The Darwin Technical Manual for Botanic Gardens

Botanic Gardens Conservation International

The Darwin Technical Manual for Botanic Gardens

Edited and compiled by Etelka Leadlay and Jane Greene Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) London, U.K. 1998 Design Watermark Communications Group Limited ISBN 09520275 6 9

Contents
Preface 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Planning and management techniques Landscape design Collections policy Collections management Horticulture Equipment and facilities Plant records for living collections Interpretation Training botanic garden staff Networks and support Funding General bibliography and addresses 4 11 27 40 51 71 88 100 109 118 128 136

Photo credits: Page 120, Brooklyn Botanic Garden, U.S.A; page 57, Fiona Dennis; page 53, Gennady Firsov; page 53, Sir Harold Hillier Gardens & Arboretum, Hampshire, U.K.; page 77, 79 David Kershaw; page 117, M.M. Grishko Central Botanical Garden, Kiev, Ukraine; page 103, Loc Ruellan; page 82, Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Kerala, India; page 72 Andrew Vovides; page 83 (bottom), Vumba Botanical Garden, Zimbabwe; page 8, 20, 28, 29, 30, 35, 41, 42, 44, 59, 69, 86, 87, 89, 90, 102, 104, 126, 130, 131, 133, Peter Wyse Jackson.

Preface
The main objective of this manual is to produce a clear and concise technical handbook for the management of botanic gardens, to raise the scientific, conservation and educational value of the living plant collections in botanic gardens worldwide. This is a companion volume to The Botanic Gardens Conservation Strategy (1989) and policy publications produced by Botanic Gardens Conservation International, such as A CITES Manual for Botanic Gardens (1994), A Handbook for Botanic Gardens on the Reintroduction of Plants to the Wild (1995) and A Handbook for Botanic Gardens on Plant Conservation in Botanic Gardens (in press). People who work in botanic gardens often have very different backgrounds, so each chapter assumes very little knowledge about the subject by the reader. This manual represents an attempt to bring together the current knowledge on the theory and practice of managing a botanic garden so that informed decisions can be made by those involved with botanic gardens in all parts of the world. A great many people have been involved in the production of this manual. Chapters have been prepared by a series of expert authors. Additional information was obtained from questionnaires sent to botanic gardens and from many other sources. The chapters were then reviewed extensively, to ensure the manual will be useful and relevant to as many botanic gardens as possible and reflects good practice in botanic gardens. It hoped that the manual will become a widely used and accepted handbook to assist in-service training in many institutions. We are indebted to the Darwin Initiative for the Survival of Species for funding this manual and to the following people for their contributions: Ally Ashwell, Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, South Africa; Michael Avishai, Jerusalem Botanical Gardens, Israel; Anita Benbrook, Otari Native Botanic Garden, New Zealand; Don Blaxell, Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney, Australia; D.L. Botha, Kirstenbosch National Botanic Garden, South Africa; James Carter, Queen Margaret College, Edinburgh, U.K.; Carrick Chambers, Sydney, Australia; Melany Chapin, National Tropical Botanic Garden, Hawaii, U.S.A; Judy Cheney, Cambridge University Botanic Garden, U.K.; Colin Clubbe, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K.; Jim Cone, Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens, Hobart, Australia; Blaise Cooke, London, U.K.; John Cortes, Gibraltar Botanical Gardens; James Cullen, Cambridge, U.K.; John Davey, London, U.K.; Fiona Dennis, BGCI, U.K.; Juan de Dos Muoz, Jardn Botnico Oro Verde, Paran, Argentina; Ian Darwin Edwards, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, U.K.; Judith Evans Parker, U.S.A.; Gennady Firsov, Botanic Gardens of the Komarov Botanical Institute, St Petersburg, Russia; Mark Flanagan, Savill Garden, U.K.; Julie Foster and colleagues, Australian National Botanic Gardens, Canberra, Australia; David Galbraith, Royal Botanical Gardens, Hamilton, Canada; Juli Hadiah, Kebun Raya, Bogor, Indonesia; Ole Hamann, Kobenhavns Universitets Botaniske Have, Denmark; He Shan-An, Nanjing Botanic Garden Mem. Sun Yat-Sen, China; Esteban Hernndez Bermejo, JardIn Botnico de Crdoba, Crdoba, Spain; Christopher Hobson, U.K., Maryke Honig, Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, South Africa; Charles Hubbuch, Fairchild Tropical Garden, Miami, U.S.A.; Feng Huiling, Fairy Lake Botanic Garden, Shenzhen, China; David Hunt, Dorset, U.K.; Ailene Isaf, BGCI, U.K.; Andy Jackson, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K.; Michael Kristiansen, U.S.A.; Victor Kuzevanov, Botanic Garden of Irkutsk State University, Russia; Edelmira Linares Mazari, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico, Mxico; Jo Lopez-Real, Wye College, U.K.; Paul Matthew, Glasgow Botanic Gardens, U.K.; Li Mei, Nanjing Botanic Garden Mem. Sun Yat-Sen, China; Sue Minter, Chelsea Physic Garden, U.K.; Peter Morris, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K.; Elisha Murimba, Vumba Botanical Garden, Zimbabwe; Patrick Muthoka, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya; Jennifer Ng, Singapore Botanic Gardens; L.G. Nkoloma, National Herbarium & Botanic Gardens of Malawi, Zomba, Malawi; Mike Oates, Botanic Gardens of Wellington, New Zealand; Peter Olin, Minnesota Landscape Arboretum, Chanhassen, U.S.A.; Ian Oliver, Karoo National Botanical Garden, South Africa; George Owusu-Afriyie, Aburi Botanic Gardens, Ghana; Bernard Payne, Hampshire, U.K.; Fiona Powrie, Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, South Africa; David Rae, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, U.K.; Maricela Rodrguez Acosta, JardIn Botnico Louise Wardle de Camacho, Mexico; Loc Ruellan, Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest, France; Tnia Sampaio Pereira, Jardim Botnico do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Andrew Smith, Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens, Hobart, Australia; Sukendar, Kebun Raya Bogor, Indonesia; Tan Puay Yok, Singapore Botanic Gardens; Frank Telewski, W.J. Beal Botanical Garden and Campus Woody Plant Collection, East Lansing, U.S.A.; Jacob Thomas, Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Kerala, India; Walden R. Valen, Strybing Arboretum and Botanical Gardens, San Francisco, U.S.A.; Bert van den Wollenberg, BGCI & Utrecht University Botanic Garden, The Netherlands; Andrew Vovides, Jardn Botnico Franciso Xavier Clavijero, Xalapa, Mexico; Ghislaine Walker, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K.; Timothy Walker, Oxford University Botanic Garden, U.K.; Susan Wallace-Olson, Florida, U.S.A.; Kerry Walter, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, U.K.; Julia Willison, BGCI, U.K.; John Winter, Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, South Africa; Maureen Wolfson, Pretoria National Botanical Garden, South Africa; Diane Wyse Jackson, BGCI, U.K.; Peter Wyse Jackson, BGCI.

The Darwin Technical Manual for Botanic Gardens

1. Planning and management techniques

Introduction
Botanic gardens throughout the world face many severe tests and challenges. These must be met with courage and optimism if botanic gardens are to flourish, or in some cases, even to survive. Individual gardens must take actions to: sustain or build support for their organization and activities and in many cases, overcome inadequate funding and resourcing; raise public awareness of the vital role of botanic gardens as a resource for the conservation of rare and endangered plants; raise public awareness of the importance of plants for many purposes, including medicinal and economic benefits; support the conservation of biodiversity to protect the Earths environment. A successful botanic garden, clear about its mission and role can make a dynamic impact on the visiting public, politicians at all levels, public and private funders, and turn them into allies interested in supporting the vital work of botanic gardens. There is no single, correct way to develop an overall plan for a garden. Each botanic garden is unique. But there are many useful techniques and approaches that can be used to ensure that the vision of those involved in setting up and running a garden can be translated into practical actions and workable plans. This chapter aims to look at some of these planning tools available for those developing botanic gardens, taking examples from management and planning techniques used in gardens around the world. be understandable to staff, the public, and to external bodies such as potential supporters. There follow some examples of the mission statements of a variety of different botanic gardens. The first example for the Sir Harold Hillier Gardens & Arboretum, Hampshire, U.K., is brief but clear in highlighting the nature of the role of the garden and of its collections: The Hillier Arboretums mission is to enhance the understanding and enjoyment of the Arboretum and to develop its horticultural, botanical, aesthetic, educational and conservation potentials, and to bring together as complete a collection of all those woody plants that can be grown in the temperate world without protection. Example for the National Memorial Arboretum, Staffordshire, U.K., concentrates on defining a spiritual philosophy and purpose: The aim of the National Memorial Arboretum Appeal is to establish an Arboretum of sufficient size and stature to serve as a living national symbol of Remembrance and Reconciliation for the generations affected by the wars of this century and to be a gift in their memory for future generations to reflect upon and enjoy. Example for the Holden Arboretum, Ohio, U.S.A., clearly defines its objectives in a little more detail: The Holden Arboretum Mission is to promote the knowledge and appreciation of plants for personal enjoyment, inspiration and recreation for scientific research, and for educational and aesthetic purposes: to develop and maintain documented collections of woody plants and other botanic specimens appropriate to the climatic zone of north-east Ohio; to acquire, grow and display plants, both commercial and those of scientific interest and to demonstrate horticultural principles; to study, manage and conserve the natural environment, including flora and fauna of the Holden Arboretum lands; and to engage in horticultural research and in educational and public service activities that will enable others to make use of the knowledge required.

1. Mission statements
A good starting point for developing an overall, longterm plan for a botanic garden is to prepare and agree a statement of the central purpose and mission of the garden. This mission statement will help you to identify clearly what you are trying to achieve in your garden by highlighting the fundamental purpose of the garden. It should: be brief - ideally no more than one side of a page; concisely state the special purpose(s), philosophy and objectives of the garden;

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Example for the Limbe Botanic Garden Project, Cameroon: To become a regional centre for the conservation and sustainable utilisation of biodiversity in equatorial moist central West Africa. Example for Kebun Raya Bogor, Indonesia: To co-ordinate and conduct conservation action through conservation research and public conservation education.

Mission statements must be both generalized and concise. A great deal of thought and discussion is usually necessary to capture the essential philosophy and purpose of the garden. A broad range of staff, managers and board members or governors of a garden should be involved in this discussion so that they identify with and own the mission statement, so that staff do not regard it as an edict from top management. Box 1 outlines a method of mission statement development.

Box 1 Mission statement development

In the central box define the type of business you are in / type of organization you are . In the surrounding boxes write down: what you value? what sets your organization apart from the others? what would you not allow to happen? From this information draft a statement which expresses these essential elements. Try to restrict it to 50 words. Refine this statement and circulate for comment.

Plant Collections most valuable maintain at all costs protect

Staff skills commitment train and retain

Identity multi-faceted not a theme park

Education we are in the business of education weve got a message to get across to our visitors we work with school groups

Conservation

a botanic garden contribute to conservation of local flora raise awareness/educate undertake research in its broadest sense raise money to do all this

Can we do it? Can we tell people about it? How do we relate to other organizations involved in conservation?

Science/Research observational analytical do we have faciliti es? can we work in partnerships?

Collaborators/Networks who do we work with? who do we rely on? who do we want to encouage?

Money it from? where do we get of is there any type n we wont organisatio take money from?

This method was developed and the table compiled by L. Muir and C. Clubble (1998).

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Planning and management techniques

2. What is strategic planning?

Strategic planning is the process of taking a medium to long-term overall view of where the botanic garden is headed, and devising a plan to take it there. It is a process in which everyone in the garden needs to participate or contribute. The commitment and cooperation of every one who works or is involved with the garden is vital to the success of any planning process undertaken. There are various ways of ensuring this involvement. For example, at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney, Australia, sixteen of the senior managers went away for three days to live-in accommodation where they could work out a draft approach to producing a corporate plan. The plan that emerged from this process was then circulated to every member of staff in order to get feedback and comment. As a result of this a final draft was prepared and again circulated for comment. While the mission statement is the beginning of a whole process of planning for the garden, it is by its very nature no more than a general statement of purpose. It needs to be supported by a more detailed document outlining major goals or objectives that need to be achieved if the garden is to fulfill its mission. This second document may be only one or two pages long, but again it needs to be clear and concise.

commercialization programme to ensure adequate resources to support the activities. In 1992, the corporate objectives of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney, Australia were: Research: to pursue botanical, horticultural and other appropriate research programmes of quality, as judged by internationally-accepted standards. Conservation and management of resources : to maintain and enhance a diverse and well documented collection of living plants displayed in horticulturally attractive settings, and a comprehensive, documented collection of preserved plants. Interpretation, education and information: to promote community awareness and knowledge of plants and the importance of their conservation. Organizational support: to develop, support and promote the role of the Royal Botanic Gardens as a focus for botanical and horticultural excellence. The objectives of Kebun Raya Bogor, Indonesia are to: maintain and enhance a diverse and well documented collection of living plants displayed in attractive settings; pursue botanical and horticultural research programmes; increase the quality of management to a professional standard; promote community consciousness about the role of plants in their welfare and survival and their practical knowledge of landscape architecture; develop the landscape in Kebun Raya to a maximum standard.

