. Glyphosate will
control existing plants.
Seed produced at early stage. Any control program must aim at killing all plants shortly
Spot spray plants with 1 % Grazon.
after emergence and must continue for a number of years. Spot spray with glyphosate 0.5-0.7 % to kill existing plants but bare
soil quickly reinfested.
at 1.5 mL/ 10 L (75 mL/ha) +

Lontrelat
6 mL/10 L (300 mL/ha) + wetting agent applied before flowering or Verdict 520
wetting agent.

229, 248, 96, 257, 167,

242, 222

300, 248, 91, 228, 167,

242

133, 248, 286, 167, 242,

222
E. cygnorum

12, 228, 222, 101, 167,

242, 222

Colonises degraded sites; spray metsulfuron methyl 0.1 g/15 L (2.5 g/ha) + wetting agent or glyphosate 0.5 %.

101, 167, 242

Colonises degraded sites; spray metsulfuron methyl 0.1 g/15 L (2.5 g/ha) + wetting agent or glyphosate 0.5 %.

101, 167, 242

Colonises degraded sites; spray metsulfuron methyl 0.1 g/15 L (2.5 g/ha) + wetting agent or glyphosate 0.5 %.

254, 62, 101, 167, 242

Rosettes wiped with glyphosate 30 % provides effective control. Dense infestations - 25 mL wetting agent + 10 mL Lontrelin
10 L of water.

300, 228, 222, 167, 242

Rosettes wiped with glyphosate 30 % provides effective control. Dense infestations - 25 mL wetting agent + 10 mL Lontrelin
10 L of water.

300, 54, 228, 167, 242

167, 242

67

Chapter 5 Annual Broadleaf Herbs, Sedges and Succulents Weed Management Table
Species

Common name

Timing of seed germination

Flowers

Dispersal agent

sum

Oct-Feb

wind

Seedbank
persistence (years)

Can be
biennial

Lactuca
serriola

Prickly Lettuce

autumn to spring

Lupinus
angustifolius

Narrowleaf
Lupin

autumn/winter

win/spr

Jul-Nov

little dormancy

Lupinus
cosentinii

Sand Plain
Lupin

autumn

win/spr

Aug-Nov

some dormancy

Malva
parviflora

Small Flowered
Mallow

spring to autumn

win/spr

Jul-Nov

soil, water

100?

Medicago
polymorpha

Burr Medic

autumn/winter

win/spr

May-Nov

animal, adhesion

5+

Melilotus
indicus

King Island
Meliot

win/spr

Aug-May

water, wind

20+?

Mesembryanthemum
crystallinum

Common Ice
Plant

autumn/winter or after rains

win/spr

Sep

fleshy fruit-animal ingestion

22?

Osteospermum
clandestinum

Stinking Roger

autumn/winter

win/spr

Oct-Dec

wind

Parentucellia
viscosa

Sticky Bartsia

win/spr

Aug-Jan

wind, water, machinery

Petrorhagia
velutina

Velvet Pink

win/spr

Aug-Dec

Portulaca
oleracea

Pigweed

sum

Feb-May

Ranunculus
muricatus

Sharp Buttercup

win/spr

Aug-Dec

Raphanus
raphanistrum

Wild Radish

all year

most in autumn

bulk after autumn rains but

sporadic throughout year

Senecio
elegans

68

Growing
season

all year

wind, water, soil, birds

40

Apr-Nov

wind, water, machinery

20

win/spr

Sep-Mar

wind

win/spr

Jul-Feb

wind

Senecio
vulgaris

Groundsel

Silene gallica

French Catchfly

win/spr

Jul-Dec

Solanum
americanum

Glossy
Nightshade

win/spr

Mar-Dec

birds, water, soil, machinery

Solanum
nigrum

Black
Nightshade

spring/summer

win/spr

Jan-Dec

birds, water, soil, machinery

5+

Sonchus asper

Prickly
Sowthistle

all year

win/spr

Sep-Dec

wind

1-2

Sonchus
oleraceus

Sowthistle

autumn/winter

win/spr

Sep-Dec

wind

1-2

Symphyotrichum
subulatum

Bushy Starwort

sum

Dec-Mar

wind

Tribulus
terrestris

Caltrop

all year

Jan-Dec

tyres, water, machinery

several

Trifolium spp

Clovers

win/spr

Sep-Dec

soil, water

some dormancy

Ursinia
anthemoides

Ursinia

win/spr

Jul-Dec

wind, adhesion

Vicia sativa

Common Vetch

win/spr

Jul-Dec

birds, horses, sheep ingest

all year

autumn/winter

some dormancy

Chapter 5 Annual Broadleaf Herbs, Sedges and Succulents Weed Management Table
Suggested methods of management and control

Similar natives
often mistaken
for weeds

Reference

Colonises disturbed wetland sites.

316, 167, 242

Hand remove scattered plants. Spray dense infestations metsulfuron-methyl 0.1 g/15 L (2-3 g/ha) + wetting agent or
6 mL/10 L (300 mL/ha) + wetting agent to late flowering (will prevent seed set).
Lontrel

101, 222, 167, 242

Hand remove scattered plants. Spray dense infestations metsulfuron-methyl 0.1g/15 L (2-3 g/ha) + wetting agent.

258, 101, 222, 167, 242

Hand remove isolated plants. Chemical control only effective at early growth stages.

M. australiana

197, 222, 167, 242,

in 10 L of water provides effective control in early winter or

25 mL of wetting agent + 10 mL of Lontrel
metsulfuron methyl 0.1 g/10 L + wetting agent.

200, 228, 167, 242

Weed of highly disturbed bushland. If slashing cut below lowest branch axil to prevent resprouting.

300, 335, 167, 242

10 mL/ 10 L
Hand remove isolated plants through spring and early summer. Spot spray with 0.5 % glyphosate or Lontrel
(500 mL/ha).

334, 316, 167, 242, 222

Spot spray with glyphosate 0.5 % before flowering.

222, 167, 242, 222

Spot spray with glyphosate 0.5 % before flowering.

167, 242, 222

167, 242

Hand remove before flowering. Will shoot from stem fragments under moist conditions. Spot spray 0.5 % glyphosate.

217, 167, 242, 222

R. amphitrichus,
R. colonorum

167, 242

Weed of highly disturbed edges. Hand remove isolated plants several times over the year. Spot spray 1% glyphosate before
flowering.

248, 66, 228, 167, 242

at 10 mL in 10 L of water + 25 mL wetting agent applied before stem elongation in

Only persists in disturbed sites. Lontrel
late spring.

30, 167, 242, 222

at 10 mL in 10 L of water + 25 mL wetting agent applied before stem elongation in

Only persists in disturbed sites. Lontrel
late spring.

300, 337, 167, 242, 222

167, 242

Weed of disturbed sites. Shade reduces seed production. Hand weed small infestations.

300, 167, 242

Weeds of disturbed sites. Shade reduces seed production. Hand weed small infestations.

300, 141, 167, 242

Slashing often ineffective as flowers continue to be produced. Rosette stage preferred time for effective chemical control.
at 10 mL in 10 L of water + 25 mL wetting agent.
Lontrel

S.hydrophilus
Native
Sowthistle

300, 11, 168, 167, 242,

222

Slashing often ineffective as flowers continue to be produced. Rosette stage preferred time for effective chemical control.
at 10 mL in 10 L of water + 25 mL wetting agent.
Lontrel

300, 11, 168, 167, 242,

222

Colonises disturbed wetlands. Hand remove isolated plants before seed set.

167, 242

Glyphosate 1 % effective on seedlings. Exclude people and close tracks to stop spread. On bare tracks diesel can be used to kill
plants and penetrate and destroy seed in surface soil.

248, 167, 242

10 mL/10 L + wetting agent in early winter before

Hand remove isolated plants before flowering. Spot spraying Lontrel
flowering provides effective control.

228, 167, 242

167, 242

10 mL/10 L + wetting agent provides effective control in

Colonises bare disturbed sites. Can smother native plants. Lontrel
early growth stages or metsulfuron methyl 0.1 g/ 10 L + wetting agent.

1, 228, 222, 167, 242,

222

69

Chapter 5 Perennial Broadleaf Herbs, Sedges and Succulents Weed Management Table
Species

Common name

Reproductive unit

Seedbank persistence
(years)

Dispersal agent

Acetosella vulgaris

Sorrel

Aug-Dec

seed, root fragment

long

wind, water, animal, soil

Agapanthus praecox

Agapanthus

Oct-Dec

rhizome, seed

short

soil

Agave americana

Century Plant

Dec-Jan

seed, suckers

Alternanthera pungens

Khaki Weed

Mar-Jul

stem and root fragment, seed

Arctotheca populifolia

Dune Arctotheca

Jun-Jan

seed

Arctotis stoechadifolia

Arctotis

Sep-Jan

root fragment

Argyranthemum frutescens

Marguerite

Jul-Oct

seed

Asphodelus fistulosus

Onion Weed

Jun-Oct

Berkheya rigida

African Thistle

Canna x generalis

wind, water
many

soil, animal (adhesion)

wind, soil

germination of seed rare

soil

seed

many

wind, machinery, water

Oct-May

seed, stem and root fragments

many

adhesion, soil

Canna Lily

Nov-Mar

rhizome, seed?

soil, bird

Carex divisa

Divided Sedge

Sep-Dec

seed?

water?

Carpobrotus aequilaterus

Angular Pigface

Aug-Nov

seed, stem fragments

Carpobrotus edulis

Pigface

Aug-Nov

seed, stem fragments

Centranthus ruber

Red Valerian

Oct-Mar

seed, rhizome

soil

Chenopodium ambrosioides

Mexican Tea

Mar-Jul

seed

soil, machinery, water

Cyperus congestus

Dense Flat Sedge

Jul-Oct

Cyperus eragrostis

Umbrella Sedge

Jun-Jul

seed, rhizome

soil, water

Cyperus polystachyos

Bunchy Sedge

Dec-Jul

Cyperus rotundus

Nut Grass

Apr-Jul

seed, tubers, rhizome

seed viability low, tubers

longevity up to 10

soil, water (flooding), wind

Epilobium ciliatum

Willow Herb

Oct-Jan

seed, crown fragments

short?

wind, soil

Euphorbia paralias

Sea Spurge

Oct-Jun

seed, root fragments

2 + in salt water

explosive, water, sand, wind

Euphorbia terracina

Geraldton Carnation
Weed

Aug-Dec

seed

3-5

explosive, birds, ants, limestone,

machinery

Foeniculum vulgare

Fennel

Jul-Jan

root fragments, seed

Hypericum perforatum

St John Wort

Mar-0ct

stem fragments, seed, rhizome

Isolepis prolifera

Budding Club Rush

Oct-Jan

seed? stem fragments

water

Juncus acutus

Spiny Rush

Oct-Dec

seed, crown fragments

water, machinery

Nov-Feb

seed

water, machinery

Juncus microcephalus

70

Flowering

Limonium companyonis

Statice, Sea Lavender

Nov-Feb

seed

Limonium sinuatum

Statice, Sea Lavender

Sep-May

seed

Lotus uliginosus

Greater Lotus

Nov-Mar

seed, rhizome

2+

rabbits, birds (ingestion)

soil, machinery ,water

10

water, soil, machinery, animals

(adhesion and ingestion)

Reproductive unit: bold=main mechanism of dispersal. Seedbank perisistence: long=5+ years short= months to 1 year

water, soil

Chapter 5 Perennial Broadleaf Herbs, Sedges and Succulents Weed Management Table
Some suggested methods of management and control

Similar natives often

mistaken for weeds

Reference

Spot spray with 0.5 % glyphosate or metsulfuron methyl 0.2 g/10 L + 25 mL Pulse .

248, 21, 228, 167,

242

Dig out taking care to remove all bulbs. Remove and burn or deep bury flower heads to stop spread of seed. Spray with 1 % Grazon just
before flowering.

21, 101, 167, 242

Dig out small infestations. Stem inject into base of leaves 1 partTordon / 5 parts diesel. (flowers only once, after 10 to 15 years, then dies)

21, 167, 242

Difficult to control as it is a true deep-rooted perennial. Cut roots well below surface. Cultivation can spread plant fragments. Spot spray
with 1 % glyphosate before flowering.

A. nodiflora

10 mL/10 L (500 mL/ha) + Pulse in early growth stages.

Difficult to hand pull and resistant to chemicals, it is short-lived. Lontrel
Glyphosate 1% will control at all growth stages.

248, 222, 167, 242

143, 102, 167, 242,
222
30, 167, 242

Hand pull small infestations.

143, 102, 167, 242,

Hand pull small infestations. Metsulfuron-methyl 0.1 g /10 L +100 mL spray oil when flowering.

248, 228, 167, 242

Dig out and destroy single plants before flowering. Suggest Lontrel 10 mL/10 L + wetting agent at early rosette stage or 0.5 % glyphosate.

30, 248, 222, 167,

242

Hand pull small infestations. Cut stems to ground level, paint 10 % glyphosate on larger infestations.

241, 167, 242

Physical control where only scattered plants occur. Try 1 % glyphosate.

167, 242, 222

As for C. edulis?

C. virescens

167, 242

Roll up large mats removing all roots (shallow-rooted) and stem fragments. Follow up with removal of any germinating plants. Spray with
glyphosate at label rates.

13, 83, 84, 167, 242

Suggest metsulfuron methyl 0.15 g/10 L (5 g/ha) + Pulse before flowering.

300, 101, 167, 242

Hand remove small populations (use gloves); Suggest metsulfuron methyl 0.7 g/10 L (20 g/ha) + Pulse before flowering or
1 % glyphosate + Pulse.

102, 167, 242

Try 1 % glyphosate + Pulse .

167, 242, 222

Try 1 % glyphosate + Pulse .

167, 242, 222

Try 1 % glyphosate + Pulse .

167, 242, 222

Intolerant of dense shade - apply glyphosate at label rate before the fifth leaf stage after this time herbicide is not translocated to tubers.
Difficult to control.

332, 248, 241, 317,

167, 242

Spray seedlings with glyphosate; established plants will resprout from crown after glyphosate treatment. Seedlings normally only establish
on bare moist soil.

E. billardiereanum,
E. hirtigerum

248, 96, 167, 242

Hand remove small isolated infestations. Long tap root. Consider possible dune erosion.

248, 330, 167, 242

Large infestations - spot spray- with herbicide metsulfuron methyl 0.1 g/15 L or metsulfuron methyl + 1 % glyphosate before flowering.
Follow-up with hand removal for at least five years.

98, 173, 267, 248,

167, 242

Usually found in very disturbed sites; persistent and difficult to eradicate. Spot spray with 1.5 % glyphosate or metsulfuron methyl
0.7 g/10 L (20 g/ha) + Pulse . On older plants apply just before flowering. Follow up on seedlings. Seed germinates throughout year;
plants don't flower until around 2 years.

23, 102, 167, 242

Seedlings establishment restricted by soil cover, litter and competition. Spot spray at flowering (50 % bud - 50 % open flowering - do not
(triclopyr + picloram) at label rates. Biological control available from CSIRO.
spray after 50 % green bud) with Grazon

55, 56, 8, 341, 57,

167, 242
167

Establish native vegetation cover; dig out isolated plants; spray 2 % glyphosate-repeat application six weeks later. Burning plants after
they have been knocked back by herbicide increases kill rate. Consider possibility of erosion.
Dig out isolated plants.

6, 241, 248, 167,

242
J. holoschoenus

167, 242
248, 167, 242

Hand remove small patches.

167, 242

Weed of highly disturbed areas. Spot spray Lontrel at 10 mL/10 L + 25 mL wetting agent.

101, 228, 167, 242

71

Chapter 5 Perennial Broadleaf Herbs, Sedges and Succulents Weed Management Table

Species

Common name

Flowering

Reproductive unit

Seedbank persistence
(years)

Dispersal agent

long

birds-(adhesion and ingestion)

Malva dendromorpha

Tree Mallow

Aug-Dec

seed

Myosotis sylvatica

Forget-Me-Not

Sep-Dec

seed

Oenothera drummondii

Beach Evening Primrose

Feb-Jun

seed

Oenothera laciniata

May-Jan

seed

Oenothera mollissima

Nov-Mar

seed

Oenothera stricta

Jan-Nov

seed

animals (adhesion), soil

O. biennis up to 80.

Parietaria judaica

Pellitory

Dec-Jan

seed, root fragments

water, wind, soil, animals

(adhesion), ants

Pelargonium capitatum

Rose Pelargonium

Aug-Dec

seed, root fragments

wind, water, soil

Phytolacca octandra

Red Ink Plant

Jan-Mar

seed

short

birds (ingestion)

Plantago lanceolata

Ribwort Plantain

Nov-mar

seed, stem fragments

some dormancy

soil, water

Plantago major

Greater Plantain

Oct-Feb

seed

up to 40

soil, water

Rumex brownii

Swamp Dock

Apr-May

seed, root fragments

80+ (some species)

animals, soil, machinery

Rumex conglomeratus

Clustered Dock

Oct-Feb

seed, root fragments

long

animals, soil, machinery

Rumex crispus

Curled Dock

Jul-Dec

seed, root fragments

20+

animals, soil, machinery

Sagina procumbens

Spreading Pearlwort

Jul-Sep

seed, stem and root fragments

long

probably wind

Senecio glastifolius

Holly-leafed Senecio

Aug-Oct

seed

some persistence

wind, soil, machinery

Trachyandra divaricata

Dune Onion Weed

Aug-Nov

seed

light induces dormancy

wind

Trifolium repens

White Clover

Jul-Jan

seed, stem fragments, stolons

25+

wind, water, birds, animal

(ingestion)

Typha orientalis

Typha

Oct-Dec

seed, rhizomes

Vinca major

Blue Periwinkle

Aug-Nov

stem fragments, stolons

wind, water, soil

Seed rarely matures

soil, machinery, water?

Reproductive unit: bold=main mechanism of dispersal. Seedbank perisistence: long=5+ years short= months to 1 year

72

Chapter 5 Perennial Broadleaf Herbs, Sedges and Succulents Weed Management Table

Some suggested methods of management and control

Similar natives often

mistaken for weeds

Reference

Biennial, rapidly replacing the native Malva on islands off the coast of Perth. Cut to ground and paint stump with glyphosate. Weed mat
will prevent germination of seedlings.

M. australiana

274, 167, 242, 197

Try 0.5 % glyphosate + Pulse .

167, 242, 222

Control in seedling stage, older plants resistant to herbicide. Relatively tolerant of glyphosate. Hand remove small populations in areas not
susceptible to erosion. Spot spray chlorsulfuron 0.4 g/10 L + spray oil.

300, 38, 49, 228,

167, 242, 222

Control in seedling stage, older plants resistant to herbicide. Relatively tolerant of glyphosate. Hand remove small populations - remove
entire root stystem. Spot spray chlorsulfuron 0.4 g/10 L + spray oil.

300, 38, 49, 228,

167, 242, 222

Control in seedling stage, older plants resistant to herbicide. Relatively tolerant of glyphosate. Hand remove small populations - remove
entire root stystem. Spot spray chlorsulfuron 0.4 g/10 L + spray oil.

300, 38, 49, 228,

167, 242, 222

Control in seedling stage, older plants resistant to herbicide. Relatively tolerant of glyphosate. Hand remove small populations - remove
entire root stystem. Spot spray chlorsulfuron 0.4 g/10 L + spray oil.

300, 38, 49, 228,

167, 242, 222

Hand pull isolated plants. Regular spot spraying with 1 % glyphosate is reported to give effective control in Australia. Resistance to
glyphosate reported from the Mediterranean.

P. debilis

248, 18, 167, 242

Hand pull isolated plants taking care to remove entire stem - will reshoot from below ground level. Spot spray metsulfuron methyl 5 g/ha +
Pulse. Easy target after fire.

300, 101, 167, 242

Dig out isolated plants - cut root at least 5 cm below ground. Spray with 1 % glyphosate + Pulse.

300, 21, 101, 167,

242, 222

Spray in early stages of growth with 1 % glyphosate.

P. debilis, P. drummondii,
P. exilis

Spray in early stages of growth. Suggest 1 % glyphosate.

Spot spray with 1 % glyphosate in early bud stage, cultivation of older plants will spread root fragments.

300, 336, 167, 242,

222
30, 336, 151, 167,
242

R. dumosus,
R. drummondii

96, 248, 326, 167,

242

Spot spray with 1 % glyphosate in early bud stage, cultivation of older plants will spread root fragments.

96, 248, 326, 167,

242

Spot spray with 1% glyphosate in early bud stage, cultivation of older plants will spread root fragments.

96, 248, 326, 167,

242

Hand remove small infestations. Seed generally does not move far from parent plants. Boiling water reported to destroy 99 % of soil
seed bank.

130, 167, 242

Hand remove small infestations. Lontrel at 10 mL/10 L (500 mL/ha) + wetting agent just before stem elongation in spring.

339, 228, 167, 242

Wipe with 50 % glyphosate solution before flowering. Dense infestations in degraded areas spot spray 0.4 g chlorosulfuron plus 25 mL
wetting agent in 10 L of water when plants actively growing.

300, 153, 25, 228,

167, 242, 222

Spot spray with 1 % glyphosate before flowering. Lontrel 3 mL/10 L (150 mL/ha) up to 6 leaf stage.

77, 102, 167, 242

Roundup Biactive (360 g/L) at13 mL/L. Apply in the period between male flowers opening, and 6 weeks after female flowers emerge.
Avoid producing run-off or spray drift. Cutting shoots 15 cm below the water surface two to three times in a season when actively growing,
but before seeds are formed, greatly reduces stands.
Hand pull small infestations. Spray larger areas with 2 % glyphosate + 2 % Pulse ; spray when plants have approximately 5 cm new
growth in 8-12 weeks - repeat applications will be required.

T. domingensis

230a, 96, 167, 242

21, 22, 228, 167,
242, 222

73

Trees, Shrubs
and Climbers

Chapter 6

T h e Wo o d y We e d s
The term woody weed refers to any woody perennial
tree, shrub or climber that has established within
bushland outside its natural range. Unlike the
herbaceous plants covered in previous chapters,
woody plants have secondary growth, which means
their stems continue to lay down new tissue increasing
in girth even after they stop increasing in height.
Most woody weeds recorded around the world were
deliberately introduced as ornamentals or forestry
species (Binggeli et al. 1998). Many of the species found
in south west Western Australia come from southern
Africa, South America and the Mediterranean region.
Planting of Australian natives in parks and bushland,
has also resulted in the naturalisation of numerous
weedy Australian species. Of the 81 tree and shrub
species recorded as environmental weeds of the Swan
Coastal Plain and Jarrah Forest, 39 % are eastern
Australian species (Keighery 1999a). Given the
opportunity, even Western Australian species can
become weedy outside their natural range (Box 6.1).
The biology of woody plants varies considerably. Most
reproduce by seed but not all. Some are deciduous,
some evergreen. Many resprout when felled, some
sucker, others simply die. Woody species may retain
their fruit in the canopy, releasing it when the tree is
damaged, or shed it as soon as it is ripe. Mammals,
birds, insects, wind, water or gravity may disperse fruit.
Seed may remain viable for years, or only weeks, and
plant lifespan can vary from several to hundreds of
years. Some woody species produce toxins that inhibit
growth of other plants. The toxins produced by the
Tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima) are so strong their

potential use as a natural herbicide has been

researched (Lin et al. 1995).
Common characteristics that make woody weeds highly
competitive (Binggeli et al. 1998, Buist et al. 2000) include:

Fast growth.

Early maturity and prolific seeding.

High seed germinability.

Readily germinate and grow within shady conditions.

Ability to grow at high densities.

Resprouting or suckering response.

Lack of seed and plant predation in the naturalised

habitat.

Resilience to a range of environmental conditions.

A rapid response to changes in space, light,

nutrient or water availability.

As a group the woody weeds pose several problems to

bushland managers. They are often large, both difficult
to dig out and to spray without causing damage to the
surrounding vegetation. Their removal can result in the
loss of desirable shade and cause a considerable
increase in the space, light and nutrients available to
other weeds that might be present. The act of removal
itself can damage surrounding vegetation and spread
propagules. This chapter discusses these problems and
looks at some of the different treatment options
available. In particular it highlights the relationship
between treatment approach and the plants ability to
resprout and sucker.

Box 6.1 Western Australian natives can be weeds too.

In Western Australia thirty five species of Western Australian plants have become naturalised, largely outside their
ranges, from plantings (Keighery 2002b). It is important to emphasise the use of locally collected material
(seed or cuttings) when planting in or near bushland areas. Likewise, correct identification of plants from
which material is collected is also essential.
Table 1. Some Western Australian natives known to have naturalised outside their native range (adapted from Keighery, G.,
unpublished report).
Acacia acuminata (Jam)
Acacia blakelyi
Acacia lasiocalyx
Acacia microbotrya (Manna Wattle)
Acacia myrtifolia
Allocasuarina huegeliana (Rock Sheoak)
Banksia caleyi (Caley's Banksia)
Callitris glaucophylla
Callitris preissii (Rottnest Island Pine)
Calothamnus chrysantherus (Clawflower)
Calothamnus graniticus
Calothamnus quadrifidus (One-sided Bottlebrush)
Calothamnus validus (Barrens Clawflower)
Ceratopteris thalictroides
Diplolaena dampieri (Southern Diplolaena)
Eucalyptus camaldulensis (River Red Gum)
Eucalyptus conferruminata (Bald Island Marlock)

74

Illustration provided by: IFAS, Centre for Aquatic Plants University

of Florida, Gainesville, 1996

Eucalyptus erythrocorys (Illyarrie Gum)

Eucalyptus todtiana (Coastal Blackbutt)
Grevillea leucopteris (White Plume Grevillea)
Hakea costata (Ribbed Hakea)
Hakea francisiana (Emu Tree)
Hakea pycnoneura
Hibbertia cuneiformis (Cut-leaf Hibbertia)
Kunzea baxteri
Melaleuca nesophila
Melaleuca pentagona
Melia azedarach (Cape Lilac)
Verticordia monadelpha (Woolly Featherflower)
Actual or potential serious weeds
Agonis flexuosa (Peppermint)
Chamelaucium uncinatum (Geraldton Wax)
Melaleuca lanceolata (Rottnest Tea Tree)

Chapter 6

Trees, Shrubs and Climbers

Impacts

Mechanisms of spread

Invasive woody species can have profound effects on

the structure and diversity of the invaded bushland.
Weedy trees and shrubs often form dense stands,
shading out and preventing the germination and
establishment of native species (Gleadow and Ashton
1981, Gleadow 1982, Weiss and Noble 1984, Rose and
Fairweather 1997, Goodland et al. 1998, Mullett 2002).
Over a 25 year period at Croydon North in Melbourne,
scattered plants of Sweet Pittosporum (Pittosporum
undulatum) coalesced into a dense stand, obliterating
nearly all the original understorey (Gleadow and
Ashton 1981). Closer to home, on the Darling Scarp
east of Perth, stands of eastern Australian Acacias,
including Cootamundra Wattle (Acacia baileyana),
Silver Wattle (Acacia dealbata) and Flinders Range
Wattle (Acacia iteaphylla), form dense stands in the
understorey of the Jarrah Forest. The establishment of
dense weed infestations also impact on the fauna.
Habitat and food sources are lost, which may lead to
decreases in native animal diversity.

Woody plants may reproduce by seed, or create clones

from vegetative fragments or propagules. Dispersal of
propagules, over short or long distances, followed by
successful establishment results in the spread of the
plant.

It may only require one or two plants to establish and

reach maturity for the source of an infestation to form.
The seed rain that follows, coupled with the ability to
germinate in shady conditions and/or take rapid
advantage of disturbance events, is enough to allow
dense establishment of the plant. In Kings Park and
Botanic Garden, Perth, a small number of Acacia
lasiocalyx were planted on the edge of bushland
around 1967. A wildfire in 1989 resulted in mass
germination of the species and it was realised this
Western Australian Wheatbelt species had become a
serious weed. By 1993, when the non-sprouting trees
were cut out by a group of dedicated volunteers,
A. lasiocalyx had covered 0.6 hectares of the parks
bushland area (Dixon 2001, Dixon pers. comm. 2002).

Birds, insects and mammals spread the seeds of

many invasive woody species. Seeds of Brazilian
Pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius), Edible Fig (Ficus
carica) and Blackberry (Rubus spp) are all ingested
by birds and germinate in their droppings. Finding
weed species growing at the base of perching trees
is a good indication that these particular weeds
are spread by birds (Gleadow 1982, Blood 2001).
Propagules also attach to feathers and fur or can
be carried by ants (many Acacia species).

Wind is an effective disperser of seed especially if

an individual plant emerges above the canopy (eg.
Tamarisk, Sheoaks and Eucalypts). Dispersal
distance is considerably less than with birddisseminated species.

Water can carry propagules down stream and,

during floods, to distant sites. The seeds of many
Acacia species, stems of Willows (Salix spp), and
aerial tubers of Madeira Vine (Anredera cordifolia)
are all carried by water.

Garden rubbish dumped in bushland introduces

various weed propagules. Cuttings of Australian
natives, especially eastern Australian Bottlebrush
(Callistemon) and Wattle (Acacia) species, are
commonly dumped in bushland under the
misguided belief that they came from there!

Planting of non-local tree species within bushland

can also be the source of woody weed invasions
(eastern Australian species and Western Australian
species planted outside their natural range).

Individual plants may spread locally by vegetative

reproduction - stem layering or root suckering.

Resprouting, suckering and apical control

Resprouting and suckering are mechanisms by which
many woody plants resist or recover from fire, storm
or grazing damage.
Suckering is the formation of sprouts from
adventitious buds in the lateral roots. Suckers arise
most often at root branch intersections, areas of root
irregularity or points of injury. Individual plants form
as the sucker develops its own root system and old
root connections are broken. Some species sucker in
response to crown removal or root damage.

A dense infestation of Acacia lasiocalyx in Kings Park Bushland.

(Photograph by Bob Dixon).

75

Chapter 6

Trees, Shrubs and Climbers

Resprouting, or coppicing, refers to the growth of

shoots from dormant buds (epicormic buds) in the
stem or root crown after the canopy has been removed
or damaged. The ability to sprout can be agedependent. Epicormic buds may not be laid down until
a plant reaches a certain maturity. In some species the
woody rootstock contains epicormic buds and is
termed a lignotuber (common in Eucalypts).

suckering from root node

As with other weed groups, baseline maps

illustrating the distribution of target species allow
for strategic planning of control and follow-up work.

Isolated trees/shrubs/climbers and small

infestations in good bushland should be removed
first, preferably before the years seed crop has
ripened. Modeling has shown that eradicating
small founding populations slows the overall
invasion process (Moody and Mack 1988).

Managing heavily invaded areas poses a greater

problem (Goodland et al. 1998). It is important to
understand the structure and ecology of the
vegetation community invaded. Large infestations
may need to be removed slowly over time to allow
the native plant community to regenerate and
resume its role in the ecosystem.

resprouting or
coppicing from trunk

In woody plants, the term apical dominance describes

the control the shoot tip has over the current years
growth (Cline 1997). When apical dominance is
removed, as in tip pruning, the side buds are able to
develop and the plant becomes bushier. On a whole
tree scale, apical control describes the inhibition of
lateral branch growth by the top portion of the tree
crown, the canopy (Cline 1997, Wilson 2000). When the
crown is cut off, apical control is removed and
epicormic buds in the lower trunk and root crown are
free to sprout. The sprouting response is due, in part,
to removal of plant growth hormones, in particular
auxins (Cline 2000). However, release of carbohydrates,
nutrients and water previously used by the canopy,
combined with increased light and space also play a
role (Cline 2000). Suckering from lateral roots may also
occur with the release of apical control. This has been
shown for a number of species including Quaking
Poplar (Populus tremulus), Black Locust (Robinia
pseudoacacia), Tree-of-heaven and Lantana (Lantana
camara) (Anon. 1999, Binggeli et al. 1998, Converse
1984b, Converse 1987).
The implication of apical control for management is
simple removal of the crown above epicormic buds
enhances resprouting and, in many species, suckering.
Herbicide treatment is required to kill these species.
Species known to sucker should be treated using basal
bark or stem injection methods (see following). These
methods allow systemic herbicides to be translocated
around the plant without the release of apical control
which would initiate the suckering response.

76

The general approach

Where a dense native overstorey has been

gradually replaced by woody weeds, the
subsequent removal of the weed infestation can
create large gaps in the canopy that may be
detrimental to surviving native plants. Opening up
the canopy favours the establishment of exotic
grasses and other weeds and allows intense light
to reach the shade-adapted native understorey. In
contrast, removing weed trees from open
woodlands, shrublands, herblands or grasslands,
returns the status quo in terms of vegetation
structure and sunlight intensity.
Established woody weeds may be stabilising
susceptible areas, especially along watercourses
and on steep embankments. Removal of more than
a few individuals at a time may result in severe
erosion.

Until the infestation is removed, there will be

continued spread of propagules within the area
and seedlings need to be removed as they appear.

Always plan to follow up treatments for several years

to provide the greatest chance of eradicating the weed
from an area. The few survivors or missed plants will
quickly re-establish the infestation if left for a number
of years.

Physical control without herbicide

Manual and mechanical techniques such as pulling,
cutting, stripping and ring-barking, may be useful to
control some woody weeds, particularly if the
population is relatively small.
Note: Chainsaws should not be used unless operators are certified
and supervised.