Defining objectives
Overall objectives of a botanic garden should be those which have been agreed by the institution, perhaps by the Board of Governors, or by the owners of the garden, or by a consultative process which involves staff. There is no one correct way of defining objectives. Each garden needs to find a way of defining goals, which suits that particular organization. The objectives are needed to cover all aspects of the purposes of the botanic garden. They should translate the mission statement, the Gardens reason for existence into goals; what exactly it is you hope to achieve. Some examples of botanic garden objectives are as follows: One of the objectives of the Santa Barbara Botanic Garden, California, U.S.A. is to: maintain and display living collections of native Californian plants and selected species of plants from other Mediterranean climatic regions of the World. One of the objectives of the National Botanical Institute, South Africa is to: develop an active marketing, promotions and

SWOT analysis
Once the overall long-term objectives have been defined it is valuable for a botanic garden to prepare a strategic plan to govern the development of the garden and its activities during a defined future period. As part of putting together a strategic plan, management needs to identify any major threats, opportunities, strengths and weaknesses the garden might face in trying to achieve its goals. This can be done using what is termed a SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats). It is a commonly applied planning technique used by all sorts of businesses, institutions and organizations. Undertaking such an analysis will help any botanic garden to recognize its strengths and weaknesses, to build on the strengths and address the weaknesses, as well as to capitalize on opportunities and seek to eliminate any threats or take action to avoid them where appropriate. The following is an example of a short SWOT analysis carried out on The Sir Harold Hillier Gardens and Arboretum as part of a process in the preparation and implementation of a new master plan for the garden.

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General view of the Sir Harold Hillier Gardens & Arboretum, U.K.

SWOT analysis of the Sir Harold Hillier Gardens and Arboretum

Strengths 1. The size, importance and diversity of the plant collection. 2. Its national and international reputation. 3. The commitment of the staff to enhance the Arboretums reputation locally, nationally and internationally. 4. The relative immaturity of the collection (visitors can associate with the age of the plant). 5. Good plant labelling. 6. The Gardens can be easily accessed from major roads. 7. The attractiveness of Jermyns House (the main administration building in the Arboretum) and the ambiance within and around the house. 8. The Arboretum still provides a non-commercialised project. 9. The provision of regular free public guided tours and the introduction of workshops and events throughout the year. 10. The Hillier name is a name that most keen gardeners have heard of and can associate with. Weaknesses 1. Poor orientation/reception/welcome on arrival. 2. Poor circulatory and path surfaces. 3. There is no defined pay perimeter/ticket control. 4. Inefficient interpretation in the Arboretum. 5. The young age of the Arboretum, - it is difficult to encourage most people to visit the immature/undeveloped areas, which therefore reduces the amount available for people to use. 6. Lack of summer colour. 7. Uneven visitor patterns with large numbers of visitors coming in two months of the year, i.e. May and October.

8. The most attractive part of the Arboretum is some distance from the car park. 9. Catering is only provided for visitors at Jermyns House which creates problems for visitors who are unable to walk far. 10.The use of Jermyns House drive by vehicles during the week. 11. With a changing product (particularly once the master plan begins in earnest), publications will quickly become out of date. Opportunities 1. Opportunities will naturally increase with the introduction of the master plan and the provision of the Visitor Centre and decrease the number of weaknesses mentioned above. These include: much improved welcome and or parking; catering on arrival; interpretation on arrival; improved circulatory path system around all of the Arboretum; the provision of the visitor centre will allow more dedicated use of Jermyns House for outside lettings; possible introduction of computerized plant information at the Visitor Centre. Consider propagating popular plants in the Gardens to sell to visitors. The ability to market `new attractions within the Gardens thereby increasing visitor numbers. The purchase of additional land, creating a more extensive collection for visitors to enjoy. Green/environmental associations.

2. 3. 4. 5.

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Threats 1. Hampshire County Council may not be able to sustain its current level of funding. 2. The lack of capital investment to fund future projects and move the Gardens into the 21st Century. 3. That the Arboretum may not be able to move forward and is therefore unable to keep up with its competitors. 4. Failure to even out the peaks and troughs in visitor numbers. 5. An increase in popularity of Sunday shopping and other leisure activities. Having devised a mission statement setting down the ethos or purpose of your garden and its main objectives, you now have a clear vision of the long-term future. Your SWOT analysis will help you to identify any major new policies and projects needed to achieve the purpose and objectives.

corporate services. Science might include research and facilities such as the herbarium and the library. Collections might cover the living collections (e.g. horticulture, landscape and plant record keeping). Education might cover visitor services, exhibitions, labelling and interpretation and training. Corporate services might cover finance, staff, fund-raising, marketing, retail operations and publications. In a botanic garden a strategic plan should provide a framework for the development of: the landscape of the garden (see Landscape Design chapter); the collections (see Collections Policy chapter); the education programme (see Interpretation chapter); staff training (see Training chapter); the business plan, including: financial projections; income and expenditure targets; fund-raising (see Funding chapter).

Strategic plan - a long-term plan (3 5 years)

Having agreed objectives, the garden needs to plan how they are to be achieved. This type of long-term planning can be laid out as a strategic plan. This plan should translate policies (as defined in the objectives), into real actions. The terms corporate plan, corporate strategy, corporate strategic plan and management plan are often used loosely and become interchangeable. Most strategic plans are generally prepared to cover a period of 3 to 5 years and should describe the programmes that need to be addressed to meet the overall objectives of the garden both during that time and afterwards. The strategic plan provides a framework by which you can deal with all the issues raised as part of your SWOT analysis. It will incorporate whatever new policies and projects are required or proposed to strengthen your garden and for future development. The plan should help to provide you with a cohesive and logical approach to the future of your garden. In the plan, you will need to: look at all areas of running the garden; identify projects; identify and consider costs; identify the period and sequence of the implementation of the plan; develop a business plan to justify and explain the levels of expenditure and income, and to indicate how financial targets will be met. The creation of a business plan is a valuable way of developing real and practical measures for the achievement of your gardens objectives. The strategic plan will almost certainly need to be divided into different programme areas or areas of interest, for example, science, collections, education and

Weekly staff exercise programme at Kebun Raya Bogor, Indonesia For example at Kebun Raya Bogor, Indonesia, the strategic plan covered five different areas: conservation, research, management, conservation education and landscape development. The specific plans for the management area were to: implement a creative approach to government bureaucracy to achieve an effective professional management; develop and implement a human resources approach to management; develop and implement a human resources plan; develop task forces to achieve various targets; improve communication flow within Kebun Raya; explore and develop appropriate funding sources for Kebun Raya; develop co-operative attitudes within Kebun Raya and co-

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operative links between Kebun Raya and other botanic gardens of the world, conservation bodies and private companies; develop public relations activities; develop the spirit of excellence and co-operation at all levels of staff. Overall plans were also made for each of the other four areas.

relate to projects that are excellent candidates for the raising of funds from external sources where funds for the project are not currently available.

Linking of staff with the strategic plan

Managers can build any strategic and corporate plans or any other kind of plan they like, but unless there is a strong staff commitment to them they will not fully succeed. Staff need to understand the plans and this is so important that it cannot be left to chance or the occasional staff meeting. Individual members of staff need to know: their role in the strategy; what is required of them; key accountabilities and tasks; agreed targets to be achieved; how performance will be measured; that assessment/review will be consistently applied and will be equitable for all staff.

Business plan an action plan (1 year)

Having developed a long-term view of where the organization is headed and analysed the present situation, a botanic garden needs to put together a shorter term, more detailed plan of action. This can be called the action plan, the business plan; the annual operating plan and budget (AOPB); the name does not really matter. It should list the actions (based on agreed policies) that will be taken to achieve the objectives and long-term goals. It is a working document and probably needs to be updated and reviewed regularly. It has many functions. It should be available to: let everyone involved with the botanic garden know what is happening; let all staff know what are their areas of responsibility and what are the goals that the garden hopes to achieve; allow staff to review achievements; ensure that funding is allocated in the most appropriate way; identify training needs. The action plan will describe the tasks and responsibilities of each section within the garden, e.g. education, horticulture, security services or marketing. Within each of these sections the responsibilities and roles of the staff, board members, volunteers etc. need to be defined, as well as any training needs. For example, if one of your objectives is to computerize the accounting system, then it may be that whoever has responsibility for maintaining your accounts will require some computer training. The linking of training to strategic planning is considered elsewhere in this manual (see Training chapter). Despite the fact that each set of actions within an action plan will be different from garden to garden it is possible to establish some basic criteria. For example the National Botanical Institute, South Africa, in their corporate strategic plan specify that all action plans must: cover topics that relate to the NBI mission; refer to activities that can be adequately addressed by existing manpower skills or with skills that can be acquired in the short term; refer to activities that lend themselves to the application of modern information and knowledge management systems;

This can be achieved by the preparation of performance plans, followed by regular discussions and refining of these plans. These are known as performance appraisals or staff evaluations and once in place they should be done annually. An appraisal can be informal or formal depending on the specific requirements or regulations of the organization. A successful appraisal of performance should have three main aims: to agree the achievements and failures in the performance of the individual; to agree future challenges; to agree the development and training needs of the individual. These training needs are discussed more fully in the chapter on Training.

3. Financial accounting
A good financial accounting system is basically no more than keeping accurate and up-to-date records of expenditure and income in a way that is understandable to those who use it. Directors and managers need to have available good financial information in order to monitor and meet business plan projections and targets for the garden. It is their job to allocate the necessary resources for the various sections or departments and to monitor their financial performance. They can then take actions in problem areas in timely fashion to avoid unnecessary difficulties arising.

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It is important for staff to understand the costs of operations, of new projects, etc., especially if their own performance targets and key tasks are to be properly measured or assessed. With good training it is a business truism that the best spending decisions are those made at the lowest possible level of management, by those who have to bear the consequences directly. A sense of ownership in work areas will encourage accountability and responsibility. The real costs of areas of the operation can be identified by the use of cost centres. Cost centres might be set up for education, horticulture, propagation, events, friends schemes, and administration. Standardised expenditure and income items can then be set against each cost centre with general items such as central administration and salaries being apportioned between them. This analysis can be very useful to see if the resources are being correctly allocated to meet the institutional priorities and to see where improvements can be made. For instance, propagation is an expensive item for a garden; examining the net cost of providing the service will indicate the merit of future investment or using the propagation facilities of another institution. The information so held needs to be as up-to-date as possible, but most importantly needs to be readily available to all appropriate levels of staff, so that they can: keep within allocated budgets; based on first-hand operational knowledge of the budget area, make or suggest solutions; measure against quantitative and qualitative performance targets; feel empowered and accountable to managers.

opportunities in terms of the Management Committees agreed policy directions; reports on the achievements of the various sections or departments; staff - leavers, recruits, promotions, awards, etc. The annual report should provide an ordered and interesting summary of the major activities of the year for staff, friends and funders alike. It should be attractively laid out but does not need to be expensive to produce. Over-glossy reports may be viewed with some reservation by those (especially funders) who may want to see money mainly directed towards achieving the gardens objectives. Nevertheless, a poorly produced and presented report suggests that an organization is under-achieving.

Conclusions
All botanic gardens must continue to develop and improve if they are to become, or remain successful. This must be often done in the face of financial restriction and or political and physical difficulties. Long-term strategic planning allows a garden to develop in a way which will best ensure its success, survival and relevance to both the local and the wider community. Perhaps the most important point to remember is that although running a botanic garden is a complex task, strategic plans should be kept as simple as possible and free of jargon. Everybody involved has a right to know and understand what it is that the garden is trying to achieve. Author: Bernard Payne, formerly Directing Officer, Sir Harold Hillier Gardens and Arboretum, Ampfield, Hampshire SO51 0QA, U.K.