Management and control

Hand-weeding

When managing woody weeds the approach taken and

the techniques used will depend on: The size and
distribution of the infestation, the species in question,
the plant age and size, the presence of other invasive
weeds, the impact on other plants and animals, the
sensitivity of the area and the size and skills of the
labour force.

Labour intensive but effective, hand-weeding is

suitable for removing some light infestations of some
weed seedlings and small saplings. However, the use
of machinery or a large, inexperienced labour force can
cause extensive soil disturbance and vegetation
trampling.

Chapter 6

Trees, Shrubs and Climbers

Seedlings and small shrubs can be carefully pulled

by hand, ensuring removal of the taproot. Seedlings
can be distinguished by the presence of a long
taproot while suckers have a hockey stick shaped
end, where they have broken off the parent root.
Saplings and mature trees should not be removed
using this method. The disturbance of soil
structure and damage to native vegetation is
counter-productive and may lead to invasion by
other weeds. In addition, such disturbance of
suckering species may stimulate growth from root
fragments left in the soil.
Integration of hand-weeding with other
techniques is often appropriate. Removal of large
trees by felling or herbicide treatment may be
followed up by hand-removal of the flush of
seedlings that are likely to appear.

Felling and ring-barking

These two techniques are suitable for trees and shrubs
that do not resprout. The methods are labour intensive
and may not be suitable for large infestations. Ringbarking is fiddley and the felling approach requires
removal of branches from the site. However, on small
infestations both techniques provide a simple, targetspecific, control option.
Ring-barking involves cutting away a strip of bark,
usually at least 10 cm wide, all the way around the
trunk. The strip must be cut deep enough to stop the
flow of photosynthates (plant food) between the
growing points of the tree. To be successful, the phloem
and vascular cambium (Box 6.2) must be completely
severed around the circumference of the tree. Felling
the tree at the base has effectively the same result,
cutting the flow of food between roots and crown.

Seedlings can be quickly slashed at ground level if

not growing closely among native vegetation.

Non-sprouting shrubs, saplings and mature trees

can be cut off at, or very near, ground level below
any branches or dormant buds. Many basically
non-sprouting plants have epicormic buds higher
up the trunk so it is important to cut off the trunk
as close to the ground as possible.

Keep in mind that surrounding vegetation can be

damaged when trees and large shrubs are felled,
and as branches are carried out.

Chemical control
Although the introduction of chemicals into bushland
should be minimised, herbicide treatment remains the
most successful means of control for many woody
species. There are some general rules of thumb when
using chemicals to control woody weeds, but treatment
effectiveness will vary across species and sites.

Apply herbicides as selectively as possible to

target weeds, minimising damage to the
surrounding native vegetation.

Regardless of the application method chosen, all

herbicides should be applied when the target
species is actively growing.

Herbicides should not be applied when plants are

stressed; either through drought, flooding, disease,
insect damage or previous herbicide application.

Effective control of many woody plants requires a

systemic herbicide to be used (Box 6.2, Chapter 8).

Herbicides are rarely 100 % effective and an

integrated control program will nearly always give
the best result. Use a combination of different
herbicide application techniques, physical methods
and regeneration/direct seeding programs.

Note: Anyone applying herbicides should have appropriate training

in the safe use and handling of relevant chemicals (Chapter 8).

Foliar treatment
Treating the leaves or foliage of large trees with
herbicide (foliar treatment) can be cumbersome and
expensive. In addition, many tree species have thick,
waxy leaf cuticles that make them highly resistant to
spray. However, this approach can be useful for treating
large, dense infestations of resprouting seedlings and
small shrubs in degraded areas. Foliar treatment is not
recommended for saplings and mature trees. It is
impossible to spray the canopy of even a small tree
within bushland without off-target damage.

Cut and paint

Cut and paint is a target-specific method, suitable for
many small trees and shrubs that resprout. Successful
control requires careful application it is essential to
apply the herbicide immediately to cut stumps. If
delayed, the tree seals the wounded stump, preventing
absorption of the herbicide. Large trees and shrubs
may need to be cut down sequentially to avoid injury
to workers and damage to the surrounding bush. Cut
down the plant until one metre of trunk remains above
the ground. With herbicide ready, cut the remaining
trunk off close to ground level, apply herbicide
immediately to the stump. The cut and paint method is
labour intensive and can leave large gaps in the
canopy. It is not viable for large infestations unless an
experienced work crew is available and a consistent,
systematic effort can be made over time.

Shrubs and small trees can be treated by felling

the plant close to ground level (5-15 cm) and
immediately painting the exposed stump with a
systemic herbicide. The entire surface of small
stems can be painted using a paintbrush or
sponge applicator. On larger stems, focus on the
outer ring of wood containing the phloem, xylem
and vascular cambium.

77

Chapter 6

Trees, Shrubs and Climbers

Box 6.2 Herbicide translocation in woody plants

Whether applied to the leaves, roots or stem of a tree, herbicide is transported around the plant within the
xylem and phloem tissue. Understanding the function of these tissues and that of the vascular cambium is
important in woody weed management.
Phloem is the tissue that is exposed when the
outer bark is peeled away. These living cells are
linked by protoplasm, forming an avenue for bidirectional movement of hormones and
photosynthates between shoots and roots.

inner bark and phloem

outer bark

Vascular cambium describes the thin layer of

cells with the ability to divide that lie beneath
the phloem. Each year these cells produce a new
layer of phloem toward the outside of the tree
and a new layer of xylem, or wood, toward the
inside.
Xylem consists of four kinds of cells. Tracheids
and vessels, which at maturity are dead, are
hollow cells responsible for the upward transport
of water and dissolved solutes. Fibres provide
structural strength and parenchyma cells, when
living, provide a pathway for lateral movement
across the xylem. While the parenchyma cells are
alive, the xylem is physiologically active and
considered part of the sapwood. When the
parenchyma cells die, the xylem becomes
heartwood; it provides structural support but no
longer transports water and solutes. The
sapwood can often, but not always, be
distinguished by its lighter colour.

Uptake of herbicides in phloem

vascular cambium

heartwood

sapwood

Cross-section of a tree trunk illustrating the location of outer bark, inner

bark and phloem, vascular cambium and xylem (both sapwood and
heartwood).

Herbicides with a molecular structure that allows them to cross living plant cell membranes may be carried in
the phloem. They are called systemic herbicides and are readily taken into the phloem through leaves and
roots. Phloem-mobile, systemic herbicides are not restricted to movement in the phloem however (Chaney
1985, Sindel 2000). Uptake directly into the phloem cells via trunk injection is unlikely; the cell contents are
under positive pressure and when damaged, are forced out. Damaged cells are also quickly sealed with plugs of
gelatinous material (Chaney 1985, Chaney no date).

Movement in the sapwood

All herbicides with some water solubility can be transported in the xylem (Sindel 2000). Within the xylem,
continuous columns of water extend from the roots to the leaf cells. Unlike phloem cell content which is under
positive pressure, liquid in the xylem is under negative pressure; as water evaporates from stomatal pores in
the leaves, more is drawn upwards (Chaney 1985, Kozlowski and Pallardy 1997). Injected herbicide is initially
pulled up into the tree due to this strong negative pressure. Once in the xylem, phloem-mobile herbicides can
move across cell membranes making their way into the phloem to be transported around the plant (Chaney
1985, Sindel 2000). However, rapid application is vital. Trunk injection severs xylem cells, breaking the
continuity of the water, introducing air and initiating wound healing - all processes that impede the uptake of
injected substances (Chaney 1985).
Soil moisture, air temperature, and relative humidity affect the rate of water movement. For most temperate
species, warm days with low relative humidity are associated with high transpiration. Injected substances are
rapidly taken up. In contrast, when the temperature is cool or the relative humidity high, conditions that slow
down transpiration, the rate of water uptake from the soil will be slow and trunk injection less effective. There
are of course exceptions. Many Australian species, adapted to the hot dry climate, conserve water by not
transpiring in the heat of the day during the summer months, and thus should not be injected at this time.

78

Chapter 6

Trees, Shrubs and Climbers

Felling large trees can result in damage to the native

vegetation. Furthermore, the cut and paint approach
may not deliver the quantity of herbicide required to
kill the rootstock.
Removing branches from the site: Minimise damage
to surrounding vegetation by planning your removal
route in advance and cutting back large or bushy
plants sequentially. Where possible avoid cutting down
plants when they are covered in ripe fruit or seed, as
carrying out the branches will help spread the weed!
Never leave cut branches bearing seed or fruit in
bushland even unripe seed can ripen on cut
branches. If possible put seed-bearing material into
bags before carrying out of the bushland. Some plants,
like Willow, Edible Fig and Poplar (Populus species) will
also grow from branch cuttings. To avoid spreading
such plants unwittingly, these species can be left

standing and treated by stem injection or basal bark

treatment.

Stem injection
As outlined in the section on apical control, plants may
sucker primarily in response to canopy or root
damage. Species which root sucker (including Silver
Wattle, Lantana, Poplar and Brazilian Pepper) may be
best treated by stem injection or basal bark methods
(Box 6.3).
Stem injection techniques reduce herbicide damage to
the surrounding environment. By placing the herbicide
directly into the tree, contamination of soil and water,
and damage to off-target plants is minimised. Response
to stem injection will vary, depending on species,
xylem anatomy, sap components, and environmental
conditions (Box 6.2 & 6.4).

Box 6.3 Brazilian Pepper a successful sucker

Brazilian, or Japanese Pepper (Schinus
terebinthifolius), is a large shrub to small evergreen
tree. Separate male and female plants produce small,
cream flowers, but only the female tree produces the
distinctive clusters of small red berries. The dark
green leathery leaves emit a strong turpentine or
peppery smell when crushed. Widely planted as an
ornamental, Brazilian Pepper has successfully
naturalised in more than 20 countries in two circumglobal belts of roughly 15-30 North and South. The
weed can form dense thickets, which shade out and
smother native plants. Most invasive in moist
situations, it also tolerates dry conditions and has
been found growing and spreading on cliffs,
roadsides and in bushland. Birds are the primary
seed dispersal agents, although many mammals,
gravity and water also play a part. Root suckers
contribute greatly to local spread, especially after
crown or root damage. In moist conditions branch
cuttings will also take root (Anon. 1998, Elfers 1988a,
Ferriter 1997, Parsons and Cuthbertson 2001, Randall
and Marinelli 1996, Panetta and McKee 1997).

Successful strategies some Brazilian

Pepper biology

Brazilian Pepper can reach reproductive age

within three years of germination.

Bears seed from April until October an

extensive period for seed dispersal.

Seeds are dispersed by birds.

Seedlings can grow in dense shade.

Established trees are not usually killed by fire.

Stems sprout prolifically after canopy damage.

Suckering is enhanced by root or canopy

damage.

Controlling Brazilian Pepper

Physical control
Seedlings: Carefully hand-weed being sure to
remove all the root. Seedlings have a distinct tap
root, suckers snap off leaving a hockey stick
shaped end.
Saplings and mature trees: Do not fell as trees will
coppice. Damage to the root system or canopy
stimulates root suckering.

Chemical control
Saplings and mature trees:
Cut and paint: Does not allow sufficient herbicide to
enter the system and cutting stimulates suckering.
Only offers temporary control and the resultant
resprouting, as much as 26 months later (Panetta
and Anderson 2001), and root suckering forms
denser thickets.
Stem injection/ basal bark: Correctly applied these
techniques are preferable to the cut and paint
method, resulting in a relatively high proportion of
tree death and minimal suckering in the survivors.
Resprouts: Foliar spray only if original trunk was
small; if very large root stock, foliar spray over the
proportionately small area of regrowth will not
deliver enough herbicide to kill the plant. Instead,
inject herbicide into the root crown.

Timing
For maximum effect herbicide should be applied
during summer when plants are actively growing
and, in wet areas, where roots are not waterlogged.

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Drill and fill: Holes 8-10 mm in diameter are drilled

down at an angle into the sapwood around the base of
the tree at 50-100 mm intervals, ensuring there is an
injection point below each major branch. Inject
approximately 5 mL of herbicide solution into the
holes immediately after drilling each one. The hole
depth will depend on the wood anatomy of the tree
and thickness of the bark, but 30-50 mm is usually
appropriate. A cordless drill or brace and bit can be
used for drilling and the herbicide injected from a
squirt bottle, large syringe or a drench gun.
Alternatively, Sidewinder Tree Injectors have been
specifically designed for this task.
Note: Common practice is to inject undiluted herbicide. While this is
sometimes necessary, in other situations a 50 % or even 20 % solution
is adequate.

injection or cut and paint, distributes the herbicide

evenly around the tree base and thus evenly into the
sapwood and is useful in tangled thickets.

Treating climbers and brambles

Climbers present their own set of problems when it
comes to control. They scramble over and through
native vegetation making targeted spraying of foliage
difficult. Climbers often have thin stems that cannot be
injected, and when cut off at the base provide an
inadequate surface area for herbicide uptake. They
may also have the ability to sucker and/or stem layer,
putting down roots from the stem into the ground and
trunks or branches of other plants (Morning Glory
(introduced Ipomoea spp), Japanese Honeysuckle
(Lonicera japonica)). For these species, cutting off
stems at the base only cuts one part of the nutrient
supply and is ineffective. Many climbing species
including Dolichos Pea (Dipogon lignosus), Morning
Glory and Madeira Vine, have a large woody or
tuberous root stock and techniques are required that
introduce enough herbicide into the plant to kill it.

Scrape and paint

Frilling: Herbicide can also be injected into the

sapwood by means of frilling. An axe is used to make
cuts into the sapwood around the base of the tree. The
cuts should be 30-50 mm wide by 20-30 mm deep
(ensure cuts penetrate into the sapwood). Herbicide
should be injected immediately into the cuts.

Basal bark
Basal bark treatment is useful on small stems less
than 20 cm in diameter and some larger trees with thin
bark. The lower 60 cm of bark is
painted or sprayed until
dripping, with a
herbicide and bark
penetrant solution. The
bark penetrant (usually
diesel) carries the
herbicide through thin bark
and into the sapwood. Bark
thickness and characteristics
can influence effectiveness of this
technique. Bark should also be
dry and relatively dirt free. This
method is quicker than

80

An effective way of killing

climbers that sucker or stem
layer, is to scrape the stems
with a knife and
immediately paint the
exposed wood with a
systemic herbicide.
This method
increases the surface
area available for
herbicide uptake and
allows the herbicide to
be translocated throughout the
plant including into secondary
root systems. One or two long
scrapes (300 mm) should be made
along the same side close to the
base of each stem. The scrapes
should be deep enough to expose
the sapwood, but not sever the
stem. Treatments should be
carefully monitored and any
resprouts foliar sprayed or
re-scraped and painted
before they become
entangled with native
vegetation. The scrape and paint approach is suitable
for Madeira Vine, which is particularly difficult to
manage. It produces a multitude of both aerial and
underground tubers which break off easily when the
plant is disturbed and readily form new plants. With
the scrape and paint method there is minimal
disturbance to the canopy and aerial tubers will
gradually wither and die on the plant (Muyt 2001).
Remove and bag aerial tubers from the treatment area
prior to scraping.

Chapter 6

Trees, Shrubs and Climbers

Box 6.4 Xylem anatomy and sapwood porosity

In plants, water and its dissolved solutes (including herbicide) are transported along the pathway of least
resistance and this varies depending on the xylem anatomy. In cross section there are three main (and an array
of intermediate) arrangements of vessels and tracheids within woody species: Non-porous, diffuse porous and
ring porous (Chaney 1985, Kozlowski and Pallardy 1997).
Non-porous anatomy is found in gymnosperms, the conifers, which only have small, narrow tracheids for water
uptake. Tracheids produced early in the growing season, the earlywood, have the largest diameters and are the
main pathway for water transport. Three or four annual growth rings of xylem may be active (Kozlowski and
Pallardy 1997).
Diffuse porous anatomy occurs in angiosperm trees, or hardwood species. Vessels, rather than tracheids are
the primary water conductors. In diffuse porous woods, vessels of similar diameter are uniformly scattered in
the early and latewood. The proportion of the sapwood conducting water varies between species, but
commonly vessels found in the outer three or four growth rings are responsible.
Ring porous anatomy also occurs in angiosperms. However, here the vessels of the earlywood are larger in
diameter than those of the latewood. It is these larger vessels of the current growth increment that conduct
99 % of the water and solutes (Zimmerman and Brown 1971, Chaney 1985, Kozlowski and Pallardy 1997).
The movement of sap upwards through the tree also varies between species. Sap may move in a continuous
vertical path, from root to tip, although this is an exception not the rule (Zimmerman and Brown 1971).
Depending on the arrangement of tracheids and vessels, sap may travel in spiral ascent turning right or left,
interlocked ascent and sectorial straight ascent (Chaney 1985, Kozlowski and Pallardy 1997). Spiral ascent
allows the most complete distribution of water from an individual root to many branches (Kubler 1991) and
thus would distribute injected herbicide most widely.
Workers often report variable success rates using herbicide injection tecniques. Knowledge of anatomy and
conduction pattern in the xylem helps tailor our injection technique, maximise its effectiveness and achieve
consistent results. In non-porous and diffuse porous species, herbicide can be injected into the three or four
annual growth rings below the bark. For ring porous species the injected material should be placed just
beneath the bark in the current growth ring. The spacing of injection points can also influence treatment
effectiveness. While there is usually some tangential spread of injected herbicides in the crown (Northcott
1957), trees with straight ascent pathways will often require more injection points than those with a spiral
ascent pathway. If not, the result may be death of the tree in strips, resulting in some dead branches while
others still live. This has been observed in the Flame Tree, Erythrina x skysii (Rod Randall pers. comm. 2001).