4. Annual reports
The annual report is a legal requirement for many botanic gardens, authorized by the board or governing body of an institution. It describes for visitors, employees, the local community, donors and other supporters, the activities that have taken place during the year and how the resources have been deployed. It is the principal means of communication to the public and can be an important tool for good public relations. Good annual reports contain: a brief financial statement indicating the main areas of expenditure, income, grants and donations, in just enough detail to reassure the reader that the financial management of the garden has been sound for the year under report; a concise report of the gardens activities during the year, starting with an overview by the Director and/or Chairman of the management board and which refers to future

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2. Landscape design
Introduction
This chapter aims to explain the process of designing a botanic garden, from the mission statement to opening the garden gates to a viable garden. It moves from the general to the specific, ending with aspects of how to implement the construction and landscaping of the garden. In doing so it narrates a process used in the Western Hemisphere for over half a century. Terms used for the process of setting up a botanic garden may vary throughout the world, but the methods are similar. The scenario offered here describes how most planners go about their work. All botanic gardens have a grand plan. This is the allencompassing spirit of the garden. It is expressed in everything visionary, conceptual, experiential, and tangible about the garden. All existing gardens have it, scattered or whole, expressed in one form or another, sometimes in timeworn maps or in the collective memories of past and present employees. This vision may be embodied in several strategic public documents and drawings including the mission statement and the master site plan, supported by the programme of elements and the survey and site analysis. but also the horticultural potentials for contemporary gardening. Usually, by the time the mission is expressed, the land for the garden has been selected or it exists as the site of an older botanic garden. If the mission is put together for an existing site then whatever is unique about the garden should provide inspiration. Whether it is old or new, look to the site. It is really useful for those who will influence the mission of the garden to walk the site early in the development process. Why not propose a weekend trip there for a hike and picnic so that all those involved in writing the mission statement can appreciate the site? It is not too soon to invite local experts in the natural sciences and design professions to go along on an informal basis to point out things they see. Is it a small, tropical site with many rough barked trees providing dappled sun? Maybe the site would lend itself to a mission focussing on shade gardens and epiphytes. The resulting design might call for a display of various ferns planted under the trees with orchids and other small epiphytes hanging from the tree limbs above to conserve space. Is it a moderately sized, flat site surrounded by hills covered in second-growth forests? Perhaps the mission should call for both exotic plants and the conservation of natural areas, thus allowing for the design of theme gardens in the open centre contrasted with natural forests on the edges. Is it a large, hilly site completely covered in rare, primary forest disturbed only by small openings invading the perimeter? Probably the best mission would be one that stresses conservation of the forest and its endemic species. The design, then, might interpret the forest, protecting its interior, but allowing for display of non-invasive, colourful, plantings in existing disturbed areas. Whatever the location, it is important to make sure that the special qualities of that particular site are reflected in the mission statement. Occasionally the site is obtained after the mission has been formulated. This sequence of events can work well but the challenge then is to obtain a site with qualities that fit the concept proposed in the mission.

1. The mission statement

The mission statement is a written declaration of why the garden exists and what purpose it is intended to fulfill. It is the backbone of the garden guiding both current and future planning and policy. The language of the mission statement should be strong and clear. Its concepts should be in tune with the natural features and social activities on and near the site (see Planning and Management chapter). The mission statement for the St George Village Botanical Garden, St Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands is given below to illustrate its use in the design and planning of the garden, described later in the chapter: The Mission of the St. George Village Botanical Garden shall be one of conservation, preservation and education. It will conserve the plant species of St Croix as well as threatened species of other Caribbean islands suited to local environmental conditions. It will preserve the ethnobotanical history of local sugar cane plantation life through living, graphic and structural displays. It will be a center of education for better understanding not only the islands botanical heritage,

2. The programme of elements

This is a list of the natural features and man-made components of the garden, and the activities and users

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Orientation Center Shop & Tea Room Education Center Research Center Historical Village Wedding Garden Primary Forest Rainforest Exhibit Medicinal Herbs Fruit Tree Exhibit Native Epiphytes Native Iguanas

4 2 4 4 3 0 4 4 3 3 4 4

4 4 4 4 1 2 2 1 3 3 2 0

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

3 2 3 4 1 0 4 3 3 1 4 4

3 2 3 4 2 0 4 3 3 1 4 4

0 0 0 2 0 0 4 3 2 1 4 4

4 3 4 4 3 0 4 4 3 2 4 4

4 2 4 4 4 0 4 4 4 4 4 4

2 2 4 4 3 0 2 3 3 3 4 2

4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 3 2 2 4

0 0 1 4 3 0 4 4 4 4 4 4

3 1 4 3 2 2 4 4 4 3 3 4

4 1 3 4 2 0 4 4 3 3 3 1

3 1 4 4 3 1 3 4 3 3 3 4

4 2 4 2 3 1 3 4 3 3 3 4

4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 4

4 4 4 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 3 4

4 4 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 4

2 2 2 1 3 3 4 2 4 4 4 3

3 4 3 2 3 4 1 2 2 3 1 1

63 48 67 68 56 30 69 69 66 59 68 67

NOTE: The Higher the number the better

Table 1. The matrix of proposed program elements for a new botanic garden associated with each of them. For example lakes, woodland, trees of historical interest, buildings, plant collections etc. Some of these elements may already be present on the site and so either remain as they are, be improved, or receive protected status. Others will be proposed for inclusion into the garden. Suggestions for the programme elements may come from many different people. Ideas may come from those who helped conceptualize the mission or from other interested parties. These may be employees of the garden, financial contributors, board members or other professional consultants. During this active and creative period each constituency may champion their recommendations quite strongly. However, in order to be included in the final programme, each element must support the mission statement and be compatible with the site. Suggestions can be compared in a matrix (see Table 1). knowledgeable natural scientists to evaluate and inventory the habitat; experienced planners to analyse whether existing site conditions work with the proposed mission and programme or whether any or all of these must be adjusted to allow for the design of a satisfactory garden plan. The surveyor should produce a scaled drawing which shows: extent; position; form and character of the terrain, its features, and boundary as a result of linear and angular measurements. If the Mission Statement is the horse before the cart, the survey is the rope attaching the horse to the cart. The cart may roll down the hill without it, but its destination is more certain with it. Obtaining a good survey is expensive but not extravagant. Acquiring an accurate one without enough information is frustrating. Using one that is inaccurate or obsolete is dangerous. Planning without one is a delusion. Believing a botanic garden can be built efficiently without one is wrong.

3. Site survey, assessment, and analysis

The site for a viable botanic garden must be appropriate for the mission and accommodate the proposed programme. To assure that this is so requires: careful surveys to produce an accurate measured base plan;

A topographic survey
A typical topographic survey is shown on a scaled base plan, which shows the boundary of the site giving bearings and distances. Within the site, changes in elevation are drawn at intervals of 5 ft (150 cm) or less where ground slope is regular and at intervals of 2 ft (60 cm) or less where the land is irregular or in areas important for planning the design. The topographic survey will also indicate the following:

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PROGRAM ELEMENTS

Can contribute to revenue of garden

Has linkages to other public gardens

Unduplicated in community facilities

Supports goals of mission statement

Helps conserve natural environment

Development costs are manageable

Helps to protect biological diversity

Helps deliver conservation message

Interests children and young adults

Of interest for greater part of year

Of educational value & connection

Adequate water available on site

Accessible to those of all abilities

Would be of value for research

Demonstrates good gardening

Recreates biological diversity

Compatible with chosen site

Interests mature audiences

Of interest to tourists

Unique to region

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Structures The location, base elevation, perimeter size, and estimated height of all man-made elements such as buildings and other structures including: walls, fences and location of gates; bridges; poles for flags, decorative lamps, streetlights, and mounted utilities such as traffic lights, telephone, and electric power with overhead wires; fire hydrants, landmarks and statues. Roads centreline elevation, width of traffic way and right of way; associated footpaths and paved walks with curb heights. Circulation elements trails, pedestrian ways, recreational ways such as ski paths; train tracks. Distinctive ground planes any surfaced or paved areas; barren or polluted spots. Infrastructure location of gas lines, sanitary sewers with invert elevations, water mains. Waterways location, elevations, and width of man-made water carriers (storm sewers, culverts, swales, gutters, pools, and ponds); the same specifications for natural water courses and seaside features (rivers, streams, waterfalls, springs, swamps, marshes, bogs, fens, and quagmires); seasonal high and low water marks (as best understood and noted, whether permanent or intermittent). Natural features including: rocky outcrops; cave entrances; sinkholes; other important features. Trees major trees with trunks at waist height measuring more than one ft in girth, showing the circumference of the canopy formed by the leaves overhead. The elevation at the base of the trunk and an estimation of the height should be noted. Planted areas edges of large plantings of shrubs, gardens, woodlands, meadows shown. Archaeological and cultural sites burial sites and locations of sacred, ceremonial, archaeological, historical, and cultural significance should be located as accurately as possible without disturbing them.

Surroundings all rights of way (easements), through and alongside the site with their width given; roads adjoining the site and all properties abutting the site should be shown and named; gradients - direction and gradient of the ground sloping onto or off the site should be noted with embankments or retaining walls shown; watershed - is useful to have information about where the major watershed for the region is positioned in relationship to the site. Key and reference points scale, north arrow, datum, benchmark, and date are recorded on the survey document alongside the surveyors seal; markers along the boundary of the site and permanent posts at the corners should be staked and remain there. Usually, it is difficult to survey a thickly overgrown area without cutting lines of vision through the obstructing density of the plants. When working in wooded areas, the surveyors should respect the forest and cut the narrowest of site lines through the undergrowth and only then if regeneration is known to be typical of the plants affected. In areas of endemic plants, if surveying is done at all, it should be monitored by botanists. If surveying is not advisable, air photos of the site may have to suffice for planning the garden. Cost may make it necessary to make do with a less detailed survey or one drawn using larger intervals between contours or showing only part of the proposed site. Relaxing the specifications in this way can produce a drawing good enough to be used for a simple overall site plan. But it is inadequate for exacting planning, insufficient for construction, and gives sparse information to employees of the garden for use in their daily operations.

Assessment of the site

Botanic gardens are becoming more involved in conservation of habitat, display of native and endemic plants, and education of their visitors. This means that the uniqueness of each site is becoming more important than ever. An understanding of natural landforms and the ecology on the site and along its borders will prevent unintentional destruction of important features on the site in both the planning and construction stages. It is helpful if specialists in the fields of forestry, botany, biology, geology, hydrology, soils, and/or ecology make an early visit to the proposed garden site to mark conservation areas for delineation as such in the survey. Local inhabitants in the region who are familiar with the site in all seasons can also be very useful. Every site calls for careful assessment.

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The type of survey described earlier serves as an ideal base to use in the field for making notes. Some of the specific conditions on or near the site to be examined, described and mapped are: existing vegetation. The canopy of the high trees and the middle and lower levels of vegetative cover should be appraised for condition and importance. Plants of special botanic interest should be noted, as well as those that are invasive or could cause problems. Gardens growing on the site, if any, should be assessed. Plants, which would be appropriate for new displays, should be suggested. soils and geology of the site. As the base for the garden, soil types and depth should be determined as well as pH, fertility, friability, and potential for erosion and water logging. The maximum slope the soil is capable of holding should be determined. Rock outcroppings or barren areas often give clues as to how far beneath the soil the bedrock lies. The geology of the site should be studied for bearing capacity where buildings could be sited, and any areas of fossilization should be noted if there are any. water, its presence or potential on or near the site. This is a very important consideration for the garden not only because the availability of a permanent water supply for the plants is necessary; but also because flooding, saturation, and salination can occur with too much water. Arid conditions can be demanding, as well. Drainage on and near the site must be understood, with problems and solutions noted. Advantages for plantings should be sought and utilized. animal species on the site or in the area. Experts should assess the terrestrial, arboreal, aerial, and aquatic wildlife supported by the site in its present condition and the potential for reintroduction of species if the programme calls for this. The condition of the environment of the site, and the degree of its degradation from the habitat native to the area should be noted. Species beneficial to the site should be inventoried as well as those which are a nuisance or pose a potential danger to garden visitors. the ecology of the site and surroundings. A generalist experienced in all the natural sciences should study the site to make an overall assessment. Using the respective maps supplied by the specialists above, this expert will be able to make general observations and point out sensitive ecological areas, micro-climates, as well as areas where low intensity or higher intensity development might occur without being detrimental to the environment. It is a fortunate planner who has such a detailed, recent survey in hand (even so, spot checks could be made for accuracy). Using the survey as a base, the planner makes notes and informal sketches, which show spatial and natural advantages and constraints inherent in the site and its setting. This includes sketches showing: the direction and location of good and poor views from various places on the site; the direction of destructive winds and pleasing breezes; location of sources of objectionable noise from off-site; calculated location of sunrise and sunset on a typical day,

and if the garden is in temperate latitudes, this would be for the longest and shortest days of the year; location of microclimates on site; and general notes which include: the environment and its features which have visual appeal; plants of special interest, specimen plants, areas where plants give a feeling of enclosure around the observer, and especially areas with natural habitats to be left as is or proposed for restoration; the condition of any historic structures and archaeological ruins and their usability; the location of existing circulation of footpaths through the site and existing and possible future entry and exit points to the site.