Foliar spray
Foliage provides a large surface area for uptake of
herbicides. If the climber is growing over low shrubs,
the bulk of the material can be pulled back off and
away from native plants and sprayed. A good penetrant
should always be used. This method is suitable for:

Dense infestations where no native species are

present and off-target damage will not occur.

Small infestations in relatively good bushland

where labour is available to carefully pull vines
away from native plants.

Slash and spray

Infestations of plants such as Blackberry, which form
thickets of stems up to two metres high can be difficult
to treat. Larger, dense infestations in highly disturbed
areas are better treated by leaving the plants intact
and spraying with a systemic herbicide. Intact plants
provide more leaf area, increasing the amount of
herbicide that can be taken into the plant (Bruzzese
and Lane 1996).

Foliar spraying small infestations of Blackberry among

good bushland can result in off-target damage and
accessing the root crown for injection is awkward. A
number of community groups in the Perth region have
found that slashing the plants, carting the bulk away
and spraying regrowth once it is 50-100 cm high is
effective. Blackberries will root readily from cuttings,
so cut material must be removed from the site and
disposed of carefully. Make sure plants are not cut
down while in fruit as their removal from the bushland
will spread the weed. Several follow-up treatments may
be necessary.

Treating resprouts
No matter how good your technique, resprouting of
trees, shrubs and climbers will occur in some species
and/or under some conditions. Follow-up application of
a systemic herbicide to foliage of resprouting plants and
suckers is common practice. However, if the plant was
very large and healthy prior to removal, the amount of
chemical that can be applied to the foliage is likely to be
insufficient to permanently damage the rootstock.
Instead, try clearing away some soil and drilling holes
around the base into the root crown. Fill the holes with
herbicide as for the drill and fill technique.

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Trees, Shrubs and Climbers

If herbicide use is not desirable and the offending weed

resprouts, try cutting the stump and then repeatedly
cutting any regrowth. This should eventually exhaust
the plants reserves; but be prepared, it may take
years! Alternatively, try stripping away all the bark
from the stump to remove epicormic buds. This will
not work for suckering species like Blackwood (Acacia
melanoxylon), Flame Tree (Erythrina X sykesii), Tree-ofheaven or Eucalypts with lignotubers.

unplanned fire provides an opportunity for effective

control. When mature plants have been killed or
damaged by fire, follow-up treatment of seedlings by
hand-weeding or spraying can greatly reduce the
infestation.

Fire can enhance germination of some seedbanks

resulting in mass germination and reducing the
requirement for staggered spray programs. At
Kings Park, Perth, mature plants of the resprouting
Sugar Gum retain approximately 120,000 seeds in
the canopy that are released to germinate en
masse after fire (Ruthrof 2001). Post-fire control of
resprouting adults and seedlings is very effective
for this and other species with a similar fire
response. Indeed, if seedlings arent controlled
then such species could rapidly dominate the
bushland.

Seedling recruitment can be extensive. Post-fire

recruitment of Acacia sophorae has been recorded
as high as 32,000 seedlings per hectare (McMahon
et al. 1994). A consistent effort over a few years
can drastically reduce, and sometimes eliminate
the population.

The fire itself may destroy a large portion of the

weed seedbank. Intense fire has been shown to
destroy a large proportion of the soil stored seed
of Sydney Golden Wattle (Acacia longifolia)
(McMahon et al. 1994), although less intense fires
can result in mass recruitment.

For some species such as Victorian Tea Tree

(Leptospermum laevigatum) the season in which
mature trees are burnt may be critical in
determining the amount of post-fire recruitment of
seedlings (Molnar et al. 1989).

Whatever the scenario, funds must be available for

post-fire control work or weed problems can be
amplified. Other weeds, not just woody species,
often have a more competitive advantage in fire
disturbed communities, germinating first and
smothering native species.

Seedling recruitment
The control of mature woody weeds usually frees light,
space and nutrients, ideal conditions for seedling
recruitment. Resources need to be made available to
control any seedling flush. In some species seed is
short-lived in the soil (Brazilian Pepper seed survives
only six months) and follow-up control of seedlings is
only required for a short period. For species with
longer-lived seed, including many Acacia species,
Broom (Genista spp) and Tagasaste (Chamaecytisus
palmensis), follow-up may take a number of years. After
the initial seedling flush is controlled, reduce further
germination by encouraging the regeneration of native
species. Keep out fire and other forms of disturbance
until the soil weed seedbank disappears. In other
situations it may be desirable to encourage weed seeds
to germinate so they can be controlled and the soil
seedbank exhausted.
Injection and basal bark herbicide treatments can
induce seed drop in bradysporous species such as
Cajeput (Melaleuca quinquenervia) (Coladonato 1992b).
These are plants that retain most of their seed in the
canopy. The herbicide places the tree under stress
causing the canopy-stored seed to be released which
may result in prolific seedling recruitment. Such
species can be treated using the cut and paint method.
Ensure no seed-bearing material is left in the bushland.
That said, canopy-stored seed is often only short-lived
in the soil. Timing injection or basal bark treatments
carefully can greatly reduce the amount of seed
available for germination. For example, Sugar Gum
(Eucalyptus cladocalyx) seed only remains viable in the
soil for six months and the bulk of seed germinates in
winter (Ruthrof 2001). By treating the plant in
November, thereby inducing an early seed drop, most
of the seed will lose viability over summer before
seedling recruitment starts with the winter rainfall.
Even when follow-up control of seedlings is
meticulously undertaken, seed can still be brought in
from an external source and susceptible bushland
should be monitored at least annually.

The question is then posed can fires be used as a tool

to manage woody weeds? There is little information
regarding the use of fire as an actual management tool
(McMahon et al. 1994). A review of the studies that
have been done highlights a lack of common pre- and
post-fire measurements (Downey 1999). Obviously a lot
more research on weed and ecosystem response is
required before fire can be recommended as a
management tool. It is also important to appreciate the
potential problems associated with using fire:

Making the most of unplanned fires

Fire is a source of disturbance and a major mechanism

for spread and establishment of many woody weeds.
Invasive Australian species (Acacias, Melaleucas, and
Eucalypts), are often favoured by post-fire conditions.
Many have large numbers of seeds whose germination
is enhanced by fire. Others resprout or sucker,
increasing the density of stands.

Resources and commitment must be put into

follow-up weed control or the problems will be
exacerbated. Other weeds (especially grasses), not
just woody species, often have a more competitive
advantage in fire-disturbed communities,
germinating early and smothering native species
before they can establish.

Even in fire-adapted plant communities frequent

burns can result in loss of species diversity and
changes in vegetation structure.

Nevertheless, for non-resprouting, non-suckering trees,

particularly those with short to medium-lived seed,

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Trees, Shrubs and Climbers

Detailed research into the biology of the target

weed, other weeds in the area and native species
is often not available.

Fires can easily get out of control damaging large

tracts of bushland. In small remnants this may be
disastrous for the native flora and fauna.

Species that sucker should be treated by stem

injection or basal bark methods whenever possible.

When using the stem injection method ensure

there is an injection point below each major
branch. On plants with multiple trunks each stem
should be injected or sprayed. Trees should be
injected when water uptake is at a maximum.
Avoid stem injection during cold weather,
flowering or drought.

When applying the cut and paint or stem injection

method, herbicide must be applied within seconds
of tissue damage. Always use a systemic, or
phloem-mobile, herbicide.

Do not inadvertently spread the weed while

removing branches.

When removing infestations along waterways

assess the possibilities of erosion, spread and
chemical contamination first.

Allocate resources for follow-up control of

resprouts and germinating seedlings (after
treatment and following unplanned fires).

Knowledge of tree anatomy, physiology and

biology allows you to tailor your herbicide
application technique and management program.

Fire can provide a major mechanism for the

establishment of new populations of many species.

Fire also offers a window of opportunity to greatly

reduce and possibly eradicate populations.

Woody weeds and waterways

Many south western Australian waterways are now
inhabited by a range of woody weeds. Creeks provide
favourable conditions for weed tree growth and act as
a dispersal route along which propagules can float
downstream. It follows that, when removing a large
weed infestation from along a watercourse, you should
always start your removal program at the top of the
stream and move downwards. Weed control techniques
themselves can contribute to the dispersal of
propagules. Willows, for example, grow easily from cut
pieces of branch left in the mud and can be carried to
new sites by water. Therefore, it is important that all
potential propagules are removed from the site.
When removing woody weeds from creeks and
wetlands, the risk of erosion must be a primary
consideration. Erosion can be started or compounded
by the removal of woody weeds from embankments.
Grubbing out the roots of mature trees causes major
soil disturbance and stimulates erosion in most
situations. Just leaving areas of bare soil allows water
to move quickly across the surface and causes
significant erosion problems. Entire removal of large
areas of woody weeds should be very carefully
considered. Even when removing small infestations, or
part of a larger infestation, bare soil should be
revegetated with local species as soon as possible.
Rapid replacement of vegetation cover will minimise
water run-off and thus loss of topsoil.
In Western Australia, if woody weeds are within 20
metres of flowing waterways or swamps, restrictions on
herbicide use (Chapter 8) limit control choices. Felling,
which does not use herbicide and does not cause major
soil disturbance, is one option. But, for many suckering
species this approach may lead to an increase in the
weed infestation. Roundup Biactive is registered in all
states for use near waterways on some weeds and a
minor use off-label permit (No. PER4984) approves its
use in accordance with the label in aquatic situations in
Western Australia. The highly targeted stem injection
method, which contains herbicide within the tree, is a
good option for use near waterways, especially if a nonresidual herbicide is used.

Key points
Clearly the woody weeds as a group have much in
common when it comes to management. The following
summarises the key management issues and control
techniques.

Non-sprouting, non-suckering woody weeds can be

felled. No herbicide is necessary.

Species that resprout but do not sucker, can be

treated by the cut and paint, stem injection, or
basal bark methods.

Managing woody weed infestations is not straight

forward. Depending on your reasoning, large
populations could be removed slowly to minimise
disturbance and allow time for bush regeneration, or
removed en masse to prevent further spread of
propagules. Indeed, large depends on your
perspective and the size of the area to be protected.
Ideally, fruiting branches would never be taken out and
the most suitable control method would be applied
from the beginning. The following case studies
describe how two community groups tackled their
particular woody weed problem. They illustrate the
need to gather as much information on the weedy
plant as possible and highlight the reality of woody
weed control - the influence that residents, season and
availability of labour have on the decisions made.
These case studies are followed by the woody weed
management table ending the discussion of weed
groups. The table presents information on the biology
of individual woody weed species and known control
methods. The final two chapters are dedicated to
describing the simple, cheap and effective approach
taken to weed mapping by EWAN staff throughout this
project and discuss the frequently and less frequently
asked questions about herbicide use in bushland.

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Chapter 6

Case study 6.1

Trees, Shrubs and Climbers Case Studies

Eastern Australian natives at Blue Gum Lake

The woody weed problem at Blue

Gum Lake, Perth, is largely the
result of misguided planting of
eastern Australian natives. Sydney
Golden Wattle (Acacia longifolia)
and Melaleuca linariifolia (among
others) were planted throughout
the Swamp Banksia (Banksia
littoralis) and Flooded Gum
(Eucalyptus rudis) Paperbark
(Melaleuca preissiana and Melaleuca
rhaphiophylla) woodlands during
the 1980s and 90s. They have since
seeded, quickly naturalising and
spreading, particularly following
fire. Their increasing presence
alters plant community dynamics
within this small urban remnant.
Importantly, M. linariifolia was
mistakenly planted as Melaleuca
preissiana, a local species,
highlighting the need to use locally
collected seed from correctly
identified species when planting in
or near bushland.
The distribution of both weed
species was mapped by overlaying
a transparent map of the tracks on
an aerial photograph and walking
the bushland area. As there were
local species superficially similar to
the weed trees flagging tape was
tied to each tree allowing quick,
accurate recognition of weed
species. The process took four
hours to complete. It was low cost
and provided a record of
distribution so follow-up could be
effectively carried out once all large
trees were removed.
Management strategies differed for
the two species reflecting basic
differences in their biology:
Acacia longifolia
Shrub to small tree
Does not resprout
Soil stored seed
Melaleuca linariifolia
Small to medium tree
Resprouts
Stores seed in canopy
Populations of both species were
small and scattered, and removing
them in a single effort was
appropriate to prevent further
spread and aid bush regeneration.

84

The distribution of Sydney Golden Wattle and Melaleuca linariifolia at Blue Gum Lake, City
of Melville, Western Australia.

Acacia longifolia
A Bushcare work day was organised
through the Department of
Environmental Protections Ecoplan
program in July 1999. Volunteers
assisted the Friends with the
removal of 40 Sydney Golden
Wattles. The trees were cut low to
the ground with pruning saws and
where necessary chainsaws. The
branches were carried out of the
bushland to be carted away by the
local shire. To follow up the control
effort, a Green Corps team and City
of Melville Bushcare Officers took
just a few hours to hand pull
emergent seedlings.
The following August, flowering
revealed a number of other mature
plants hidden amid a dense stand of
leggy Golden Wreath Wattle (Acacia
saligna). These were removed with
the help of two delightful Japanese
volunteers who were not quite sure
why we were taking out this
beautiful native. A thorough search
of the area revealed lots of
seedlings and a few more have been
found and hand-pulled in the
subsequent months.
The job is not over. Continued local
government assistance and the
input of time and effort from the
Friends are important for continuity
of the management program.
Follow-up will need to be conducted

annually for at least ten years; the

soil seedbank of Sydney Golden
Wattle is long-lived and trees reach
seed bearing age in as little as two
years. Resources should be made
available for seedling removal if an
unplanned fire occurs. Fire will
enhance seed germination and the
resulting seedling flush will largely
exhaust the seedbank, providing an
excellent control opportunity. The
subsequent regeneration of the local
Flooded Gum and the Golden Wreath
Wattle makes the effort worth while.

Melaleuca linariifolia
The removal of M. linariifolia posed
additional problems. Several large
trees grew within the bushland, a
few close to the lake shore. The
removal of these would be visible to
residents across the lake. Therefore,
the initial step was to convince the
local council that residents would
find the Swamp Banksia and
Flooded Gum Paperbark
woodlands behind the weed trees
equally as attractive. This took
some doing. By removing the weed
trees, and opening up the canopy
there was also a concern that bare
areas would be invaded by weeds.
Australian Trust for Conservation
Volunteers (ATCV) assisted the
Friends in the removal of the trees.
The majority of the trees were large
and bulky and a chainsaw was used

Chapter 6

Trees, Shrubs and Climbers Case Studies

Sydney Golden Wattle growing in bushland at Blue Gum Lake .

to prune back each tree before

cutting the stump low to the
ground. Neat (100 %) glyphosate
was immediately applied to the cut
stump. To minimise damage to
native vegetation, branch removal
routes were carefully planned in
advance for each tree. Care was
taken to collect all seed-bearing

Case study 6.2

Using a hand saw to fell a Sydney Golden Wattle at Blue Gum Lake.

branches, no matter how small, and

remove them from the site. Large
sections of trunk were left in the
bush to rot.
In all, 20 trees were removed. It took
eight people six hours to do the job.
The following year saw a localised
flush of M. linariifolia seedlings that

were hand-pulled as they appeared

and will continue to be removed
until the soil seedbank is exhausted.
Besides this flush of seedlings, the
bare spaces were largely colonised
by local species, specifically:
Centella (Centella asiatica) and Pale
Rush (Juncus pallidus).

Removing Edible Fig (Ficus carica) from Gingin Brook

In 1999 the Friends of Gingin Brook

aquired funding to manage the
bushland along a section of the
brook. A major component was
tackling various weed issues
including a dense infestation of
Edible Fig (Ficus carica), which was
displacing the Flooded Gum
(Eucalyptus rudis) and Swamp
Paperbark (Melaleuca
rhaphiophylla) woodland fringing
the brook. Edible Fig is a
resprouting, suckering species with
fruit that ripen over summer. The
Fig population was mapped and
found to cover approximately two
hectares. Isolated trees occurred
elsewhere in the bushland area. The
decision was made to remove the
entire infestation over summer
using the cut and paint technique.
Although incongruent with many
things said in this chapter,
constraints of funding and access
lay behind the decision:
Short-term funding and a Green
Corps crew were available for work
to be done at that time.
The Figs presented an impenetrable
mass of branches that had to be cut

out and removed in order to access

the area for control of other
invasive weeds such as Blackberry
and Arum Lily.
The infested area was dry and
access was better over summer.
During winter and spring the area
was mostly submerged.
By removing the entire population
it was hoped to protect
uninfested areas.
In the summer of 1998 the Green
Corp team and the Friends cut
down, painted stumps (with 100 %
Roundup Biactive) and carried out
over 500 Edible Fig trees from the
Flooded Gum and Swamp Paperbark
woodland. In the two years since,
there has been some germination,
resprouting and suckering of Figs,
the extent of which can only be
estimated. Vigilant members of the
Friends pull seedlings, spray foliage
with 10 % Roundup Biactive or drill
and inject large root boles (100 %
Roundup Biactive) at any sign of
growth. Lone trees which have
since been found are treated using
the drill and fill method (100 %

Roundup Biactive). This is the

simplest method and appears to
achieve a high proportion of
deaths. In hindsight, to minimise
spread, the group would have tried
to avoid removing the Fig while in
fruit. But again, access to the area
limited the choices.
Removal of the Figs opened up the
canopy and increased light became
a factor. This resulted in an influx of
annual and some perennial weeds
including Bushy Starwort
(Symphyotrichum subulatum), Rough
Sowthistle (Sonchus asper), Glossy
Nightshade (Solanum americanum)
and Nutgrass (Cyperus species).
With the hand-removal of these
weeds by the Friends, the native
plants Tassel Sedge (Carex
fascicularis), Tall Sedge
(C. appressa), Native Knotweed
(Persicaria decipiens) and
Waterbuttons (Cotula coronopifolia)
are rapidly returning. Regeneration
of the canopy species Swamp
Paperbark and Flooded Gum has
also been prolific.

85

Chapter 6 Trees, Shrubs and Climbers Weed Management Table

Common name

Dispersal agent

Seed storage and seedbank

persistence

Years to first
flowering

Vegetative
regeneration
strategy

Acacia baileyana*

Cootamundra Wattle

bird, mammal, ant

soil, long

2+

n (r)

Acacia dealbata*

Silver Wattle

bird, water

soil, long

5+

s,r,l

Acacia decurrens*

Early Black Wattle

water, bird

soil, long

Acacia elata*

Mountain Cedar Wattle

Acacia floribunda*

White Sallow Wattle

Acacia iteaphylla*

Wood structure

Trees and Shrubs

diffuse porous

r
n

bird, ant

soil, long

Flinders Range Wattle

water, bird

soil, long

Acacia longifolia*

Sydney Golden Wattle

water, bird, ant

soil, long

n (r)

Acacia melanoxylon*

Blackwood

bird, water

soil, long

s,r

Acacia microbotrya*

Manna Wattle

Acacia podalyriifolia*

Qeensland Silver Wattle

water, bird

soil, long

Acacia pycnantha*

Golden Wattle

water, bird

soil, long

Ailanthus altissima

Tree-of-heaven

wind, water, bird

Brachychiton populneus*

Kurrajong

bird, mammal

soil, short

bird (vegetative material)

no seed set recorded in Australia

diffuse porous

n
3

2+

s,r,l

ring porous

8+?

diffuse porous

r,l

ring porous/ diffuse porous

Buddleja dysophylla
Buddleja madagascariensis

Butterfly Bush

Callistemon spp* (not local spp)

Bottlebrush

Callitris columellaris

Coastal Pine

Casuarina cunninghamiana*

Sheoak

wind

canopy? soil, short

4+

n (r)

Casuarina glauca*

Sheoak

wind

canopy? soil, short

4+

s,r

Chamaecytisus palmensis

Tagasaste

explosive

soil, long

Chrysanthemoides monilifera

Bitou Bush

bird, water, mammal, ant

soil, medium/long

1.5

r,l

Cotoneaster spp

Cotoneaster

bird

soil, short?

Erica baccans

Berry Flower Heath

wind, water

soil, medium

3+

Erythrina x sykesii

Flame Tree

Eucalyptus botryoides*

Bangalay

Eucalyptus camaldulensis**

r
short

non porous

no viable seed produced?

s,r,l

diffuse porous

wind

canopy? soil, short

diffuse porous

River Red Gum

wind

canopy? soil, short

diffuse porous

Eucalyptus citriodora*

Lemon Scented Gum

wind

canopy? soil, short

diffuse porous

Eucalyptus cladocalyx*

Sugar Gum

explosive, wind, water

canopy, soil, short

diffuse porous

Eucalyptus conferruminata**

Bald Island Marlock

wind

canopy? soil, short

Eucalyptus globulus*

Tasmanian Bluegum

wind

canopy? soil, short

diffuse porous

Eucalyptus maculata*

Spotted Gum

wind

canopy? soil, short

diffuse porous

Eucalyptus muelleriana*

Yellow Stringybark

wind

canopy? soil, short

diffuse porous

Eucalyptus polyanthemos*

Red Box

wind

canopy? soil, short

diffuse porous

Eucalyptus saligna*

Sydney Bluegum

wind

canopy? soil, short

diffuse porous

Ficus carica

Edible Fig

bird, mammal

short?

4+

s,r,l

diffuse porous

Genista spp

Broom

explosive, bird, water

soil, long

Gomphocarpus fruticosus

Narrowleaf Cottonbush

wind, water

soil,long

s,r

Hibiscus diversifolius*

Swamp Hibiscus

short

s,r

Lagunaria patersoniana*

Norfolk Island Hibiscus

short

*Eastern Australian natives naturalised in Western Australia. **Western Australian natives that have become weedy when planted outside their natural range.
Dispersal: mode of seed dispersal Seedbank: main storage of seed (canopy or soil), and length of seed viability, short = days to 1 year, medium = 1-5 years,
long = 5 years plus. Years to maturity: years to first seed crop. Regeneration strategy: r = coppices/resprouts, l = stem layering, n = not sprouting or suckering,
s = suckers (parentheses indicate occasional occurrence has been observed). Management and control: Injection = drill and fill or frilling

86

Chapter 6 Trees, Shrubs and Climbers Weed Management Table

Suggested method of management and control

References

Hand pull seedlings; fell mature plants, young plants may occasionally resprout. Basal bark - picloram/triclopyr.

58, 167, 231, 319, 51, 228, 242, 222

Hand pull seedlings; basal bark - picloram/triclopyr (autumn).

53, 58, 167, 319, 228, 242

Hand pull seedlings; basal bark - picloram/triclopyr (autumn); cut and paint - neat glyphosate.

53, 167, 231, 319, 228, 242

Hand pull seedlings; fell mature plants. Resprouting has been recorded in some areas - if in doubt basal bark spray with triclopyr/picloram.

58, 167, 242

Hand pull seedlings; try injection - 50 % glyphosate or basal bark - picloram +triclopyr.

167, 60, 242

Hand pull seedlings; fell mature plants.

58, 167, 242

Hand pull seedlings; fell mature plants, young plants may occasionally resprout. Basal bark - picloram/triclopyr.

53, 58, 167, 319, 228, 242

Hand pull seedlings; try injection - 50 % glyphosate or basal bark - picloram/triclopyr (autumn).

53, 58, 167, 319, 228, 242, 222

167, 242

Hand pull seedlings; fell mature plants.

58, 167, 319, 242

Hand pull seedlings; basal bark - picloram/triclopyr (autumn); cut and paint - 100 % glyphosate or picloram/triclopyr.

53, 134, 319, 228, 242

injection 100 % glyphosate; basal bark - picloram/triclopyr (summer).

10, 30, 167, 248, 303, 320, 51, 242

Hand pull seedlings; try injection with 50-100 % glyphosate or basal bark - picloram/triclopyr; cut and paint - glyphosate.

48, 167, 242

Hand pull small plants - remove all stem material.

167, 242

Hand pull small plants - remove all stem material.

167, 241, 297, 242

Hand pull seedlings; try cut and paint with 50-100 % glyphosate.

167, 242

Try cut and paint with 100 % glyphosate; injection in this species with non porous wood may be ineffective.

124, 242

Hand pull seedlings;fell mature plants; cut and paint young plants - 50 % glyphosate.

167, 241, 291, 242

Hand pull seedlings; basal bark - Garlon+oil; try drill and fill - 50 % glyphosate.

21, 114, 167, 241, 291, 242

Hand pull seedlings where possible; basal bark - picloram/triclopyr; foliar spray with 0.5 g/10 L metsulfuron methyl + Pulse.

167, 231, 313, 228, 242

Hand pull small plants to 1m; cut and paint or inject 100 % glyphosate or foliar spray with 1 % glyphosate (spr-sum).

9, 21, 95, 167, 231, 248, 285, 327, 313, 2, 242

Seedlings difficult to hand pull; cut and paint with 40-100 % glyphosate or

foliar spray - glyphosate + metsulfuron methyl (Trounce ) (spr-sum).

21, 167, 231, 51, 242

Digout small plants; cut and paint - 20 % glyphosate (aut-win); slash prior to seed set, spray regrowth within year - 1 % glyphosate.

21, 231, 242

Injection - closely spaced holes/frills or try basal bark- picloram/triclopyr.

9, 167, 242

Hand pull seedlings; try cut and paint or inject root crown - 50 % glyphosate; foliar spray regrowth - 1.5 % glyphosate.

134, 167, 231, 319, 242

Hand pull seedlings; try cut and paint or inject root crown - 50 % glyphosate; foliar spray regrowth - 1.5 % glyphosate.

167, 242

Hand pull seedlings; try cut and paint or inject root crown - 50 % glyphosate; foliar spray regrowth - 1.5 % glyphosate.

167, 231, 242

Hand pull seedlings; try cut and paint or inject root crown - 50 % glyphosate; foliar spray regrowth - 1.5 % glyphosate.

167, 231, 282, 242

Hand pull seedlings; try cut and paint or inject root crown - 50 % glyphosate; foliar spray regrowth - 1.5 % glyphosate.

167, 242

Hand pull seedlings; try cut and paint or inject root crown - 50 % glyphosate; foliar spray regrowth - 1.5 % glyphosate.

167, 231, 242

Hand pull seedlings; try cut and paint or inject root crown - 50 % glyphosate; foliar spray regrowth - 1.5 % glyphosate.

167, 242

Hand pull seedlings; try cut and paint or inject root crown - 50 % glyphosate; foliar spray regrowth - 1.5 % glyphosate.

167, 242

Hand pull seedlings; try cut and paint or inject root crown - 50 % glyphosate; foliar spray regrowth - 1.5 % glyphosate.

167, 242

Hand pull seedlings; try cut and paint or inject root crown - 50 % glyphosate; foliar spray regrowth - 1.5 % glyphosate.

167, 242

Hand pull seedlings; inject with 50-100 % glyphosate (summer); foliar spray regrowth with 10 % glyphosate or inject root boles.

167, 242

Hand pull small seedlings; cut and paint - 100 % glyphosate or foliar spray - 1 % glyphosate, repeat treatment (win-spr).

53, 134, 163, 231, 248, 344, 242

Hand pull small plants; foliar spray with 1.5 % glyphosate or try cut and paint - 50 % glyphosate (Sep-Dec).

248, 242
124, 242

Hand pull seedlings; fell mature plants.

167, 242

87

Chapter 6 Trees, Shrubs and Climbers Weed Management Table

Common name

Seed storage and seedbank

persistence

Dispersal agent
bird, mammal, water

Years to first
flowering
2+

Vegetative
regeneration
strategy
s,r,l

Lantana camara

Lantana

Lavandula stoechas

Lavender

Leonotis leonurus

Lion's Tail

Leptospermum laevigatum*

Victorian Tea Tree

wind

soil short, canopy

n (r) l

Lycium ferocissimum

African Boxthorn

bird, mammal, water (skinks)

soil, short?

s,r,l

Melaleuca lanceolata**

wind, water

canopy, long/soil, short

Melaleuca linariifolia*

wind, water

canopy, long/soil,short

Wood structure

Melaleuca quinquenervia*

Cajeput

wind, water

canopy, long/soil, short

r (l)

Melia azedarach**

Cape Lilac

bird, water

soil, short/medium

3?

s,r,l

Nicotiana glauca

Tobacco Tree

wind, water

soil, ?

s,r,l

Olea europea

Olive

bird, mammal

soil, long

5+

s,r

diffuse porous

Pinus pinaster

Maritime Pine

wind

canopy, medium

n (r)

non porous

Pinus radiata

Radiata Pine

wind

canopy, medium

5+

n (r)

non porous

Pittosporum undulatum*

Sweet Pittosporum

bird, mammal

soil, short/medium

diffuse porous

Polygala myrtifolia

Butterfly Bush

bird, ant, water

soil, short/medium

Populus alba

White Poplar

wind, water

none? short?

s,r,l

diffuse porous

Populus nigra

Lombardy Poplar

no viable seed produced?

s,r,l

diffuse porous

Psoralea pinnata

Taylorina

bird, mammal, water

soil, long (8)

-1

(r)

Rhamnus alaternus

Buckthorn

bird, mammal

soil, long

2?

Ricinus communis

Castor Oil Plant

water, mammal, explosive

soil, medium

1+

Robinia pseudoacacia

Black Locust

seedlings rare

6+

s,r

Rosa laevigata

Cherokee Rose

bird, mammal

soil, medium

s,r,l

Rubus spp

Blackberry

bird, mammal, water

soil, short

s,r,l

Salix babylonica

Willow

wind, water

short (no female trees in W.A?)

4+

s,r,l

Schinus terebinthifolius

Brazilian Pepper

bird, water

short

s,r

Solanum aviculare*

Kangaroo Apple

bird, mammal

soil, long

2+

s,r

Solanum laciniatum

Kangaroo Apple

Tamarix spp

Athel Pine, Tamarisk

Ulmus procera

English Elm

Washingtonia filifera

Cotton Palm

mammal, bird

soil, short/medium

9+

Anredera cordifolia

Madeira Vine

water

aerial & underground tubers

na

Asparagus asparagoides

Bridal Creeper

Cardiospermum grandiflorum

Large Balloon Creeper

Dipogon lignosus

semi ring porous

ring porous

diffuse porous

s,r
wind, bird, mammal

short

fruit usually sterile

s,r

ring porous

Vines

See chapter 4 - Corms, Bulbs and Tubers

water, wind

soil, short

Dolichos Pea

explosive, bird, water

soil, medium

Ipomoea carica

Morning Glory

wind, water

r,l

Ipomoea indica

Purple Morning Glory

water (stolons)

r,l

Lonicera japonica

Japanese Honeysuckle

bird, mammal, water

s,r,l

Parthenocissus quinquefolia

Virginia Creeper

ant, bird

Senecio tamoides

Canary Creeper

wind, water

soil, short-medium

r
2+

r,l
s

*Eastern Australian natives naturalised in Western Australia. **Western Australian natives that have become weedy when planted outside their natural range.
Dispersal: mode of seed dispersal Seedbank: main storage of seed (canopy or soil), and length of seed viability, short = days to 1 year, medium = 1-5 years,
long = 5 years plus. Years to maturity: years to first seed crop. Regeneration strategy: r = coppices/resprouts, l = stem layering, n = not sprouting or suckering,
s = suckers (parentheses indicate occasional occurrence has been observed). Management and control: Injection = drill and fill or frilling

88

Chapter 6 Trees, Shrubs and Climbers Weed Management Table

Suggested method of management and control

References

Basal bark- triclopyr/picloram (sum-aut) or cut stump; foliar spray regrowth with 1.5 % glyphosate; biological control.

29, 95, 231, 248, 295, 301, 242

Hand pull small plants; try cut and paint with 50 % glyphosate.

242

Handpull seedlings or small plants.

328, 242

Hand pull seedlings; fell mature plants. Resprouting has been recorded in some areas - if in doubt basal bark spray with triclopyr+picloram.

50, 123, 218, 319, 228, 191, 242

Injection - neat glyphosate; or basal bark with triclopyr/picloram (Feb-May); foliar spray regrowth with 10 % glyphosate or 1 % Grazon + Pulse.

95, 231, 248, 313, 342, 228, 242, 222

Hand pull seedlings; cut and paint - 50 % glyphosate.

242

Hand pull seedlings; cut and paint - 50 % glyphosate.

242

Hand pull seedlings; cut and paint - 100 % glyphosate (basal bark ineffective).

29, 75, 241, 302, 242

Hand pull seedlings; injection - neat glyphosate; basal bark - 10 % triclopyr (summer).

20, 241, 319, 242

167, 319, 242

Hand pull seedlings; basal bark - triclopyr or try injecting into root crown - glyphosate (sum-aut); foliar spray regrowth - 1.5 % glyphosate.

7, 4, 231, 248, 242

Hand pull seedlings; fell mature plants; cut and paint young plants - try 50 % glyphosate.