Analysis of the site

As they go through the assessment above, planners are considering how to use the site for the proposed programme and whether the land serves the ideals of the mission statement. While visiting the site, or back in the office, they begin to sketch schematic diagrams to help them analyse the terrain for alternative placement of elements in the programme. If they discover the existing site cannot accommodate the programme as proposed, they consider how much effort and expense would be required to modify the terrain. After learning of the problem, advocates for the garden may decide to alter the site or they may decide that all or part of the programme can be rewritten and still meet directives of the mission statement. A more extreme solution would be to acquire a new site for the garden. Finally, if the emerging grand plan consisting of the mission statement, the programme of elements, and the site with its survey, assessment, and analysis, cannot be distilled into an honest master site plan then the vision may have to be abandoned. Advocates for the garden may have to start over on a new vision.

4. The master site plan

After all the surveys and analysis of the proposed site, a Master Site Plan can be drawn up. The master site plan is a map of the entire site showing the vision of how the botanic garden will look when it is completed. It embodies the GRAND PLAN and expresses the concepts and intentions of the mission statement in graphic form. It is the principal graphic plan and serves as the framework for all other smaller site plans (sectional plans) within the botanic garden. The master site plan should be designed to incorporate the programme of elements. It shows how the site relates to the surrounding region and how visitors would arrive at the garden and park if coming there by car. It delineates: boundaries of the site;

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areas of the site to remain in natural habitat; areas to be developed; placement of structures; orderly movement of vehicles and pedestrians through the site.

However there is no substitute for coordinated development of the garden beginning with a good, comprehensive master site plan. This is a more highly developed plan, both in the amount of detail shown in the drawing and in the written interpretation. Unfortunately fully comprehensive master site plan are rarely done now. They are expensive and time consuming. It can take up to six months to locate the site for the botanic garden and up to a year after that to complete such work. In a comprehensive master site plan, the written description can expand into a lengthy report that covers design guidelines for decorative components of the botanic garden. A comprehensive master site plan will explain how the land will accommodate the various plant collections, each with its own content and need for adequate space. The report will include guidelines for basic facilities, equipment, and installations needed for the functioning of the botanic garden, including how the site will be graded to insure good drainage. Water supply systems, sprinkler systems, sewerage systems (with location of infall and outfall) will be shown. Electrical systems and alternatives in case of failure are indicated. Lighting systems, signage systems, circulation systems of roadways and footpaths, and systems of buildings, amenities such as furniture and water fountains, and systems of accessories such as rubbish receptacles and bins for recycling are all included. There may be drawings to help comprehension of all these systems. It is important to check whether the proposed garden has a workable system of access and footpaths allowing disabled visitors to enjoy all parts of the garden. The comprehensive master site plan would present conceptual phasing of the above and estimate construction budgets, which, because studies are still preliminary, could be wrong by as much as 50%. Monitoring development of the master site plan Throughout development of the master site plan; whatever its scope, it is important that ongoing meetings take place between planners and advocates for the garden. Planners present their work, for review and approval by managers of the garden, local gardeners and/or architects. The most important questions to ask about the master site plan are: Does it fulfill the objectives of the mission statement? This is a logical process to check that a proposed mission focussing on conservation of the forest is not represented by a master site plan showing new lawns covering most of the site. Does it agree with and take account of the Programme of Elements? For example where the Programme of Elements includes a rose garden, is there a flower garden represented on the plan? Is there is a workable plan for the roadways and footpaths? Ideally they should be separated, with a minimum of crossings and conflicts between vehicles and pedestrians. Are the buildings correctly planned and placed?

The master site plan can be simple or complex. A simple plan could be a diagrammatic drawing of the entire botanic garden with relationships between areas of assigned uses shown with labels for explanation. The usefulness of this kind of plan is limited because it is without scale. The advantage is it can be drawn without using a detailed survey (see Figure 1). Alternatively the master site plan can be developed into a complex, accurately scaled, drawing of the entire botanic garden showing relationships between the labelled areas as well as the proposed placement of structures, gardens, roads, footpaths, and other garden features. A detailed survey should be used as a base plan (see Figure 2). Scale Whether the drawing is simple or complex, the survey used as a base plan for the master site plan should be done at the largest scale possible. That is the largest scale which will fit onto one sheet of paper on the largest graphic production machine available locally. The scale of the site drawing depends on the size of the garden. Larger gardens are usually shown at smaller scales and smaller sites are shown at larger scales. For example, a garden measuring over 40 acres (16 ha) could be shown at 1 in = 1,000 ft (about 1:10,000 in metric) or at 1 in = 500 ft (1:5,000). A garden measuring 20 to 40 acres could be shown at 1 in = 400 ft (1:5,000) or at 1 in = 200 ft (1:2,500). A garden measuring from 5 acres to 20 acres could be shown at 1 in = 200 ft or at 1 in = 100 ft (1:1,000). (Note: A garden drawn at 1 in = 1,000 ft (1:10,000) will result in a smaller illustration than if it were drawn at 1 in = 100 ft (1:1,000). The former will fit on a smaller piece of paper than the latter).

Interpretation of the master site plan

The master site plan needs to be accompanied by a written document explaining how elements of the Programme have been spatially organized. For a simple site plan similar to the first one shown in figure 1, this interpretative text may be brief but complete in its description of the garden. Such a written interpretation paired with a simple master site plan are commonly done for botanic gardens. Focus on overall design without investigation of supplementary matters makes them adequate for clarifying the direction in which the garden will develop, but less expensive than a comprehensive plan. Future funding can be sought using such an approach.

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Figure 1 The simple diagrammatic master site plan (N.B. Figure not reproduced to scale shown).

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Figure 2 The complex accurately-scaled master site plan (reproduced with kind permission of the St Croix Village Botanical Garden, St Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands U.S.A.)

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After the master site plan with its interpretation is completed and its presentation accepted by management, owners, boards, employees, donors, government officials, and all other advocates for the garden, a final publication is completed documenting the entire study. Changes to the plan Over time, a master site plan with its interpretation may change. This may be for spatial reasons: more property may become available to the botanic garden or there may not be enough due to increased attendance. Conditions outside the boundary may have changed which affect conditions inside the garden. There may be management changes. Advocates for the garden may be different. For example, a private botanic garden may be given to a university, thus serving new users. Or a public botanic garden in a city park may become private with the new advocates proposing an entrance fee. Thus, the boundaries would have to be fenced to control entry. The most enduring master site plans and Interpretations are those that are visionary enough to excite everyone now and in the future about pitching in to get the garden built and maintained.

6. Construction documents
The construction documents are the detailed working architectural drawings that interpret the work of the design development phase. They are typical of those used universally for most types of construction and give specific graphic details and measurements drawn to scale. Accompanying the drawing, also prepared is a list of specifications showing the amounts, kind, and quality of materials to be used and directions for work. Using these, builders and contractors are responsible for completing the project. However, in some parts of the world, design development plans and sketches are used on the building site. Skilled workers experienced in local, conventional building methods and using these less detailed plans to complete construction build each project. Final construction costs are subject to variation in this case; but the results often reflect regional styles and the individual handiwork of the workmen involved. The result can be unique and appealing if such work is consistently applied to structures and gardens throughout the site.

5. Design development
At the design development stage the details of constructing the specific areas within the botanic garden are investigated more carefully. This is to make sure the physical placement of elements and assumptions about cost and space have been correctly presented in the master site plan. A scaled drawing or sectional plan is produced to organize the actual physical elements in each section of the botanic garden. The artistic character and physical form of each specific site is put into a relatively finished form in design development. For example, the master site plan might have shown an area that allots a certain amount of land for various plant collections, each with its own content and designated space. This might have been shown on the plan, as a simple circle indicating it would contain flower gardens within it. In design development, this simple circle is explored in more detail. Each flower bed and the type of plant in it is shown on a drawing indicating measurements and placement of it and all other flower beds within the circle and the footpaths and viewing areas between them. Usually, those sections of the garden most urgently needed to open a new botanic garden are the first to go through design development. Often, this is the parking and entry area of the botanic garden and display areas just inside the gate.

7. Implementation plan
The Implementation Plan includes information on the phasing, approvals, schedules and accurate budgets written from specifications given in the Construction Documents. Contractors use this in conjunction with the Construction Documents.

8. Some general thoughts on designing the garden

Having looked at the process of conceiving, establishing, and building a botanic garden, let us look at some of the issues to be considered in the design process and some specific construction details for assembling and landscaping the site.

The setting of the botanic garden within the surrounding region

Whether a site is chosen or evolves into a botanic garden from previous land uses, its location often defines the constituency for the garden. Botanic gardens exist in such varied settings with such diverse advocates, owners, associations, and themes; it is difficult to generalize about which adjoining land uses complement their placement. Some good neighbours include parks, conservation areas, arboreta, zoos, science museums, community centres, universities, schools, and many others.

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Access to the garden Public attendance for both local citizens and tourists depends upon the quality of access both in time and distance. It should be easy to bring groups of school children to the garden. Employees and volunteers must have easy access as well. A public transportation stop near the entrance to the garden is essential and should be requested if it does not exist. For the sake of safety, vehicular entry into the garden should be at least 150 ft (45 m) from all intersections on a local public road and no closer than 350ft (100 m) on an arterial road. Planners must consider the difficulty of seeing an entry gate on a curving approach road, when choosing locations of vehicular or pedestrian gates. Signs should announce the garden from a good distance away with smaller signs showing the entrance. Vehicular circulation generally works best when there is one public entrance used by all visitors to the garden, interpretive displays, and the services of the garden such as a tearoom, bookstore or shop. This makes control easier. There should be another entrance for service vehicles or any other supplier, visitor, or employee that is part of the behind-the-scenes operations in the garden. Access roads and the first impressions they give are important. The botanic garden must show its best face by attractive plantings, views or displays of interest along its borders. Views seen from the garden The view seen from different parts of the garden is most important to the perception of the garden by its visitors. When the garden is located in a valley or at the bottom of a bowl in the landscape, the higher ground around the site is visible from the site. When a garden is located on a hill, the ground below is visible. This borrowed scenery becomes part of the visual garden even if it is not within the boundaries of the site. It may be possible to have these border lands designated as reserves or to be built upon at low density only even if the garden does not control them. If unsightly areas surround the garden, the designer may be able to hide these eyesores with high plantings or to attract visitors into areas of the garden where the problem is less visible. If they cannot be hidden, bright and interesting display gardens can focus attention into rather than out of the garden.

whatever the size of the garden. The kind of botanic garden that is created depends greatly on the character of the site. It is easier to create an appealing botanic garden on those sites that have a physical character considered beautiful in most cultures. Views of the ocean or vast natural fields, surrounding mountains, interesting terrain, or other natural advantages make the designers job easier. It is much more difficult and costly to create a beautiful botanic garden on a site that is inherently dull, degraded, or uninteresting. Size It is very difficult to say how much land is needed to construct a botanic garden, although it is a frequently asked question. Certainly, it is important that size be considered when defining the mission and writing the programme for a botanic garden. For example, if the garden is small, it requires small-scale displays and beds. Botanic gardens range in size from those so small they project a residential scale and feeling to those so vast that only a small portion is visited or known by visitors with the rest held in reserve. Actual size and perceived size can be quite different. Sometimes a botanic garden is quite small, but because of visual divisions made by hills or the use of high shrubs to define rooms within the garden, or the use of footpaths that double back upon each other, the site seems deceptively large. The way visitors move through the garden relates to its size. Will they walk the entire distance from entry to exit, use a light transport, or a combination of both for sightseeing? Will there be more than one public entry to the garden? Size also relates to security issues in some botanic gardens. At any given time, it is more difficult to know where everyone is in a spacious botanic garden than in a small one. Conceptual style of the botanic garden The conceptual style of a botanic garden works best if design of its physical elements is consistent. This is especially true of the structures seen by visitors. Buildings sharing one design motif and signs, benches, fences, etc. which are compatible help to unify a garden in which plantings, displays and other aspects may be quite varied. In general, the style of each respective botanic garden is most interesting to visitors if it reflects building methods and styles of the region in which it is situated. These have proven workable and durable over time and are usually practical. Displaying native plants in their natural habitat whether conserved or recreated makes a botanic garden unique to its place. The relationship of the suns pathway across the sky is important to the design of the garden. The way that light and shadow falls upon display gardens and vertical faces of natural forests affects our perception of them.