21, 167, 231, 319, 242

Hand pull seedlings; fell mature plants; cut and paint young plants - try 50 % glyphosate.

21, 82, 167, 231, 319, 313, 242

Hand pull seedlings; cut and paint, injection - 50 % glyphosate (young plants killed by fire/slashing).

29, 134, 135, 167, 231, 279, 278, 142, 242, 230b

Hand pull seedlings - dense stands can be sprayed with 1.5 % glyphosate; fell mature plants.

21, 167, 231, 228, 242

Basal bark - 25 % triclopyr; injection - 70 % glyphosate; foliar spray regrowth.

81, 167, 272, 51, 242

Basal bark - 25 % triclopyr; injection - 70 % glyphosate; foliar spray regrowth.

81, 167, 51, 242

Hand pull seedlings (slash dense clumps); hand pull young plants 1- 2 years old, cut and paint - 20 % glyphosate or foliar spray 1 g/10 L metsulfuron methyl + Pulse;
fell mature plants.

21, 134, 167, 231, 228, 242

Hand pull seedlings; cut and paint - neat glyphosate; injection - Grazon; foliar spray regrowth - 1.5 % glyphosate (autumn).

21, 79, 167, 231, 242

Hand pull seedlings; cut or scrape and paint - 50 % glyphosate; basal bark - triclopyr or Garlon (spr-sum).

9, 95, 134, 167, 231, 242

Hand pull seedlings; basal bark - picloram/triclopyr (spr-sum): Intolerant of shade.

80, 167, 299, 304, 14, 242

Hand pull seedlings; basal bark - triclopyr (Dec).

167, 231, 248, 242

Hand pull small plants; cut and paint or slash canes and spray regrowth at 0.5 metres with metsulfuron methyl 1 g/10 L (sum-aut). Will require follow up for a number
of years.
Hand pull seedlings; injection - 50 % glyphosate (check restrictions on chemical use near waterways) (sum-aut).

3, 21, 95, 167, 231, 241, 248, 47, 51, 343, 228, 242

Hand pull seedlings; injection - 50 % glyphosate; basal bark - triclopyr/picloram. (summer).

76, 113, 167, 125, 167, 231, 245, 246, 248, 242, 39

Hand pull small plants; injection - 50 % glyphosate (sum-aut); basal bark with 1.5 % triclopyr/picloram.

167, 228, 242

Hand pull small plants; injection - 50 % glyphosate (sum-aut); basal bark with 1.5 % triclopyr/picloram.

167, 228, 242

Injection into root crown - neat glyphosate; cut and paint - 30 % triclopyr; basal bark or spray regrowth (autumn).

167, 215, 232, 248, 306, 242

Try injection with 50 % glyphosate or basal bark spray - picloram/triclopyr.

324, 242

Hand pull seedlings; chop off at base when not in fruit.

164, 167, 242

4, 21, 167, 231, 319, 181, 242, 269

242
Stem scrape or drill and fill thick vines - 100 % glyphosate (Do not cut the stem); intensive follow up of resprouts at 2-4 leaf stage.

9, 21, 167, 231, 242

242

Hand pull small plants; sever stems, scrape and paint - 100 % glyphosate or foliar spray - glyphosate 1.5 %.

9, 167, 231, 242

Hand pull small plants ensuring removal of all root material; scrape and paint - 100 % glyphosate or foliar spray in highly degraded sites with 1.5 % glyphosate.

21, 167, 231, 228, 242, 233

Hand pull seedlings; scrape and paint stem - 20 -100 % glyphosate.

9, 21, 167, 231, 241, 242

Scrape and paint stem- 20-50 % glyphosate.

9, 21, 167, 231, 241, 242

Hand pull seedlings; scrape and paint stems - 100 % glyphosate; spray regrowth 1.5 % glyphosate.

9, 21, 74, 238, 241, 320, 51, 340, 242

Hand pull seedlings; scrape and paint stems - 100 % glyphosate; spray regrowth 1.5 % glyphosate.

73, 319, 242

Try 1 % glyphosate or Lontrel

328, 242, 222

20 mL/ 10 L + wetting agent.

89

We e d M a p p i n g i n
Remnant Bushland

Chapter 7

Mapping of individual weed species is an important

step in setting priorities for weed control work in small
reserves. Throughout the course of the project, EWAN
has often been asked to participate in workshops,
informing people on how to map weeds in bushland. To
facilitate this process some mapping guidelines were
drafted. This chapter is a revision of those guidelines
and is designed to provide a step by step guide to weed
mapping in urban bushland.

Equipment required
Aerial photograph of bushland
Aerial photographs are easily obtained from the
Department of Land Administration (DOLA). It is
important to know the date the photograph was taken
and the scale of the photograph.
When weed mapping, it is practical to enlarge the image
of the bushland reserve to A4 so it can be used with a
standard clipboard. An aerial photograph of the 21
hectare Shenton Bushland fits onto an A4 sheet at a
scale of 1:16000, while Talbot Road Bushland
(60 hectares) fits at a scale of 1:60000. However, fitting a
reserve larger than Talbot Road Bushland to an A4
sheet would result in loss of detail making it difficult to
accurately map weed distribution.

Map of bushland tracks

Sometimes the major tracks and features of a reserve
have been mapped as part of a management plan. This
map can be photocopied onto a clear overlay and the
size adjusted to fit the aerial photo (Figure 1). Tracks
and other features marked on the overlay provide
reference points in the bushland.

Other Items
Clip board
Waterproof, permanent marking pens (medium tip)
Compass (can be useful)

What weeds to map?

It is not necessary to map all the weeds in a bushland
patch. Some weeds may have very little impact on the
native plant communities (Box 7.1). In Banksia
woodland, many annual herbs and grasses fall into this
category e.g. Ursinia anthemoides, Aira caryophyllaceus.
Start by mapping five or six of the most serious
perennial weeds. To determine these:
Consider site-specific issues. Which weeds are
moving into, or have the potential to move into,
undisturbed bushland? What impact does a
particular weed have on the native plant
communities?
Consult existing management plans (if available)
and look at the weeds listed in the Environmental
Weeds Strategy for Western Australia (Department
of Conservation and Land Management 1999).
Visit the site throughout the year to determine what
and where the serious weeds are. At Blue Gum Lake
bushland, Paspalum (Paspalum urvillei) and Sydney
Golden Wattle (Acacia longifolia) are the most
obvious weeds over summer. In late autumn
Soursob (Oxalis pes-caprae) and Annual and
Perennial Veldgrass (Ehrharta longiflora, E. calycina)
start to dominate. By winter, Freesia (Freesia alba x
leichtlinii) and Yellow Soldier (Lachenalia reflexa)
are obvious, often in undisturbed areas.

Box 7.1 Criteria used in the

Environmental Weeds Strategy for Western
Australia to assess weeds in terms of their
impact on biodiversity
Invasiveness: Ability to invade bushland in good
to excellent condition or ability of weeds to invade
waterways.
Distribution: Current or potential distribution
including consideration of known history of widespread distribution elsewhere in the world.
Environmental impact: Ability to change the
structure, composition and function of an ecosystem. In particular an ability to form a monoculture
in a vegetation community.
Figure 1. A map of Shenton Bushland was photocopied onto a clear
overlay and adjusted to fit the aerial photograph. The distribution of
Freesia across the bushland was then mapped.

90

Source: Department of Conservation and Land

Management (1999)

Chapter 7

Weed Mapping in Remnant Bushland

Mapping in practice

Weed mapping along creeks and waterways

It is simplest to map one weed at a time. If a small

group of people are present, colour photocopies of the
aerial photograph can be provided so that each person
can map a different weed. Before mapping begins,
place a label on the bottom corner of the overlay and
write the date, the name of the weed being mapped
and those people participating in the mapping
exercise. The date is essential if the map is to be used
as a monitoring tool.

It can be difficult to use aerial photographs to map

along waterways as a dense overstorey of fringing
vegetation often obscures recognisable features below.
At Gingin Brook an aerial photograph was used to
produce a scale mud map (Figure 2). The area along the
brook was then walked and all the major weeds were
mapped. The result is not as detailed as the maps
mentioned previously but still helps in setting priorities
and monitoring the success of control programs.

Traversing the bushland

Start at one edge of the bushland and walk across the
site at regular, parallel, intervals. The intervals can be
around 10 to 50 metres apart depending on the
vegetation type and the visibility of the weed. A
compass may be helpful. If the site is disected by
paths, mapping within the sections of bushland
created, can be more accurate.

Marking weed populations on the map

Many weeds occur in discrete clumps. Mark the
location and spread (using the map scale as a guide to
size) of the weed population on the map. Features on
the overlay and aerial photograph (tracks, water
bodies, vegetation boundaries, isolated trees and the
roofs of houses adjacent to bushland) can be used to
pinpoint the location of weed populations. Most
serious weeds can be mapped in this way including
bulbous, cormous and tuberous species like Watsonia
(Watsonia meriana), Arum Lily (Zantedeschia
aethiopica), Bridal Creeper (Asparagus asparagoides)
and Freesia, woody weeds including weedy Acacias
and Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) and some grass
weeds like African Lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula).

Mapping cover
Weed cover can also be mapped. Changes in cover
over time can provide information on the success of a
control program, increase or decrease in weed
numbers or vigour and can give an indication of where
to start control works. To map cover, different symbols
or different colors can be used to represent cover
classes. For example:
Light infestation 1-10 % of ground cover (green)
Light-medium 11-30 % (blue)
Medium-heavy 31-70 % (orange)
Heavy >70 % (red)
Mapping weed cover can be subjective but is often the
only practical method of recording weed species that
are spread throughout bushland in varying densities
such as Perennial Veldgrass (Ehrharta calycina). Kings
Park developed a system for mapping Veldgrass by
estimating cover within a series of 50 m grids across
the bushland (Bob Dixon unpublished data). This
method was used at Blue Gum Lake (case study 3.4)
and at Shenton Bushland (Box 7.3). The usefulness and
practicalities of mapping weeds in this way will depend
on the size of your reserve and the patchiness of the
weeds distribution.

Virginia Creeper
Castor Oil Bush
Honeysuckle
Canna Lily
Morning Glory
Taro
Blackberry
Edible Fig
Brazilian Pepper
Arum Lily
Para Grass
Kurrajong
Olive
Reed Sweet Grass

Figure 2. Mud map showing generalised distribution of weeds along

Gingin Brook.

Using weed maps

Protecting the good bushland: Maps of individual
weed species enable targeted control work and
protection of priority areas from weed invasion. By
overlaying maps of individual weed species onto a
bushland condition map (Chapter 2, Box 2.1, Box 7.2)
weed control strategies can be developed that aim to
protect the least disturbed bushland. For example,
small isolated patches of serious weeds in relatively
undisturbed bushland can be identified and listed as a
high priority for control.
Understanding the distribution of weeds in bushland:
Overlaying weed maps onto vegetation maps can
highlight relationships between weed species and
particular plant communities. For example, Tribolium
(Tribolium uniolae) distribution in the Brixton Street
Wetlands is clearly associated with Marri woodlands and
drier shrublands or the soil types these communities

91

Chapter 7

Weed Mapping in Remnant Bushland

occupy. At Quairading Nature Reserve the distribution of

the Wild Oat (Avena barbata) is clearly associated with
the soils of the York Gum (Eucalyptus loxophleba) Jam
(Acacia acuminata) woodlands (Chapter 5, Box 5.2).
Monitoring the spread of established weeds and the
effectiveness of control programs: Weed maps
provide a useful tool for monitoring the establishment
and spread of weeds. Mapping weed distribution and

cover prior to beginning any control program and then

in subsequent years will provide an indication of the
programs effectiveness (Box 7.3). If no control is being
undertaken then maps can provide general information
on the rate of spread over time and whether or not a
particular weed is moving away from disturbed areas
into good bushland. Weed maps can also highlight the
main direction of spread - along tracks, with prevailing
winds or in sheet water flow.

Box 7.2 Vegetation condition maps

Vegetation condition maps illustrate how different degrees of disturbance are distributed throughout a
particular bushland site and are a useful tool for developing management strategies. There are a two condition
scales used in Western Australia (Kaesehagen 1994, Keighery 1994). Mapping of vegetation condition requires
an understanding of the effects different types of disturbance may have on bushland, a knowledge of native
flora and familiarity and understanding of what a particular undisturbed plant community would be like.
Table 1 Vegetation Condition Scale
(Keighery 1994)

Table 2. Bushland Condition Scale

(Kaesehagen 1994)

Vegetation Condition Scale

Very Good - Excellent

1 = Pristine

80-100 % Native Flora

Composition

Vegetation structure intact or

nearly so

Vegetation structure intact, disturbance affecting individual

species and weeds are non-aggressive species.

Cover /abundance of weeds

less than 5%

For example, damage to trees caused by fire, the presence of

non-aggressive weeds and occasional vehicle tracks.

No or minimal signs of
disturbance

3 = Very Good

Fair to Good

Vegetation structure altered, obvious signs of disturbance.

For example, disturbance to vegetation structure caused by

repeated fires, the presence of some more aggressive weeds,
dieback, logging and grazing.

50-80 % Native Flora

Composition

Vegetation structure modified or

nearly so

4 = Good

Vegetation structure significantly altered by very obvious signs

of multiple disturbance. Retains basic vegetation structure or
the ability to regenerate it.

Cover/abundance of weeds
5-20 % any number of individuals

Minor signs of disturbance

Pristine or nearly so, no obvious signs of disturbance.

2 = Excellent

For example, disturbance to vegetation structure caused by

very frequent fires, the presence of some very aggressive
weeds, partial clearing, dieback and grazing.
5 = Degraded
Basic vegetation structure severely impacted by disturbance.
Scope for regeneration but not to a state approaching good
condition without intensive management.
For example, disturbance to vegetation structure caused by
very frequent fires, the presence of some very aggressive
weeds, partial clearing, dieback and grazing.
6 = Completely Degraded
The structure of the vegetation is no longer intact and the area
is completely or almost completely without native species.
These areas are often described as parkland cleared with the
flora comprising weed or crop species with isolated native
trees or shrubs.

92

Poor

20-50 % Native Flora

Composition

Vegetation structure completely

modified

Cover/abundance of weeds 2060 % any number of individuals

Disturbance incidence high

Very Poor

0-20 % Native Flora Composition

Vegetation structure
disappeared

Cover/abundance of weeds 60100 % any number of individuals

Disturbance incidence very high

Chapter 7

Weed Mapping in Remnant Bushland

Box 7.3 Using maps to monitor change and set priorities at Shenton Bushland
Over the past four years a contractor has been employed to spray the Perennial Veldgrass (Ehrharta calycina)
at Shenton Bushland. Perennial Veldgrass cover was mapped over the period using the method devised by Bob
Dixon at Kings Park. Annual mapping provided a measure of effectiveness for the Perennial Veldgrass control
program over time.
Perennial Veldgrass populations were mapped each May prior to spraying in winter. The maps reflected the
success of the previous years control program and were used for allocating the limited resources to priority
areas in the current year. The project began with an $8000 grant to the Friends from the Lotteries commision in
1998. A fire had burnt through the central section of the bushland in October 1997. The Friends used the grant
money to spray a 12 hectare section of unburnt bushland. By 1999 it became clear (with the help of maps) that
the money should have been directed into the burnt areas. From 1999 onwards the Veldgrass populations were
mapped each year and resources allocated accordingly.
1999 Resources available: $2000 grant to the Friends of Shenton Bushland from the Lotteries Commission,
$6000 from Nedlands City Council. Directed to the central bushland area where dense infestations (in red) had
established in good to excellent condition bushland following fire in October 1997.
2000 Resources available: $3500 Community Conservation Grant to the Friends and $6500 from the Nedlands
City Council. The previous years work in the good condition bushland was followed up, leaving the dense
infestations around the edges of the bushland until more resources became available.
2001 Resources available: $6000 from Nedlands City Council. With Perennial Veldgrass now at less than 5 %
cover over much of the bushland in good to excellent condition, resources were redirected to the degraded
edges. The dense infestations in these areas were a fire hazard and a seed source capable of re-infesting the
rest of the bushland.
2002 Resources available: $6000 from City of Nedlands and $7000 from Swan Catchment Urban Landcare
Program. Perennial Veldgrass cover across much of the bushland down to around 5 %. Enough resources to do
follow-up work across the bushland excluding the central area.

1999
60 - 100%

5 - 59%

2000
<5% cover

2001

2002

Figure 1. Maps illustrating the change in cover of Perennial Veldgrass at Shenton Bushland following a four year control program.

Setting priorities and developing works programs:

Having an accurate picture of the distribution of the
weeds at a bushland site can help set priorities and
develop works programs (Box 7.3). The information
generated allows satellite populations of weeds in good
bushland to be targeted, highlights light infestations
appropriate for hand-weeding and dense infestations
that may require spraying. The maps provide
information on proximity to waterways and may
highlight potential problems for control such as
contamination or erosion.