Character of the site, size and conceptual style of the garden

Character of the site As well as helping to define the mission of the garden, the character of the site should inform the planning and design process. All physical planning should work with the site, enhancing its best features and hiding its worst ones. Displays and collections in each botanic garden should be sited in places where their respective plants will grow best. Attention to micro-climates during site assessment will pay dividends when choosing where to site display gardens. This is true

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enter the botanic garden from the south and would make their way north through the garden. At midday, the sun would be high in the sky behind them to light up their view of the garden. In the southern latitudes, the orientation of the garden would be reversed with the high sun at midday shining down upon the site from the north. In both cases, the sun would rise and set on either side of the garden thus lighting the displays from either side, causing long and interesting shadows which could be captured in the design of the displays. Public and operational areas Use of space in a botanic garden site is similar to that in a house. The garden has public areas, conceptually similar to a front garden or parlour in a house. Visitors are invited into these areas. The non-public areas such as the plant nursery, maintenance facilities, or research areas correspond to dressing rooms, kitchen, and closets in a house or the garage or back garden of the property. Usually, the public areas in a botanic garden are located near the entrance, where most people have easy access from the community. Non-public facilities for the botanic garden are out of sight. These two kinds of areas are best separated by visual barriers and enough distance so that visitors to the garden displays and public facilities are not aware of unsightly infrastructure, buildings, or machinery which may be hidden nearby. Rolling or hilly topography provides natural visual barriers that can help to accomplish this physical separation. Over flat land, only plantings and structures impede visibility. These, plus roads and pathways skillfully placed between public and private areas, can do much to separate public activities and private operations. This separation is shown in the drawing of an idealized botanic garden. From the public road, there is one entrance road that visitors use to enter the garden and the displays. This is the primary entrance into the visitors arrival area. Similarly, facilities where visitors come for education, entertainment, orientation, or to visit the garden offices are located near the front of the botanic garden to assure easy access even when the main part of the garden is closed. Here, wedding parties, picnic facilities, and sites for temporary exhibitions are placed outside the garden fence. These activities are common in many botanic gardens but can be detrimental to lawns and may present a conflict with visitors who come to a garden to enjoy the peaceful atmosphere. Circulation system Within a botanic garden, a hierarchy of routes for vehicles and pedestrians to move into and through the site works best. The complexity of this circulation system varies depending upon the requirements within the garden.

Garden structures in the Bali Botanic Garden, Indonesia show a consistent style

An idealized botanic garden

The drawing of an idealized botanic garden shows the relationship of respective areas in the garden and their connections (Figure 3). Each area within the idealized botanic garden is placed strategically for maximum advantage. In a well-planned garden, placement of major activity areas is never arbitrary. The idealized botanic garden is not oriented in space because the ideal location would differ depending on the hemisphere. In this diagram, the major axis of the garden along the visitors and service entry roads would be best oriented north to south or south to north depending on whether it is located north or south of the equator. In the northern latitudes, visitors would

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Figure 3 Diagram of an Idealized Botanic Garden

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In the idealized drawing shown, the movement system includes: the public road giving access to the site; the visitors road into the site (which can be extended throughout a large botanic garden for use by a tram if one operates within the site); the service and maintenance road; the primary pathway for visitors; the secondary pathway for access to maintenance and auxiliary facilities of the garden. Entrance On arrival visitors can walk directly into the garden after parking their cars, or they can be dropped off at the entry arrival shelter by bus or car. In either case, their entry will be without vehicular conflict. Once in the garden, visitors remain visually and physically separate from employees and others working in support facilities of the garden or maintaining its displays. There is a secondary entrance for service vehicles and employees working in administration, library, research and maintenance areas and other supporting functions for the garden. Maintenance and nursery entrances and areas are located far from the primary visitors entrance and arrival area. They are central to the site, which shortens distances for services and access to facilities within the garden. Areas such as the research building, library, and herbarium are not intended for use by most visitors to the displays. They are placed less conveniently so as to encourage privacy for researchers and professionals who enter from a secondary entrance. Habitats Just as there is a hierarchy of entrances, roads and pathways, and public and operational areas within the idealized garden, there is a gradation of habitats. This is from naturally occurring or reconstructed areas of diverse local flora to display gardens that often feature exotic plants and focus on a single species or demonstration. Between these two planted areas there is a buffer zone of floristically varied plantings which are both native and exotic for the regional climate. A glass greenhouse in the display area offers an even more exotic plant collection than the display gardens because it provides an artificial climate for plants that would not normally survive in the climate of the region. This means that there is a gradation of habitats from native and endemic plants associated with their fauna in a conservation zone to exotic plants protected in a controlled climate. In this idealized plan, the gradation of plantings features the natural habitat surrounding the display gardens. Some sites require the reverse spatial arrangement with the display gardens surrounding the natural habitat. Sometimes, the natural areas are alongside the display gardens. Existing conditions dictate the arrangement.

9. Spatial organization and physical design of each area of the garden

Perceptions of space differ in every culture and local conditions such as climate, terrain, and existing infrastructure of the region affect the specific layout of elements on each site. Here are some general suggestions to consider when planning the spatial organization of each area in a botanic garden. The dimensions given in this discussion are simply those, which have been used, successfully in western botanic gardens for some time. The drawing of an idealized botanic garden will serve as a sequential diagram for our discussion of workable physical design dimensions (see Figure 3).

Entrance
Let us begin at the primary entry road for visitors to the garden. A two-way entry road should be a minimum of 22 ft (650 m) wide; although in restricted situations a narrower road with turnoff spaces (lay-bys) along the sides can be used. For the sake of safety, the intersection for this road as it turns off the public street should be located at least 150 ft (30 m)(see above) from any other intersection with the public street. Plantings to the garden side of the intersection should be kept under the height of 4 ft (1.2 m) for a distance of 20 ft (6 m) along the visitors entry road as it turns into the site. The same is necessary for the public street to provide clear visibility at this intersection and all other traffic corners. If a line is drawn between the two ends of the 20-ft (6-m) sections, the triangular space formed at a corner is called the vision triangle. Everything in this space should be low enough or high enough to allow good visibility for drivers. This should be kept in mind when placing signage, which should appear near the primary visitor entry to the garden. A stop for public transportation should be located there, as well. Ideally, a bus might drive into the site to drop-off riders at a kiosk shelter. Visitors arriving by car may want to be left there before the driver parks the car.

Parking
It is difficult to know how large parking lots should be, but it is safe to assume there should be room for more parking than anticipated. As car ownership grows, so do parking needs. A standard parking space measures 18 by 9 ft (5.4 x 2.7 m), and there should be plenty of backup space with 20 ft (6 m) being the minimum for cars. Allow 400 sq ft (40 sq m) of space for each car and its movement when planning a parking lot for the garden (see Figure 4). Spaces for tour buses are larger. Visitors to the garden will appreciate walking less than 300 ft (100 m) from their cars to the garden. Handicapped visitors need parking close to the entrance.

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Arrival area
It is always preferable to control access to and from a botanic garden. The entrance gate and ticket booth are the links to the major display portion of the garden. (Note the position of the fence along the boundary of the illustrated idealized botanic garden - Figure 3). A fence or other boundary marker is important. Admittedly it can be costly and will not deter determined intruders but some sort of boundary will make the botanic garden a special place. Collections, endangered plants, rare specimens, their labels, and systematic records must be protected. Vandals or pranksters can disrupt the order of them all. Often new gardens can afford only one employee at the entry area. In this case, the initial design should feature one small structure, which allows the person who sells tickets or controls entry to the garden to dispense a few relevant books, leaflets and other materials and sell refreshments. The visitors arrival courtyard sets the scene for the botanic garden. It should be pleasant and large enough to accommodate groups. Hard surfaces sloping at 2% underfoot are practical, but mulched or pebbled surfaces will do if there is moderate usage and diligent maintenance. Trees and open structures such as pergolas or arbors can provide shelter from sun and rain. Benches or low walls about 1-2 ft (45-60 cm) high can provide comfortable seating. Receptacles for rubbish should be unobtrusive but obvious. Facilities for refreshment are usually located near the arrival area. Whether it is a tea room, a hidden machine for dispensing drinks, a table spread with refreshments, or a drinking fountain, this is a welcome necessity. If visitors are allowed to take food into the garden, remember this increases both the need for rubbish removal and the incidence of animal pests attracted to garbage. Toilets should be located near the entry, which is often the exit point, as well. It should not be more than a ten-minute walk or tram ride to these facilities from anywhere in the garden. Larger gardens need other restrooms. Ease of maintenance and security should be considered when locating these facilities. A public telephone should be located at the entry area. The arrival courtyard and area is where visitors orient themselves to the spatial organization of the botanic garden. A large plan of the site should be provided, and a brochure about the garden may be given out. It is here that the visitor comes to understand the point of view or philosophy of the garden; thus the presence of a strong mission statement with a clear message for the visitor to remember is important. Whether this is conveyed in displays located in an orientation centre or in signage, placement at the beginning of the garden is ideal. This is also a good place to site an orientation centre or combine with other facilities for the dissemination of information. An education centre with

Figure 4 Designs for parking spaces classrooms and sometimes an auditorium are commonly placed here. In warm climates this might take the form of an outdoor amphitheatre or classes might be held outside in the shade provided by a large tree. It is practical to provide for these functions at the entry so the public can have access to them when the garden is open and after hours. Lighted parking areas should be provided for evening activities.

Spatial relationships within the garden

Once inside the garden gate, visitors should find a conveniently large gathering place from which to stage their tour of the displays and gardens. They should be able to move through the gardens and displays with some certainty by using their brochure, which relates to well placed signage and plant identification markers. In the particular garden scheme of the idealized botanic garden, visitors walk directly into the display gardens. In a large site, a tram might be available for them. The one way road for it would be about 11 ft (3.25 m) wide and would travel around the outer edges of the display gardens in the case of this garden. While visitors would occasionally use the tram road, which would be useful for maintenance vehicles during off hours, it is best to plan a series of pathways which would give them access to the display gardens without using the road. It is always preferable to separate vehicular and pedestrian circulation. The central pathways can be 8 ft (2.4 m) wide except at turns where they widen to 10 ft (3 m). This can be also be used for one-way vehicular passage as well but conflicts will develop with heavy usage. Should a visitor become incapacitated while in the garden, there should be a means of egress for retrieval. Visitors appreciate seating while viewing display gardens. Warm weather calls for shade and the sound of dancing water, which is best, displayed in sparkling bright sunlight. Cool weather calls for siting benches in the warming sun, and shutting off the dancing water, The cool garden should focus on plants that flower in cool weather or have brightly coloured seedpods, or are evergreen. If the weather is cold enough, steam from underground heating pipes can be vented into the air to make interesting patterns, which substitute for

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A. crutch swing 4 ft 0 in/120 cm B. shoulder height 4 ft 8 in/140 cm C. standing crutch span 3 ft 0 in/90 cm D. walking crutch swing 3 ft 6 in/105 cm

Figure 5 Space requirements for people with crutches

A. toe protection 26 in/66 cm B. vertical reach 67 in/170 cm C. head height 52 in/130 cm D. shoulder height 41 in/104 cm

E. knuckle height 15 in/38 cm F. elbow level 25 in/64 cm G. forward vertical reach 55 in/140 cm H. foot height 534 in/15 cm

I. knee level 23 in/58 cm J. oblique vertical reach 6234 in/160 cm

Figure 6 Reach limits for people in wheelchairs

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fountains. There might be more interpretive signs and lively explainers in a cool garden. Strings of lights could be used to make designs for night viewing. Colours of lighter intensity are visible from a greater distance and can be used where lighting is limited by shorter days or duller weather. White or yellow flowers are therefore useful for early morning or late afternoon effect. Keep access and maintenance and the need for irrigation in mind when planning display gardens. Any planting bed more than 3 ft (90 cm) wide cannot be tended without stepping into it. After seeing the gardens, visitors would exit the idealized botanic garden in the same area as they entered it. For security and logistic reasons, using one gate for entry and exiting gives better control in any public site. There is a case to be made for allowing visitors to enter and leave by two or more gates, and in very large gardens this is practical except for the expense of hiring more gatekeepers. In some situations, it is less costly to allow a small family to live just outside the exit gate to maintain a presence there.

sprinkler systems, septic drainage, setup and takedowns for special events, cutting of lawns, planting, fertilizing, weeding, pest control, plant division, seed collecting and clearing of gardens. Researchers, suppliers and other personnel coming to the nursery, library, laboratories, herbarium, and offices enter from the secondary entrance and park near their destination. Visitors coming to the garden administrative offices can park outside the garden fence near the offices and enter by a small gate opened for them during working hours. Visitors to the offices could also use the secondary service entrance as they would if the library were designed to serve the public. It is preferable though if there is a small library for public use inside one of the facilities near the main entrance to the display gardens.

10. Standard dimensions

Common to all cultures is a range of physical abilities within the population. Most individuals have brief times of lowered bodily strength; and of course, some experience lasting impairment of mobility. All botanic gardens should be designed so that everyone can move throughout the site and enjoy their visit to the fullest (see Figures 5 & 6). Keep this in mind when laying out the garden and consult one of the many books on this subject.

Circulation for support facilities

Maintenance and nursery personnel can move throughout the site hidden by the buffer plantings shown in the idealized botanic garden. On special days when the public is invited to buy propagated seedlings of native plants or other interesting plants from the nursery, they can enter from the secondary entrance to do so. Otherwise, visitors to the idealized botanic garden rarely use the secondary entrance. Daily maintenance takes place using the service road for access. This includes: maintenance of rubbish containers, restrooms and refreshment areas, cleaning of buildings and parking areas, sweeping and clearing of obstructions on footpaths, periodic maintenance of

Slopes and steps

The minimum requirements for the physical design of the garden dictate that the slope of all pedestrian ways be 8% or less. This means a walkway rises a maximum of 1 ft in height for every 12 ft of horizontal distance along it (8 cm in 1 m). Such steep walkways should not continue for more than 15 ft (4.5 m) before levelling-off to a slope of 2% which appears flat but provides drainage (2 cm in 1 m). Steeper slopes (ramps), up to

0-1 ft in 10 ft/10 cm in 1 m A 10% rise is maximum for long pushes with a wheelbarrow. Unstepped ramps ramps are best for such slopes

1-2 ft in 10 ft/20 in 1 m Up to 20% rise (2 ft in 10 ft) is still too shallow for steps, but is right for stepped ramp with two strides between steps

314 ft to 612 ft in 10 ft/32.5 cm to 65 cm in 1 m From 33% to 66% needs steps. 314 ft in 10 ft/32.5 cm in 1 m (6 in riser, 15 in tread/15 cm riser 40 cm tread) to 612 ft in 10 ft/65 cm in 1 m (7 in riser 11 in tread/17.5 cm riser 28 cm tread)

Figure 7 Dimensions for slopes and steps

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Minimum width of steps for two people side by side is 4 ft/120 cm, additional width increases the importance of the steps. For utility steps 2 ft/60 cm is enough for one person with no equipment, 3 ft/90 cm is better. 24 in/60 cm 60 in/150 cm 36 in/90 cm 72 in/180 cm 42 in/105 cm

48 in/120 cm

96 in/240 cm

Figure 8 Dimensions for steps 10% rise (01 ft in 10 ft/10 cm in 1 m), are maximum for long pushes with wheelbarrows. Slopes steeper than 10% but less than 33% (314 ft rise in 10 ft/32.5 cm in 1 m) are too shallow for steps but right for stepped ramps with two strides between steps (see Figure 7). For slopes of 314 ft to 612 ft in 10 ft/32.5 cm to 65 cm in 1m steps are necessary (33-66%). Any slope steeper than this is not suitable for a garden walkway. Hard surfaces give more accessibility than loose footbeds such as solidly packed crushed rock or wooden chips. See Figure 8 for dimensions for steps. between the table legs. The bottom of the table top should be 30 in (75 cm) high. Benches with arms are easier for everyone to get out of using the arms for support. Physical elements within each area of the garden The physical elements or garden structures such as fences, pavement structures, outdoor tables, benches or signs should be constructed in a style consistent with the garden in order to maintain continuity (see Conceptual style of the botanic garden above). Think of existing and newly built components as hierarchical systems. For example, in the case of signage, a major sign should appear at the entry and all decision points within the garden. Secondary signs give directions and information. Tertiary signs are the public labels on plants followed by smaller scientific labels on the plants, which coordinate with lifetime garden records of them.

Pathways
Two wheelchairs can pass each other along a 6 ft (1.8 m) wide path; a 4 ft (1.2 m) path will serve well for one wheelchair, and a 3 ft (90 cm) path will accommodate a visitor using crutches. Remember that the minimum turning radius of 5 ft (1.5 m) for a standard wheelchair requires a space 10 ft (3 m) across.

Bibliography Other facilities

Water fountains should be designed so that the water spout is below 3 ft (90 cm) in height, and there is a 30 in (75 cm) clearance underneath for wheelchair access. Table tops should extend 2 ft (60 cm) out and/or have 30 in (75 cm) wide space for a wheelchair to fit C.W. Harris and N.T. Dines, 1997 Time-saver Standards for Landscape Architecture 2nd ed McGraw-Hill. Author: Judith Evans Parker A.S.L.A., 930 Castile Avenue, Coral Gables, Florida, 33134-4820, U.S.A.

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3. Collections policy guidelines to manage collections

Introduction
This chapter discusses collections policies and a procedure for preparing a collections policy.

Thematic collections
Thematic collections can be conveniently divided into several categories (see below) although there will often be an overlap between these categories. The theme depends on the purposes of the collection and how the choice is interpreted (see Interpretation chapter). For instance, a collection of native aromatic plants could be collected and displayed for many different purposes to show: perfume plants, the habitat (e.g. dry Mediterranean habitat), taxonomic variation (e.g. the family Labiatae or the genus Origanum or Lavandula), plants used for industry, plants for enjoyment, or as a collection of ethnobotanical interest. It might also include several plants that are cultivated because they are rare or endangered. A collection of cacti and other succulents might be maintained and used to illustrate how the life form is related to a desert habitat. Such a collection could also be used to demonstrate plants of ethnobotanical interest in a desert area (e.g. for food, fibres, medicine, shelter, tools, dyes), and used to illustrate morphological variation in a plant group or taxon (e.g. within the family Cactaceae or the genus Agave). There will be many more ways of interpreting such collections; the themes often overlap and are not exclusive; how a theme is chosen will depend on the primary aims of the collection. Systematic collections A systematic or taxonomic collection is one that includes plants that are closely related, often assembled to demonstrate plant evolution and systematic order. Systematic collections have been widely used for education, reference or research. Such collections can be based on a taxon at any level, for instance a class (Pteridophyta - ferns), an order (Rosales, Ericales), a family (Palmae, Cactaceae), a genus (Citrus, Nothofagus, Saxifraga) or a species (Rosa species, hybrids and cultivars). Many of the more traditional botanic gardens have Systematic or Order Beds where plants are grouped in orders and families and laid out in accordance with an accepted classification of plants, such as that of Engler or more recent models such as those of Cronquist, Takhtajan or Dahlgren. This kind of display is generally created to illustrate how taxa are related and to show evolutionary trends within Flowering Plant families. These beds are often laid out in a regular pattern but some gardens have created interlocking curved beds to try and show evolutionary relationships.

1. What is a living plant collection?

A living plant collection is a group of plants grown for a defined purpose. Such a collection can be displayed either on its own, or as part of a more general garden collection. Botanic gardens maintain collections of plants. Plant collections in a botanic garden can be divided into: ornamental plantings (e.g. bedding schemes or potted plants); structural (architectural) plant elements of the garden (e.g. hedges, topiary trees, parterres, windbreaks or trees used for shade; thematic collections, which are used for educational and scientific purposes, or for public display. Thematic collections may be taxonomically based - a collection of a particular family, genus or several closely related genera, species or even a cultivar collection of a single species. A thematic collection may be plants that share a common geographical or ecological origin (Mediterranean, desert, alpine), or plants that share a specific use (medicinal, aromatic, textile, culinary herbs), or based on a shared habit or life form (arboretum, orchard or succulent collections); conservation collections aim to conserve and maintain populations of rare and endangered species, generally held ex situ, valuable for species recovery programmes and/or to provide protected long-term backup collections of wild plants. The best conservation collections seek to safeguard a representative collection of the genetic variation of the taxon being conserved. Some conservation collections may be developed as a thematic collection (e.g. medicinal plants, fruit trees or a family or generic group, or plants listed in a national Red Data Book or scheduled for protection by national or international authorities). They can also be used for educational purposes, research or public display. The thematic and conservation collections held by a botanic garden should be maintained within the context of that gardens aims and objectives and require a policy.

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Economic and crop plants Collections of economic and crop plants, including plants of ethnobotanical interest, may be developed by a botanic garden as a thematic collection and can be important for display and education. Such collections also represent a reservoir of material for actual or potential economic use, or for conservation purposes. Examples of such collections held by botanic gardens around the world include: fruit trees and their wild relatives; crop plants from several regions of the world, such as cereals; species of value for amenity horticulture or as ornamentals; textile plants; oil plants; timbers; cork; resin yielding plants; plants used for industrial cellulose production; grasses, and forage plants; wild relatives of crops; underutilized or neglected crops; local and traditional economic plant varieties and land races; medicinal plants; plants that are important for local uses (e.g. for basket making, for tools used in cooking, fishing and agriculture); perfume, essential oil and cosmetic plants; spice and flavouring plants; mellifluous species; dyeing and tanning; plants for bonsai; systematic collections of important economic plant groups such as conifers or legumes; temperate and tropical timber trees; ornamental trees.

Collections based on habitat types A number of botanic gardens have developed thematic collections with a common ecological origin, or ones that represent a particular vegetation type/habitat or a related habit/life form. Some of these gardens or collections are laid out to mimic or resemble natural habitats. Ecological or vegetation types are displayed in rock or stone gardens, water gardens, deserts, rainforest exhibits (see Equipment chapter) meadows, bogs, grassland, weed collections and sand dunes. These often include the related life forms or common habits of the plants that occur in such vegetation types e.g. alpines, aquatics, succulents, weeds, insectivorous plants or bulbous species. A number of botanic gardens have created stimulating and educational displays composed of vegetation types that are constructed and developed to resemble natural vegetations as closely as possible (analogue vegetation types). Some collections are created specifically to display and conserve part of the native flora. Others also play a role in research, to provide guidance on how actual wild natural habitats may be recreated or restored. Some examples are:

View and interpretive sign of the systematic garden of the Budakalasz Botanic Garden near Budapest, Hungary

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the laurel forest in the Jardn Botnico Canario Viera y Clavijo, Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain; the serpentine vegetation in the Jardn Botnico Nacional de Cuba, Havana, Cuba; Prairie at the Chicago Botanic Garden, U.S.A.; the Limestone Mound growing British calcicole species at Cambridge University Botanic Garden, U.K. and marsh, dune, woodland and rocky outcrops displaying native species at the Botanischer Garten der Universitt Bonn, Germany. Some gardens are created within an important natural habitat and have a mission to manage or restore the natural vegetation types associated with their garden or with satellite gardens. Several Australian botanic gardens, such as those in Canberra, Melbourne and Sydney, have satellite botanic gardens that have been established to conserve native vegetation and the flora they contain. In Mexico there are several regional gardens that focus on in situ management of plants in areas of relict forest, such as cloud-forest at the Jardn Botnico Francisco J. Clavijero, Xalapa and the cactus forest at the Jardn Botnico Zapotitlan de las Salinas, in the Tehuacan Valley of Mexico. Collections based on geographic origin Some thematic collections are created on a phytogeographical basis, such as collections from particular regions of the world, e.g. plants from South Africa, the Macaronesian region (the Canary Islands, Madeira, the Azores), plants from the Sierra Nevada (Spain), arctic plants, Mediterranean plants from regions such as Europe, Chile, California and Australia. These collections are often constituted to illustrate the origin and distribution of particular taxa of interest, e.g. Proteaceae from Australia, palms from Madagascar, epiphytes (Bromeliads) from Tropical America, bulbous plants from SW Europe. Some phytogeographical collections are of native plants grown and displayed by botanic gardens in their own country. Display garden collections Some thematic collections focus on the creation of displays of plants of interest to the public for decoration and for education. Some examples are: colour gardens (e.g. the white garden at Chicago Botanic Garden, U.S.A.); aromatic or scent gardens; winter gardens; rose gardens; herbaceous, ornamental and flowering tree and shrub gardens; gardens demonstrating particular horticultural methods, such as trained and pruned fruit trees; gardens demonstrating plants of particular use in horticulture, such as for hedging and ground cover; childrens gardens; historical gardens, demonstrating plants and gardens of former times;

vegetable, kitchen and food plant gardens; first aid and medicinal plant gardens; model demonstration gardens. Many of these display gardens have been created to help, inform and guide local amateur gardeners.

Colocasia genebank at the Harold L. Lyon Arboretum, Hawaii, USA

Laurel forest in the Jardn Botnico Canario Viera y Clavijo, Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain

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Conservation plots at Bok Tower Gardens, Lake Wales, Florida, U.S.A.

Interactive educational display at the Childrens garden at Brooklyn Botanic Garden, U.S.A.