In conclusion
For those with the time, resources and inclination, the
resultant maps can be digitised and the data placed
into a digital geographical information system, or GIS.
However, a small scale paper GIS, the traditional kind,
consisting of aerial photograph and overlays of
vegetation communities, tracks and features, bushland
condition and weed distribution has proved more than
adequate for making management decisions in Perths
urban bushlands.

93

Herbicide Use
in Bushland
Chapter 8

The issue of herbicide use in bushland is sometimes a

sensitive one. This chapter aims to give the reader a
greater understanding of herbicides, their fate in the
environment and the legislation regarding their use.
It sometimes does this by directing the reader to
alternate sources of information. The role of spray
contractors in bushland regeneration is also discussed
and some basic information given on the herbicides
mentioned throughout this manual.

Current Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) must

be on hand and available for perusal by any
persons coming in contact with the herbicide.

The public should be made aware of any chance

they may come into contact with a chemical.

All hazardous substances kept on the premises

should be named in a poisons register and the
associated MSDS stored with them.

Using herbicides in bushland

Herbicides should be transported and stored safely.

Many professional bush regenerators and members of

community groups are uncomfortable with the use of
herbicides in bushland, others actively oppose it.
Nevertheless, herbicide use in bushland management
appears to have increased in recent times. Bush
regenerators try to use herbicides only in very targetspecific situations: The injection of herbicide into the
trunk of trees, spot spraying individual grass clumps
with selective herbicide or the wiping of leaf blades for
cormous species like Watsonia. It is often a choice
between the minimal damage done by carefully targeted
herbicides and the loss of animal and plant biodiversity
caused by dense invasions of weeds. When applied
carefully by trained personnel with a detailed
knowledge of herbicides and of the flora and bushland
they are working in, herbicides can be an invaluable
weed management tool:

Herbicides must be labelled correctly. It is an

offence to permanently store registered herbicides
in anything other than their original containers
with their original labels. Temporary containers
must be labelled with the product name and the
appropriate risk and safety phrases.

Information and training should be provided to

group members on potential health risks and toxic
effects, control measures, correct use of control
methods and correct care and use of personal
protective equipment and clothing.

Herbicides can control more weeds more quickly and

with less labour than appropriate physical methods.

They cause fewer physical disturbances to the soil

and surrounding vegetation - limiting erosion and
reducing the creation of microsites for germination
of other weed species.

They avoid the carrying of weed material through

good condition bushland, decreasing the dispersal
of seeds and reproductive propagules.

Grass-selective herbicides are available that cause

little or no damage to species not of the grass
(Poaceae) family.

Broad-spectrum herbicides can be applied

selectively to the target plant.

Duty of care
Before using herbicides in bushland, or employing
someone else to use them for you, personal safety of
the applicator and others in the area need to be
considered.
People who use herbicides in bushland, including
volunteers, have a duty of care to the environment,
members of the public and themselves. A clear,
informative explanation of the section in the
Occupational Safety and Health Act 1984 involving
chemicals in the workplace and working with
pesticides, is available online at http://www.safetyline.wa.
gov.au/pagebin/hazshazd0018.htm. Briefly:

94

Applicators (including volunteers) should have

appropriate training in the safe storage, handling,
preparation and use of any herbicide they use.

Personal care
The application of herbicides involves a high degree of
personal care. Long-term effects of most herbicides are
unknown and it is safest to avoid contamination.
Herbicide labels carry a protective equipment list that
identifies the minimum safety requirements. Protective
equipment should be worn during:

Mixing of herbicides.

Application.

Entering a treated area before the herbicide has

dried or dissipated.

Further steps that aid in personal hygiene are

listed in Box 8.1.

In Australia a poisons schedule system is in place. The

schedule number indicates the level of toxicity of the
chemical to humans and the precautions that should
be taken. The poisons schedule does not give an
indication of danger to the environment. All
pesticides, including herbicides, are classed as either
S5, S6, S7 or exempt from scheduling, depending on
their degree of hazard:

Exempt from scheduling pesticides that present

little hazard in their use. Non-toxic.

Schedule 5 (domestic poisons) poisons that

require caution in their handling, use and storage.
Low toxicity.

Schedule 6 (industrial poisons) dangerous

poisons available for agricultural and industrial
application. Moderately toxic.

Schedule 7 (special poisons) substances of

exceptional danger that require special precautions
in their manufacture and use. Extremely toxic.

A comprehensive chart, detailing schedules for a wide

range of herbicides and protective precautions that
should be taken is available from the Kondinin Group
(Ph: 9478 3343; web site www.kondinin.com.au).

Chapter 8

Herbicide Use in Bushland

Box 8.1 Personal safety and herbicide use

The long-term effects of a number of herbicides are unknown. Herbicides can be absorbed through the skin, by
inhalation or swallowing. Personal protective equipment (PPE) can limit exposure through these routes. The
minimum PPE that should be worn depends on the toxicity and concentration of the herbicide and the
conditions in which it is used. Maintaining a hygiene level that avoids as much contamination as possible is
sensible.
Clothing When handling concentrated chemicals during mixing, a PVC apron that reaches from shoulders to
boots should be worn so that any spills can be quickly cleaned off. Always wear a long-sleeved shirt and long
pants. Cotton, leather, canvas and other absorbent materials are not resistant to herbicides (even granular
formulations) so the more layers of fabric the better. Wash work clothes separately from other laundry and airdry outside. Wash hands after handling contaminated clothes.
Gloves Hands and forearms get the most exposure during spraying. Wear chemical-resistant gloves reaching
up to the elbow and have sleeves tucked in. Butyl, nitrile or PVC gloves can be used. Make sure your gloves are
clean and in good condition and replace them regularly. Always wash gloves before removing them.
Boots Wear chemical-resistant rubber boots that reach at least halfway to the knee. Try to avoid walking
through sprayed areas. If possible wash footwear before removing.
Respiratory protection Dust/mist masks must fit and be used properly to be effective. Their use is most
important in enclosed spaces or where the applicator is exposed to the chemical for long periods of time.
Pesticides that can volatilise require the use of respirators. Check the label.
Eye protection Safety glasses and goggles should be worn, especially during mixing when concentrated
herbicide is being handled. A full face shield will give the best protection.
Hygiene Be extremely careful during mixing. Exposure of the skin to concentrated herbicide during this short
time can be the same as exposure from a full day working in the field. Wash hands before eating, drinking or
smoking. Change clothing after spraying and wash hands, forearms and face with warm water and mild
detergent. Shower at the end of the workday and wash your hair.

Regardless of the poisons schedule of the herbicide or

the protective equipment being used, two items should
be immediately on hand for emergencies when using
herbicides: Eye wash and several litres of clean water.

Training
It is not the purpose of this manual to provide
guidelines on the storage, transport, mixing and use of
herbicides. Any person using herbicides in bushland
should have undertaken appropriate training. Training
should cover the safe handling and use of herbicides
and the use and calibration of equipment.

ChemCert WA runs a basic one day course on the

safe use and handling of farm chemicals, including
herbicides. Ph: 08 9341 5325

The Certificate of Pest Control (commercial)

Studying Pesticide Safety is a more detailed
course offered by correspondence through
Challenger TAFEs WA Horticulture and
Environmental Skills Centre.
Ph: 08 9229 9513

Pest Control Stage 1 Pesticide Safety is a one

week pesticide safety course available through the
Australian Centre for Work Safety, Carlisle TAFE.
Phone: 08 9267 7353

The last two courses fulfil the requirements to obtain a

provisional pesticides applicators licence from the
Pesticide Safety Section, Health Department of WA.

Applicators should also obtain a good working

knowledge of the herbicides they use, who else uses
them in their work area, and how the herbicides
behave and move in the environment. Material Safety
Data Sheets are available from the herbicide
manufacturers and distributors and provide
information on mode of action, toxicology of the
chemical and its fate in the environment. Other
sources of useful information include:

Australian Weed Management Systems (Sindel

2000) which has two chapters that provide a good,
if sometimes technical, overview of these topics.
Chapter 11. Herbicide mode of action and
herbicide resistance (Preston 2000).
Chapter 12. Application and fate of herbicides
in the environment (Kent and Preston 2000).

Weed Control Methods Handbook (Tu et al. 2001).

Chapters 5 to 7 provide information on safe use,
mode of action and detailed information on the
properties of several herbicides used in bushland.

The Extension Toxicology Network provides

unbiased, easy to understand information on a
range of herbicide-related subjects from entry and
fate of chemicals in humans to movement of
pesticides in the environment. Their Toxicology
Information Briefs are available online at
http://ace.orst.edu/info/extoxnet/tibs/ghindex.html

95

Chapter 8

Herbicide Use in Bushland

Legislation
In Western Australia, state and local government
workers, consultants, contractors and volunteers who
use herbicides are all bound by legislation governing
pesticide use (The Health (Pesticides) Regulations 1956).
These regulations are in place to protect the applicator,
public and environment from the misuse of herbicide.
Herbicide labels: The first point of reference and
most easily obtained legal document is the herbicide
label. The user has a legal obligation to read and follow
the instructions on the label. Directions of use,
protection of environment, storage and disposal and
personal protective equipment must be adhered to.
This includes using herbicides only for the weeds,
situations and states or territories permitted on the
label. Herbicide treatments of many bushland weeds
are not listed for use on the labels. In Western
Australia the only herbicide registered specifically for
use in bushland situations is Fusilade 212 on Perennial
Veldgrass (Ehrharta calycina). For this reason it may be
necessary to apply for an off-label permit.
Off-label permits: An off-label permit allows
registered products to be used for a purpose or in a
manner that is not included on the approved label.
Permits for off-label use of a registered herbicide can
be obtained from the National Registration Authority
(NRA). The Western Australian Department of
Agriculture obtained a minor use off-label permit for a
number of herbicides to be used specifically on
environmental weeds in bushland. The permit (No.
PER4984) is valid from 13 September 2001 to 30
September 2006 unless cancelled and is available
online at http://permits.nra.gov.au/PER4984.PDF. Any
person wishing to use a herbicide product and
application method in a manner outlined on the permit
must read the permit.
Licencing: Anyone applying herbicide for financial
gain is required, by law, to be licenced with the
Pesticide Safety Section, Health Department of Western
Australia, and work for a registered company. This
includes herbicide contractors and any bush
regenerator who hires themselves out to community
groups or government departments. Registration
ensures that these people have undertaken
appropriate training in the storage, preparation and
use of herbicides. Contractors must also clearly
display signs warning the public that herbicide is being
used in the area.
Water catchments: According to the Health
Department, six herbicides may be used in Water
Catchment Areas (WCA) as defined by the Water
Corporation of Western Australia. These are 2,4-D,
amitrole, glyphosate, hexazinone, picloram and
triclopyr. They may only be used when no other means
is suitable for eradication of a weed and several
restrictions apply. These include:

96

Application is limited to injection or spot spraying

with a large droplet spray.

Herbicides cannot be mixed within 50 metres of

reservoirs, rivers or streams.

No application is to be made within 20 metres of

reservoirs, rivers or streams except during
summer months where these are dry.

The full details and definition of WCA are available in

Circular PSC88 Use of Herbicides in Water Catchments
This document is available online at http://www.public.
health.wa.gov.au/environ/applied/PSC88.DOC). The
circular is dated 1993, and is currently undergoing
revision by the relevant government departments.
In 1995, the Western Australian Department of
Environmental Protection released a report on the
acute toxicity of Roundup 360 to selected frog
species (Bidwell and Gorrie 1995). Following the
subsequent review of glyphosate use by the NRA,
Monsanto introduced Roundup Biactive. This
herbicide is registered for use in aquatic situations
under certain conditions in all states of Australia. The
minor use off-label permit PER4984 also allows the
use of glyphosate in aquatic situations in accordance
with label instructions.

Bushland care
Before applying herbicides it is essential to familiarise
yourself with the site conditions. Compile a list
including soil type, soil pH, proximity to open water,
depth to groundwater, potential for run-off, occurrence
of rare species (flora and fauna) etc. Base the decision
to use herbicides on conservation targets for the site,
potential behaviour of herbicides at the site in
question, and the health and safety of applicators and
others in the vicinity. Herbicides are poisons and
should be used with caution.

Minimising damage
Following the label instructions does not mean offtarget damage will not occur. The degree of off-target
damage depends on the herbicide used, soil type and
landform, weather, application method and skill of the
operator. Several steps can be taken to minimise the
risks of herbicide damage to the environment:

Ask yourself if spraying is necessary (record

reasons for choosing herbicide).

A protocol for storing, mixing, transporting,

handling spills and disposing of unused herbicides
and containers should be in place before
purchasing herbicides.

Ensure that the person applying herbicide is

trained in the safe storage, handling, preparation
and use of the herbicide in question.

The person applying herbicide should have a good

understanding of the issues surrounding weed
control in native bushland (the possibility of rare
and endangered species, the effects of trampling,
damage caused by over-spraying, importance of
correct identification of target weed).

Select a method that minimises off-target damage.

Targeted techniques such as injection or wiping
are most appropriate. If spraying is unavoidable
use a large droplet spray to minimise drift. Use of
in-line pressure regulators before the spray nozzle
will help minimise droplet drift. Large-leafed plants
like Arum Lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica) can have
herbicide applied to individual leaves using a
small, hand held, one litre garden sprayer. Hoods
that direct herbicide onto the target plant are also
available.

Chapter 8

Herbicide Use in Bushland

Select herbicide and rate most effective at

controlling the weed and with least damage to
environment (selective, non-residual, low toxicity to
humans and other organisms, lowest effective rate).
Residual herbicides (metsulfuron methyl, picloram)
can remain active in the soil for up two years,
which can affect the growth of susceptible native
plants over the period. Soil-mobile residuals could
also contaminate waterways. However, for some
weeds it may be more sensible to use a higher rate
and/or a more toxic or more residual herbicide than
an ineffective treatment that requires repeated
application and does not remove the weed threat.
Understand the hydrology of the system that is
being treated. The likelihood of run-off into
waterbodies and/or leaching into the water table
must be assessed. If necessary, establish no
spray zones. Only use herbicides that have been
specially formulated to have minimal impact on
aquatic organisms. Dont add surfactants or
wetting agents to such formulations as these are
often more toxic to many aquatic organisms than
the active ingredient in the herbicide. Use
herbicides with low soil mobility where possible.

Establish a mixing area (easy access, no desirable

species, not subject to erosion or run-off, rarely
visited by public or workers).

Use a dye to minimise missed areas and avoid

over-spraying.

Always apply at the most appropriate time

(ineffective application results in failure and
unnecessary use of herbicide in bushland).

Monitor effects of treatment on the whole plant

community using a transect or quadrat-based
approach which quantifies the number and cover
of native plants. Native plant species include more
than just trees and shrubs. Monitoring must
include annual and perennial herbs, geophytes and
grasses whose loss from the plant community
should not be overlooked.

Identify mistakes and if necessary improve your

method. Monitor the effects of treatment on the
weed quantitatively. Use the same transects or
quadrats set up for monitoring the plant
community. At the very least, keep a record of
plants/area treated, the herbicides and rate used,
date and conditions.
Always follow up weed control work. If treatments
are not followed up with further spraying or handweeding of overlooked or surviving plants, the
initial treatment becomes a waste of resources and
a pointless introduction of herbicide into the
environment.

Using contractors
There is some concern about contractors entering the
field with insufficient training in the application of
herbicides within bushland situations. Contractors
unsympathetic to bushland conservation are more likely
to damage native plants through trampling,
misidentification, or over-spraying. The contractor you
select should have knowledge of the flora and an interest
in bushland flora and fauna as well as an understanding
of the chemicals used, the way they work and the weeds
they control. They should be willing to use backpacks,

hand held sprayers, or wiping devices when required.

Such contractors are rare and in high demand
throughout the peak weed season. At present, there are
few suitable contractors available. The Australian
Association of Bush Regenerators (Western Australia)
(AABR (WA) Inc) has a list of those contractors in the
Perth area that have sufficient experience to undertake
bushland work. This list is available from AABR (WA)
Inc., PO Box 1498, Subiaco, 6904. Ask around, get second
opinions and if you are not happy with someones work
be sure to let them know why!
Make sure the spray contractor you hire and their
employees have the appropriate training. Spray
contractors must work for a business registered with
the Pesticide Safety Section (PSS) of the Health
Department of Western Australia (Ph: 08 9383 4244).
A person with a provisional licence can carry out
spraying as long as a person holding a full licence
supervises them. Any person operating a pesticide
spraying company must hold a full licence.
To get the most for your money and the best job
done, it is important to have weed maps and a
contract. The contract (Appendix 1) outlines the work
to be done and ensures that if the job is not done
satisfactorily you are in possession of a written
agreement. The Weed maps are multi-purpose, they
allow you to show the contractor the location of the
weed populations; walk around the bushland with the
contractor and relate populations to those on the
map. By supplying the contractor with the weed map
before the job, they are more easily able to relocate
each population. The map also provides a monitoring
tool that allows you to assess the reduction in
population area and ensure no populations are
overlooked by the contractor. In combination these
two documents are invaluable (Box 8.2).