Native plant garden at the Jardim Botnico da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal

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Box 1 The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

In June 1992 the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil - the Earth Summit as it has often been called. One of the major outcomes of UNCED was Agenda 21, and another was the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), a new international instrument that is of major significance to botanic gardens in all parts of the world. Objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity: the conservation of biological diversity; the sustainable use of the components of biological diversity; and the equitable sharing of the benefits derived from the use of genetic resources, including ensuring: - relevant access to genetic resources; - the transfer of relevant technologies; - that appropriate funding is available. Copies of the text in English, French, Spanish, Russian, Arabic and other languages can be obtained from the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, World Trade Centre, 413 St Jacques Street, Office 630, Montral, Quebec, Canada H2Y 1N9. E-mail: CHM@biodiv.org Internet: http://www.biodiv.org

Collections for conservation

Conservation collections in botanic gardens may comprise single taxon collections or collections of several taxa. In general they should consist of a range of genotypes of the same taxon, perhaps derived from one or a range of populations. Conservation collections may be maintained together (either for convenience or to promote cross fertilization) or held in separate locations. They may be grown in special conservation areas, such as a field genebank, experimental area, or can be integrated into the gardens collections for other purposes, such as display, education and amenity. The Endangered Plant Collection of Bok Tower Gardens, Lake Wales, Florida, U.S.A. is laid out in geometric beds. Contemporary conservation collections such as the Conifer Conservation Programme (based at the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, U.K.) frequently attempt to include as wide a genetic base as possible. The aim of a conservation collection should be to conserve and propagate genetic material of rare and endangered species with the ultimate goal of ensuring the long-term survival of such genetic material in the wild. Conservation collections held ex situ may be used to contribute to species recovery programmes and provide long-term back up collections of wild plants. These collections require more meticulous management and documentation of each accession and specimen than collections held for many other non-scientific purposes. Conservation collections are usually complemented with a parallel research programme (such as observations on their phenology, reproductive biology, development, and optimization of the propagation techniques) which may be undertaken either by the garden holding the material or by another institution, or cooperatively between a range of institutions. The maintenance of conservation collections by botanic gardens supports the implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) especially Article 9. Ex Situ Conservation (see Box 1).

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2. What are the aims and objectives of the collection?

The aims and objectives of living collections in a botanic garden need to be written down so that a policy can be formulated for their management. The policy is the purpose of the collection (s) in relation to the mission statement of the institution and any other statutory or legal requirements. For instance, the aims of the Chelsea Physic Garden, U.K. are to: demonstrate though its plantings and publications the range of species named or introduced into cultivation by a succession of distinguished curators; to pursue horticultural excellence especially in the cultivation of rare and tender plants. the objectives of the Gardens Directorate of National Botanical Garden, Kirstenbosch, South Africa, 1992, are: to establish living collection of indigenous plants according to aesthetic, scientific and educational considerations; to establish collections of threatened plants and to promote the ex situ conservation of rare and endangered plants; to plan, develop and maintain the gardens in an aesthetically pleasing manner in order to attract visitors to the garden; to make available and promote the use of indigenous plant material in order to foster an appreciation of and reduce pressure on plants in the wild; to provide information on and technical co-operation in all aspects of indigenous plant horticulture. Statutory or other requirements could include: articles of incorporation or association of the garden; obligations of an endowment; references to a collections as part of the public trust (For instance, under the Wellington Botanic Garden Vesting Act (Wellington Botanic Garden, New Zealand) the garden was to be maintained for the recreation and enjoyment for the citizens of Wellington but with the proviso that the original 13 acre strip of land be maintained as a true botanic garden in perpetuity); cooperative agreements (e.g. the Amy B.H. Greenwell Ethnobotanical Garden, Hawaii has a cooperative agreements with the state Division of Forestry and Wildlife); provision of plant related services such as acting as a quarantine station under government licence (e.g. the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K. are under licence from the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, U.K to hold plant material seized by Customs and Excise under quarantine legislation or CITES); membership of national networks. (The Center for Plant Conservation (CPC) based at Missouri Botanical Garden, U.S.A. is a network of 28 gardens and arboreta in the U.S.A contracted to conserve native American plants), or regional

networks; international (e.g. The Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD), regional (Bern Convention/Habitats Directive/EC) or local legislation (U.K. Wildlife and Countryside Act (1981).

3. What is a collections policy?

A collections policy is a written document which acts as a practical tool for managing the collections in a garden. It states the main criteria and nominates who should be responsible for implementation and decisionmaking. The collections policy will be part of the corporate or strategic plan, in this case for the development of the living collections. Some case studies are presented as boxes in the text (see Boxes 2,4 and 5). A collections policy not only lays down guidelines for which plants are to be collected and held in the garden (Accession Policy), it also deals with all aspects of managing collections. An effective and comprehensive collections policy guides the everyday management of collections and helps to define and clarify the institutions goals and purposes. A collections policy might also be called a plant management policy and will be a part of the overall management or strategic plan for the garden. It is likely to be relatively short, setting broad, medium and long term direction, and unconcerned with too much detail. It is also likely to emphasize the fundamental purpose of collections, their rationale and layout. It essentially sets out the objectives and policies that govern the collections, not daily procedures and practices. Curation is another word to describe the management of plant collections. The collections policy will generally require supplementary and more detailed documents which will cover practical curation issues such as the management procedure, acquisition of material, labelling, plant identification, evaluation of collections, de-accessioning, the legal aspects of accepting and releasing material (e.g.. through an Index Seminum) which are discussed in the chapter on Collections Management. Record keeping procedures are discussed in the chapter on Plant Records and horticultural procedures such as propagation and pest and disease control are discussed in the chapters on Horticulture and Equipment. The characteristics of a good collections policy are to: embrace the remit of the organization (What are the aims and objectives of the living collection?); be comprehensive (What areas should it cover?); be formulated using a clear methodology; be practical, achievable and flexible; have a clear format; be subject to monitoring, review and if necessary revision.

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Box 2 Accessions policy case study - The Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (RBGE), U.K.
RBGE maintains one of the largest collections of living plants in the world- over 6% of the known vascular plant species are in cultivation at RBGE. This represents 40,000 accessions accounting for 17,000 species. In total 56,000 plants are cultivated. This collection has been built up over more than 300 years of history; however, its growth and composition has only been guided by a series of policy documents since the early 1970s. The aim of the Gardens Acquisition Policy is to define, highlight, and designate the plant families and genera which will be required in the foreseeable future for RBGE to fulfill its scientific, education, amenity and conservation programmes. The Policy attempts to ensure that plants are acquired in a logical and rational manner so that the most suitable range of plant material is available at any time to meet the diverse requirements of those who use the collections. The main uses include support for floristic and monograph research, verification of specimens, laboratory-based research such as cytological, genetic and physiological research, horticultural research, conservation activities, educational uses at all levels, as part of the gardens exhibitions programmes and for artists and photographers. The landscape created by the collections also provides an area of high quality urban greenspace attracting more than 900,000 visitors per year. The Policy arranges families into a series of codes each with a different level of priority as shown below where 1 is of high priority: It should be noted that while the policy is regarded as an important management document, it must also be regarded as flexible, providing guidance and broad recommendations only.

Code

Explanation

Examples

H1

Families with a substantial hardy content in which RBGE should be prepared to grow multiple wild-origin collections of all genera and species

Arisaema, Berberidaceae, Gentianaceae, Iris, Nothofagus, Illiciaceae, Magnoliaceae, Meconopsis, Pinaceae, Primulaceae, Rhododendron, Rosaceae (European & Asian), Saxifragaceae (woody genera), Umbelliferae, Winteraceae Acer (N. American), Alnus, Papaveraceae (except Meconopsis), Rosaceae (other than European & Asian)

H2

Families with a substantial hardy content which are related to H1 families and families in which RBGE has had a longstanding interest but which are not actively worked on at present. Minimum 50% of genera and 25% of species. Multiple wild-origin accessions will not normally be grown apart from species with a very wide geographic distribution Mainly hardy families for which RBGE requires minimal representation. A few genera of each with one or two species of each, will be sufficient. Tender families and also tender genera of H1 families in which RBGE has decided to specialise. Depending on culture requirements, space availability and size of the family or genus, RBGE should be prepared to grow multiple wild-origin collections of all genera and species. Families which are related to T1 families, and families in which RBGE has had a long-standing interest but which are not actively worked on at present. Minimum 10% genera and 5% of species, depending on family. Multiple wildorigin accessions will not normally be grown apart from species with a very wide geographic distribution. Tender families for which RBGE requires minimal representation. A few genera of each with one or two species of each wil be sufficient.

H3

Boraginaceae, Campanulaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Juglandaceae, Onagraceae, Ranunculaceae

T1

Aeschynanthus, Agapetes, Dendrobium, Musaceae, Rhododendron (section Vireya)

T2

Acanthaceae, Cannaceae, Droseraceae, tender ferns, Gesneriaceae (other than Aeschynanthus), Zingiberaceae

T3

Bromeliaceae (other than Vriesea), Orchidaceae (other than selected genera)

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4. What are the benefits of a policy?

The following benefits should arise from having and implementing a collections policy: Strategic development A policy will make sure that the living collections fulfill the largest number of institutional goals. If the overall aims of the garden are clearly stated in the policy (see case studies) then the collections within the garden can be developed and maintained in a clear and focussed way to meet those aims. Efficiency A good policy will prevent wastage of time, resources and plant materials by avoiding unplanned and unnecessary duplication and by preventing serious omissions. Work Plan The collections policy of the botanic garden will guide the development and implementation of a linked work programme to achieve the objectives of the Collection. Communication within the organization The collections policy will allow staff within the garden to gain a clear understanding of the purpose of the collection and therefore what is expected of them. It should help them to see how their work links to that of their colleagues and what they will be doing in the future. A good policy document can be a very powerful tool to build teamwork and staff morale and commitment. Well informed staff are frequently well motivated staff. Everyone in the garden can work with a common purpose towards agreed goals. Continuity of purpose The collections policy can help the institution to maintain a clear focus and sense of direction through time. Collections policies link collections to the longterm goals of the institute and can be referred to when necessary by those inside and outside the organization. The collections may be with the garden longer than many or any of the staff and a clear collections policy will mean that change of staff need not mean a change of direction for the garden or of its policies. Public relations and fundraising The policy may also be a valuable document contributing to public relations, which can be used to inform interested parties of the institutes plans for the future. Visitors, local communities, friends, educators, fund-raisers, schools, and others are able to find out what the remit of the garden is and where it is headed. This may help to secure goodwill and support. The policy document will be useful in helping to raise funds. Management boards and financial committees rarely grant funds in a policy vacuum. Most sources of funding will want as much information as possible

before giving money. The collections policy sets out the path that is to be followed and grant-givers can gain the information they require to be satisfied that money allocated will represent a sound and well considered contribution to the corporate direction of the institute or to achieving the particular aims for which funds are sought. The policies laid out in the document can also be combined with financial information to develop business plans for grant applications and to secure donations and legacies.

5. What areas should the collections policy cover?

The policy should cover the issues of greatest importance in each garden. However, the policy is likely to contain operational guidelines on the key issues listed below: acquisition policy (includes disposal); plant records; maintenance of the collection; access.

Acquisition or accession policy

This defines the content of the collection and how accessions will be acquired or received. A well-defined acquisition or accession policy is an essential requirement for a collections policy. All acquisitioned plants should support the objectives and purpose of the collection. Content Each accession of a living collection should fulfill an institutional goal regarding reference, research, conservation, plant breeding, display etc. Accessions which fulfill the largest number of institutional goals may often be regarded as being the highest priority plants in the garden. For example, the aim of the Acquisition Policy of the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh , U.K. is to: define, highlight, and designate the plant families and genera which will be required in the foreseeable future for RBGE to fulfill its scientific, education, amenity and conservation programme (see Box 2). Gardens can draw up a list of categories and criteria for inclusion in the collections. For example the National Tropical Botanical Garden, Hawaii, U.S.A. includes: Pacific Collections Ethnobotanical Plants of the Pacific Islands Artocarpus altilis (breadfruit) Piper methysticum (awa)

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Geographical Hawaii and the Pacific Islands Flora Research Araceae Arecaceae Cycads etc. Ornamental collections Orchidaceae Heliconiaceae Source Plant material can be obtained from many different sources e.g. directly collected or obtained from the wild, donated by another institution, from a commercial source. It should depend on the policy of the garden as to what is acceptable to be received by the garden. Each garden should have a policy on what plants to accept as gifts. Code of conduct Most important is a code of conduct (sometimes called a code of ethics or ethics policy) on the acquisition and release of plants to ensure that the staff do not violate international and national laws or legally-binding agreements made between the garden and other organizations. This will safeguard the interests of the garden and its staff and ensure the continued smooth acquisition and exchange of plant material. Two international conventions of particular significance to botanic garden and plant conservation are the CBD (see Box 1 ) and The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES) (see Box 3). If appropriate, this should include codes for collecting plants in the wild. If plants are to be collected from the wild, the accessions policy should include: guidelines for collecting (including standards of documentation, sampling procedures and collecting techniques); procedures for meeting legal requirements with regard to collecting. Legal requirements can include: obligations to obtain prior informed consent from national, regional or local authorities before collecting is undertaken. Such consent is generally given subject to certain conditions on what the material may be used for and agreements on how benefits obtained from the use of the plant material collected will be shared; obligations on how and whether plants may be exported across national boundaries; obligations to obtain any special permissions or permits required before collecting is undertaken in particular areas, such as protected areas (national parks etc.) or particular plant groups, such as species protected by national or local laws.

A botanic garden has a responsibility to ensure that it does not allow invasive plants or pests and diseases to affect the native flora or local activities such as horticulture, agriculture or forestry. Clear quarantine instructions and procedures need to be put in place.