Some herbicides used in bushland

All applications and concentrations quoted in this
manual are intended as an illustrative guide. They are
covered by minor use off-label permit number
PER4984, which is only valid for Western Australia.

Some useful herbicide terminology:

Contact kills only plant tissue to which it has

been applied. Old or well-established annual plants
may grow back after such treatments.

Systemic herbicide penetrates plant cells and

moves through the plant from shoots to roots in
the phloem.

Broad spectrum kills a wide range of plants.

Selective kills only a particular type of plant, e.g.

grasses.

Non-residual (knockdown) kills existing plants

but has no effect on subsequent germinants.

Residual remains active in soil for some time

(may kill germinating seeds (pre-emergent) and
susceptible plants).

Post-emergent applied directly to established

plants and/or soil.

Pre-emergent applied to the soil before the weed

germinates, killing germinating seedlings (preemergent herbicides will also kill susceptible
native seedlings).

97

Chapter 8

Herbicide Use in Bushland

Box 8.2 Using contractors to spray African Lovegrass at Talbot Road Bushland
Between 1999 and 2001 infestations of African Lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula) at Talbot Road were mapped
annually as part of the overall weed management strategy. The weed was found to be widespread on the
tracks and bushland edges. In August 1999 contractors were employed to spot spray the infestations with a
1 % solution of glyphosate. The work was carried out when the African Lovegrass was actively growing and
cost $1645.
A thorough examination of the site after spraying revealed that several populations of African Lovegrass had
missed treatment altogether. In a number of other areas Perennial Veldgrass (Ehrharta calycina) had been
mistaken for African Lovegrass. While glyphosate was appropriate to use on dense infestations of African
Lovegrass growing along path edges, Perennial Veldgrass extended into the bushland and grew closely among
native plants. Where Perennial Veldgrass clumps had been sprayed, off-target damage from the glyphosate was
evident. If Perennial Veldgrass had been the target weed at this site a grass-selective herbicide would have
been specified.
Although the contractors had originally been met on site and the job discussed in detail, no maps were
supplied to them and no contract outlining the work had been signed. If a contract had been signed, both
parties would have had a clear understanding of exactly what was required and a means of redress when those
requirements were not met.
After discussions, the contractors returned to respray missed infestations. When the contractors were reemployed to follow up the work in 2000, maps of African Lovegrass distribution were supplied and a written
contract signed before the work began. This time we had comeback if necessary. It was not; the contractor did
a thorough, professional job.
The treatment was repeated in 2001 following a summer fire that burnt through most of Talbot Road Bushland
in 2001. The maps were particularly useful for locating populations of resprouting African Lovegrass plants for
treatment following the fire. The follow-up work in 2000 and 2001 cost $960 and $880 respectively. Maps show
that the populations have decreased substantially over this time.

1999

2001

Distribution of African Lovegrass at Talbot Road Bushland prior to treatment in 1999 and after treatment in 2001.

98

systemic,
broad spectrum,
non-residual,
post- emergent

systemic,
selective,
residual

systemic,
selective,
non-residual,
post-emergent

systemic,
residual,
post-emergent

S5

S5

S6

S6

unscheduled

Sethoxydim (Sertin Plus)

Glyphosate (RoundUp,
RoundUp BiActive ,
Glyphosate 360 & others)

Picloram + Triclopyr
(Grazon DS or Access)

Triclopyr (Garlon 600 )

systemic,
selective,
residual,
post-emergent

systemic,
selective,
post-emergent,
residual

S5

unscheduled

Clopyralid (Lontrel)

2,2-DPA/ Dalapon
(Propon, Atlapon,
Cerelon)

systemic,
residual,
post-emergent

S5

Chlorsulfuron (Glean)

Metsulfuron methyl
(Brush-off, Ally)

systemic,
selective,
non-residual,
post- emergent

S6

Fluazifop-p-butyl
(Fusilade 212)

systemic,
selective,
post- emergent,
non-residual.

Basic properties

Poison
schedule

annual and
perennial
grasses
(also Bullrush
and Watsonia)

broadleaf
weeds

bulbs and
broadleaf
weeds

bulbs and
broadleaf
weeds

annual and
perennial
broadleaf
weeds, vines,
and woody
plants

annual and
perennial
broadleaf
weeds, vines,
and woody
plants

annual
and perennial
weeds

some annual
and perennial
grasses

annual
and perennial
grasses

Target weed
species

foliage and
roots

foliage and
some root
absorption

foliage and
roots

foliage and
roots

roots and
foliage

foliage and
root uptake

foliage

foliage and
roots

foliage

Absorbed by

Inhibits fat synthesis.

Disrupts cell division of
root and shoot tips,
inhibiting growth.

Auxin mimic - causes

uncontrolled, disorganised
growth.

Inhibits acetolactate
synthase preventing cell
division and thus growth.

Inhibits acetolactate
synthase preventing cell
division and thus growth.

Auxin mimic - causes

uncontrolled, disorganised
growth.

Auxin mimic - causes

uncontrolled, disorganised
growth.

Inhibits the shikimic acid

pathway depleting aromatic
amino acids required for
protein construction.

Inhibits acetyl-CoA
carboxylase preventing the
synthesis of lipids required
for growth and maintenance
of cell membranes.

Inhibits acetyl-CoA
carboxylase preventing the
synthesis of lipids required
for growth and maintenance
of cell membranes.

Mode of action

remains in soil for

2 weeks to 4 months
(usually broken down
rapidly by soil microbes)

12 days to 1 year
(highest under
anaerobic conditions and
low microbial activity)

14 - 60 days
(9 months in
alkaline soils)

14 - 180 days
(average 60 days more persistent in
alkaline soils)

30 - 90 days
(average 46 days
longer in cold or arid
conditions)

20 - 300 days
(average 90 days)

47 days

5-25 days

15 days

Average soil half-life

high

high
potential

moderatehigh

moderate high (more

mobile in
alkaline
conditions)

moderatehigh

moderatehigh

low

lowmoderate

low

Mobility in
soil

days to months
(accelerated by
increased
temperature and
pH and high
microbial activity)

8-40 days

7-14 days

21-30 days

3 hours
to 4 days

1-40 days
(depending on
sunlight
intensity)

12 days to 10 weeks

1 hour to 40 days
(dependent on
product)

stable

Average half-life
in water

does not
accumulate in
tissues (<1%
in cow's milk)

none known

does not
accumulate in
the milk or
tissue of
animals

none known

little to none

slight in fish,
none recorded in
milk or tissue of
mammals

none known

high potential
in aquatic
organisms

Bio
accumulation

Low toxicity to birds, mammals,

fish and molluscs. Moderate to high
toxicity to shrimp and aquatic
insects.

Low toxicity to mammals, birds,

fish, aquatic invertebrates and bees.
Soluble in water - potential for
contamination.

Persistence varies according to

soil pH, rainfall and soil type. Low
toxicity to birds, mammals, fish and
aquatic invertebrates.

Biologically active at low rates.

Persistence in soil varies according
to soil pH, rainfall and soil type.
Moderate to low toxicity to fish

Commonly used herbicide. Low to

non-toxic to birds, fish and bees.
NOTE: The ester formulation is
highly toxic to aquatic organisms.

Environmental persistence (up to 2

years). Poses risk of groundwater
contamination. Most grasses are
resistant. Slight to moderate toxicity
to fish and aquatic organisms.

Little to no soil activity. In wetlands

use special aquatic formulations.

Moderately toxic to aquatic species.

Toxic to most grasses except Vulpia

spp and Poa annua . Toxic to fish.

Notes

61, 119

105,169,
312, 61

111, 222,
35

110, 119,
226

119, 247,
104

312, 106,
119, 247

312, 204,
119, 219,
220

119, 61,
247

312, 305,
119, 35,
349, 226,
247

References

Chapter 8
Herbicide Use in Bushland

Table 1. Properties of some herbicides used on bushland weeds.

99

Final Note

In the end, environmental weed management is about

protection of our unique bushlands through carefully
targeted and effective on-ground actions on-ground
actions that prevent introduction or spread of
environmental weeds, and work towards their control and
sometimes their eradication while protecting complex
natural systems. The case studies outlined in the various
chapters highlight the importance of having clear goals
based on an understanding of the conservation values of a
particular site, a thorough knowledge of the weed/s being
targeted and a well-defined strategy. Sometimes it takes a
series of trials and a number of years to formulate such
strategies. To gain an understanding of the effectiveness of
those strategies monitoring needs to be in place and
results should guide management actions. This kind of
framework, together with the resources to support it, is
central to effective environmental weed management.
Access to technical resources stands out as particularly
important. This seems especially true for weed
management in the bushlands of south west Western
Australia as they support such an incredibly diverse flora.
Effective management is often about knowing and
understanding very complex systems. In addition though,
technical support is also important for setting up trials
and putting in place monitoring. One of the most valuable
undertakings of this project has been the work carried out
in conjunction with the various land managers setting up
replicated trials to test various control options for serious
weeds, and the impacts of those control options on native
plant communities. This approach provided solid data to
guide management actions, and also provided
demonstrable outcomes to potential funding sources. At
the same time, community volunteers involved gained an
understanding of the options available, including the
practicalities, costs and impacts of various physical and
chemical control methods. They were then able to make
informed decisions about implementation of those control
options across particular bushland sites.
Typical examples include the trials on management of
Yellow Soldier (Lachenalia reflexa) in Shenton Bushland,
on control of Harlequin Flower, (Sparaxis bulbifera) and
Tribolium (Tribolium uniolae) invading the Brixton Street
Wetlands and the work on Taro (Colocasia esculenta) along
the Gingin Brook. The work on Holly-leafed Senecio
(Senecio glastifolius) by the Western Australian
Department of Agriculture in Albany provided similar
outcomes. In all of these examples the results of the trial
work provided solid information on which to base
management strategies. Importantly the information
gathered was also often instrumental in acquiring funding
to begin implementation of those strategies across
particular bushland sites. Continued funding over time
was then often facilitated by the collection of monitoring
data. Those data often demonstrated effectiveness of the
strategies, regeneration of native plant communities
and/or provided justification for funding priorities. There
are a number examples throughout the text. Typical is the
series of maps illustrating the reduction of Perennial
Veldgrass (Ehrharta calycina) cover in Shenton Bushland
over four years, and the subsequent allocation of
resources over that time.
Characteristically, most funding for on-ground works over
the life of this project has been in the form of short-term
grants, generally applied for by community volunteers,
although sometimes in conjunction with local or state
government bodies. Often the funding is only available for
12 months and must be re-applied for each year until the

100

work is complete. Such a system has fairly obvious

shortcomings. Changes in management personnel, or in the
structure of volunteer groups, usually sees a year of
funding missed. A season of follow-up control/management
work is then missed and the efforts of previous years are
wasted. In addition there is little flexibility in the resources
that are available. For example, under such funding
arangements it can be impossible to find money for weed
management following unplanned fire and so an excellent
window of opportunity is often missed.
Clearly successful weed management in natural areas is
dependent on a consistent effort over many years and
access to long-term, secure funding. Certainly, one of the
most encouraging trends, over the life of this project, has
been witnessing both state and local government commit
funding to weed management work originally initiated by
the community, through short-term grants. Government
bodies seem to be able to do this once it becomes
apparent that work is taking place within a clearly
defined strategy, that accurate costing is possible and
there are demonstrable outcomes. Funding for the work
on Harlequin Flower and Tribolium at Brixton St,
Perennial Veldgrass, Yellow Soldier and Freesia control at
Shenton Bushland and management of the serious weed
at Talbot Rd, all initially came about through community
efforts but have subsequently been picked up by state or
local government, often becoming a part of their
recurrent budget. Fundamental to securing this funding
has been the availability of on-ground technical support
to map the weeds, set up trials and conduct monitoring.
The EWAN project officers have provided much of that
technical support.
Part of the intention of writing this manual was to highlight
the need for state and local government authorities to
allocate more resources for technically skilled people,
working on the ground, so that environmental weed
management can start to be undertaken within this sort of
framework. The intention was also to highlight the need to
provide technical support for Friends groups and
community volunteers who carry out much of the bush
regeneration and environmental weed management in
south west Western Australia at present. The examples
provided through the text illustrate what can be achieved
when such support is available.
These examples have mostly focused on protection of
particular bushland patches. Although all are drawn from
south west Western Australia they have relevance for land
managers in other parts of the country. They demonstrate
the importance of knowing and understanding particular
sites and mostly they illustrate that if we really try, often
we can control and manage environmental weeds where
they are threatening what remains of our bushlands.
Significantly, for most of the case studies described,
successful outcomes have been reliant on a combination of
community and local, state and federal government efforts.
Walking through Shenton Bushland in spring 2002, much of
the Perennial Veldgrass and large populations of Freesia
have disappeared. In their place carpets of a native daisy,
Slender Podolepis. At Brixton St the Harlequin Flower
program is down to hand-weeding remaining isolated
populations leaving room for the native herbs to
recolonise, and along the Gingin Brook, where the Friends
have been working, Taro has been replaced by dense
stands of the native Tassel Sedge and seedlings of
Paperbarks and Flooded Gum.

Appendix 1

Herbicide Spraying Contract

(Courtesy Bob Dixon, Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority)

General

The Contractor shall allow for the supply of all labour, plant and equipment, materials, chemicals and wetting agents required to gain
effective control of ________________________________ (weed) in ________________________________ (site).
2

Distribution

2.1

All spraying shall be carried out within the bushland of ______________________ (site) in the area on the attached map.
Amendments may be made on the agreement of both parties (Friends group/Council and Contractor).

2.2

Herbicide shall be spot sprayed on __________________(weed) only. The Contractor shall be responsible for the cost of
purchase of materials and respraying areas of unsatisfactory control, at the appropriate time when suitable conditions prevail.

2.3

The Contractor shall achieve greater than 90 % mortality for ________________ (weed) in sprayed areas. The herbicide
manufacturers guarantee of weed kill shall in no way remove the Contractor of his obligation to respray, should the required
mortality rate not be achieved.

2.4

The Contractor shall include in all prices an allowance to achieve the mortality rates mentioned.

2.5

An inspection will be made by __________________________________(Friends group/Council) after the initial spraying to

determine effectiveness and so determine the area to be resprayed, if necessary.

Mixing

All herbicides are to be thoroughly mixed prior to application and agitated during spraying.
4

Wetting Agent

4.1

The Contractor shall apply a wetting agent in accordance with the herbicide manufacturers recommendation,
e.g. Agral 600 3 mL/L.

4.2

With the herbicide, the volume of water used should be sufficient to ensure an even application of herbicide.

Marking Dye

Marking dye shall be used at a rate that is sufficient to see areas sprayed 7 days after application.
6

Spray Drift

The pressure of application shall be kept to a level that prevents excessive spray drift.
7

Plant and Equipment

7.1

All equipment and vehicles must be washed down prior to entering _______________________________________(site).

7.2

All tanks, spray lines to be washed out and thoroughly cleansed, and treated with a product such as Chem Clean before
entering ______________________________________(site).

Leaks

All leaks (chemical and/or fuel or oils) shall be immediately reported to ___________________________________________
(Friends group/Council), cleaned up in the appropriate manner and removed from the bushland immediately.
9

Spray Equipment

All plant and equipment used for the application of herbicides shall be suitable for this purpose and be in excellent working order.
10

Control

10.1

Control shall be at a time that _______________________________(weed) is actively growing as agreed to by both parties.

10.2

A log of works shall be completed on a daily basis, showing the following details:

Name of Company

_________________________________________ Name of Operator____________________________________

Location/area sprayed___________________________________________ Date ________________ Time________________

Weather Conditions e.g.: Fine, showers etc _________________________________________________________________________
Wind Direction_____________________________________________________ Wind Speed________________________
Chemical Applied______________________________________ Full trade name______________________ Rate_________________
11

Warning Signs

It is the operators responsibility to warn any members of the public who venture into the bushland during the spraying to withdraw.
12

Harmful Chemicals

The Contractor shall not use a herbicide in any manner or circumstance that is dangerous, harmful or injurious to health (refer regulation 20 (1) of the Health (Pesticides) Amendment Regulations 1986).
13

Licence

A copy of the Companys current Pesticides Operators Licences, stating chemicals that individual Operators are registered to
apply, together with the names of Operators who will be applying herbicides under this Contract, must be submitted with signed
specification. The contractor shall guarantee the competency of Operators applying herbicides under this Contract.
14

Commencement and Completion

The contractor shall notify ______________________________________________ (Friends group/Council) at least 24 hours prior to
starting and on completion of work.
I hereby agree to the above specification

Signature

Name of Company

Date

Please Print Name

101

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