Box 3 CITES
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES) is also known as the Washington Convention. It came into force on 1 July 1975. The Convention provides a legal framework for the regulation of trade in those endangered plant and animal species that are exploited commercially. Any country that is a signatory to the Convention has an obligation to maintain an authority which monitors and regulates the trade in endangered species between it and other nations. The Convention operates through the issue and control of export and import permits for a number of clearly defined species listed in three Appendices. Appendix I lists plant species banned from international trade. Appendix II, the most extensive, lists plant species permitted to be traded under licence (both wild and artificially propagated material). Appendix III backs up national legislation by monitoring trade in plant species protected by individual countries. As part of their implementation of CITES, botanic gardens sometimes provide safe storage to material seized by customs and legal authorities, either during legal proceedings and following confiscation on successful prosecution. Botanic gardens make an important contribution to the implementation and success of CITES. For details, readers should consult A CITES Manual for Botanic Gardens (See bibliography).

Plant labels at Jardn Botnico de Crdoba, Spain

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Box 4 Accessions policy case study - Chicago Horticultural Society, U.S.A.

The Plant Management Policy is designed to guide the development and management of plant collections at the Chicago Botanic Garden to help achieve the purpose of the Chicago Horticultural Society, that is: To stimulate and develop an interest in, an appreciation for, and an understanding of gardening, horticulture, botany and conservation of natural resources by the development of a variety of gardens, plant collections, and education and research programmes of excellence while recognizing the need to provide a continuing aesthetic landscape experience at the Chicago Botanic Garden. Plant collections at the Chicago Botanic garden fall into of three designated categories and the Plant Management Policy applies to all three: 1. Demonstration/Display 2. Research/Evaluation 3. Conservation/Display The Plant Management Policy is subdivided into eight subsections as follows: 1. Acquisition 2. Maintenance of collections 3. Access to collections 4. Loan of collections 5. Disposal of plants 6. Plant records 7. Plant gifts 8. Definition of terms used in the policy The Society follows a policy of selective acquisition. The policy states that the restriction of plant space, conservation and maintenance of collections make it neither feasible nor ethical to allow for indiscriminate growth of the plant collections. The purpose of the Demonstration/Display Collections the purpose is to provide for the public and professionals an extensive and current representation of the best ornamental plants for the Midwest of the U.S.A., and to maintain several comprehensive generic collections as a repository of valuable germplasm. These should be presented in an aesthetic landscape manner. The policy then goes on to describe the criteria for acquisition, the person responsible for acquisition and the review process. Selection of taxa for the Research Collection will reflect the staff research programmes approved by the Director of research. Plants in this collection will be used for original scientific research. Taxa for the Evaluation programme will be determined and reviewed by a committee initiated by the Director of Research. Conservation collections should be of temperate origin, with particular emphasis placed on plants of Illinois. The plants should be acquired by in situ collections or from known provenance. The second subsection, covering Maintenance of the collections, describes, briefly, curatorial responsibilities. Access to collections is subdivided into two- Public Access and Research and Allied Institution Access. Policies for each sector are described. Loan of Collection defines the criteria for loans. The subsection on Disposal of Plants charges the manager of horticulture Collections with the responsibility for the proper disposal of plants. Plant disposal may occur by exchange, distribution to other institutions, sale or destruction. Reasons for deaccession or disposal include lost identification, collections development, authenticity, deterioration, and loss of relevance or usefulness to the collections. Deacccessioning and disposal of rare material will be completed once assurances have been obtained that the plant(s) are in existence in another collection(s). Plant records describes how records are kept and who is responsible for the management of the system. Plant gifts will only be accepted if they serve to meet the objectives of the plant acquisition policy and are donated without conditions. The subsection on Definition of terms used in this policy defines terms such as de-accessioning, cultivar, taxon and endangered plant. The policy concludes with the date of approval of the policy by various tiers of management and a date of implementation.

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De-accessioning A policy on de-accessioning plants is equally important as an accessioning policy. The management of plants require a great many resources in terms of staff time, material and space and they need to be evaluated regularly to assess priorities and whether they are required to be retained in the collection. The policy might state that plants can be de-accessioned if they are no longer relevant to the purposes of the garden, either now or in the future (or because they have become or are potentially invasive or a source of infection). De-accessioning in the strict sense is the process of amending the record of plants removed from the garden, not necessarily the removal of the plants themselves. Here it is regarded as the decision to dispose of the living plant or collection, as many institutions retain all plant records for reference. The de-accessioning policy should also include information on who within the institution should be responsible for making the decision to dispose of particular plants. Reasons for de-accession or disposal include lost identification, collections development, authenticity, deterioration, and loss of relevance or usefulness to the collections. (see Box 4 on Chicago Horticultural Society). The Mt Cuba Center for the Study of Piedmont Flora in Greenville, U.S.A. allows existing exotic plants of merit to be allowed to live out their useful ornamental life, but upon removal will be replaced by Piedmont plants. The Arnold Arboretum, Massachusetts, U.S.A. has the following de-accessioning policy: De-accessioning of any accession must, by matter of course, take into consideration all records that pertain, including the annotations of changing botanical identity and/or rank. No plants are to be considered as candidates for de-accessioning until curatorial procedures have ensured that the plants are not of historic, taxonomic, or horticultural significance, regardless of the name currently applied to them in arboretum records. Disposal Unwanted plants can be gifted, sold (subject to CBD policy and any agreements made with those from whom they were acquired), exchanged or destroyed. The choice might be affected by the statutory or legal requirements of the garden etc.

available when required. In order to decide what information should be retained in the record system it is necessary to decide who are and will be the users of this information and what information is or will be required for each collection. For instance, the conservation collections will need detailed records on provenance, identity, maintenance history etc, while plants used purely for ornament may not require written records at all. It might be preferable that all plant material be accessioned, as it will be easier to remove existing plant records than to create them from nothing if needed later. However, this will be balanced against the added work involved. Some gardens may decide not to include in their record system details of plants grown on a temporary basis, such as bedding plants for display. It is important to state in the collections policy the primary or basic data which should be recorded for each type of collection. Undocumented plants Undocumented plants present a problem for gardens and should be subject to a particular institutional policy. Some gardens would argue that unless plants are properly documented they are of limited scientific value and should be removed (see De-accessioned above) and replaced with specimens of known provenance. However, in some special cases undocumented plants may be important to retain in a collection. They may have important historical, landscape, cultural or environmental importance. Others may represent rare species in cultivation containing vital genetic material. It may be also be worthwhile accessioning plants with the hope that the original collection and planting data will be found. The task of documenting existing collections from the institutions records, archives and journals, diaries and letters of those involved with the gardens history is possible although generally very time-consuming. Labelling and mapping The collections policy should outline how plants are to be labelled and whether their locations are to be plotted on any relevant garden maps.

Maintenance of the collection

The collections policy may have an objective to maintain the collections in good order, in terms of display value, plant health, safety and priorities for care and the way in which maintenance will help to implement any Master Plan in operation in the garden (see Landscape chapter). It should include policies on relevant aspects of practical horticulture, such as the use of chemicals in the garden, non-replacable materials, composting and recycling. Part of the maintenance of the collections should include a regular inventory of what they contain and monitoring and evaluation procedures.

Plant Records
The development of a plant records policy is fundamental to the curation of the collection and is discussed in more detail in the chapter on Plant Records. It is essential to monitor the plants in the garden and keep records for individual plants. A collection with good records has greater value than one that is poorly documented. A strict policy on keeping good records will ensure that the information is

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Access
Box 5 Accessions policy case study -Case study Kings Park and Botanic Garden, Perth, Australia Kings Park & Botanic Garden publish a 20 page Plant Collections and Display Policy document. The latest version, dated November 1996, contains nine sections and three appendices. The first section, Operational Objective, states the goal for plant Collections and Displays. It is to enhance and promote conservation, horticulture and understanding of western Australian and other flora for the community. Section 2 covers Definitions used in the document. Background is split into two subsections - the first includes a very brief description of the flora of western Australia and then describes the purpose of Kings Park & Botanic Garden. The second subsection describes existing collections in general and refers readers to Appendix I which lists them in more detail using a table with headings such as Location, Existing Collection, Primary Objective, Program and Contact Officer, Scope and Review. Section 4 covers Policy; seven items are listed, two are listed here as examples. 1. Enhance visitor appreciation and enjoyment of western Australian wildflowers, 2. Facilitate integrated conservation of rare and threatened Western Australian wildflowers. Section 5 lists thirteen Strategies required to achieve the policy, again two are listed as examples: 1 Undertake an annual review and revise the Plant Collections and Display Policy, 2. Undertake an ongoing review of plant collections to ensure consistency with the Plant Collections and Display Policy. Section 6 is about Acquisition Policy, especially new acquisitions. It starts by saying that all new acquisitions will support Kings Park and Botanic Gardens mission and objectives. It then has two parts: the first lists criteria for assessing new and existing plants collections. Two of the six are given here as examples: 1. conservation value - potential to support or promote conservation programs, 2. interpretative values - relevance of themes to support or promote Kings Park and Botanic Gardens missions. The second part indicates ten priorities for collections develoment, two examples are - 1. Western Australian Declared rare Flora and Priority Rare Flora for integrated conservation programs, 2. Western Australian wildflowers enhancing visitor enjoyment and appreciation. Section 7, Performance Criteria is subdivided into 6 parts - Plant records, Quarantine, Inventory, Evaluation, Maintenance, and Access. Section 8 describes the criteria for Deaccessioning and Disposal and section 9 describes the process of Policy Development and Review. Appendix I lists Existing Collections in tabular form as described above. Appendix II lists proposed priority collections using the same sorts of headings. Appendix III covers two case studies that were carried out on the genera Stylidium and Darwinia. Each garden should have a policy on who may have access to the various collections and collections records and for what purposes. For instance, a garden may decide that there should be limited access to conservation plants and vulnerable plants such as alpines, to secure the plants against theft or damage. A written policy should establish guidelines to ensure the protection and security of the collections and facilities in all circumstances. The acquisition and exchange of plants will be covered by the statutary and legal requirements of the garden (see above). Practical aspects of the acquisition, supply and exchange of plant material by botanic gardens to be fully in accordance with the provisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity are discussed in the chapter on Collections Management.

6. The procedure for writing a collections policy

The process of writing and agreeing a collections policy for a garden will require considerable input from different staff members in a botanic garden. It is suggested that it will be valuable and most practical to have someone with overall responsibility to coordinate the process. However, the more people involved in the content of the document the more likely it will reflect the nature and extent of the work being carried out in the garden and the higher the degree of ownership. A senior manager should be central to the initiative, as commitment from the top is vital if staff are to be convinced that the policy has authority. Some gardens might decide to employ an outside consultant; either a facilitator to manage discussion sessions or for guidance if the garden does not include expertise in a particular area. The work on the preparation of the policy can be organized through workshops, committees or focus groups. The process should be structured, with clear objectives and schedules for reporting the results of the consultations.

Methodology
An outline methodology follows: Descriptive phase The first step, sometimes referred to as the descriptive phase, seeks to gather as much detail as possible about the collections. Their past history, current status, the environments within which they are grown, any obligations or prohibitions placed on them. Also, it is valuable to list those who use or derive benefit from the collection, followed by a further listing of how they use the collection, coupled with any special requirements they may have. Any information which

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clarifies the purpose behind the collection, the ideas that led to their creation and the actions that nurtured their development should be sought and recorded. The more thorough this process the more satisfactory the final document. Analytical phase Once gathered, this information should be scrutinised within an analytical phase. Not everything within the information base will be of equal value. Certain aspects of the collections will be more important than others. Certain influences will have been more profound. By analysing the data it should be possible to determine what are really significant and what are of more marginal interest. Inevitably this is a subjective process but the intuition which invariably builds up when engaged in such a process will ensure a balanced view prevails, particularly if backed up by management and peer support. Prescriptive phase With the analysis of the data concluded, the forward and future direction for the maintenance and development of the collections can be set within a prescriptive phase. How should the collections develop, what has past experience taught us and how can we marry this to future aspirations? How do environmental factors apply? It is also at this stage that available resources should be closely considered and an estimate of the cost of proposed developments made. The agreed prescriptions should also be set within an achievable time frame and actions be clearly specified and apportioned. Who does what, how, and by when? General considerations: because there is so much duplication in and between botanic gardens throughout the world, some attempt should be made to identify the specific individual nature and purposes of a collection and to plan with these in mind; this attempt will be constrained by the need to explain the collections and their purposes to the visiting public; it may be more important to provide conservation collections of native or local plants and information relating the local area than to put a great deal of effort into conserving exotics; a collection constituted with a well-thought out rationale for its creation and maintenance, integrated with other such collections held elsewhere and linked to local and international research programmes is more likely to attract public and private funding than is one which attempts to stand alone and/or to achieve everything on its own; in order to conserve the plants in a secure and permanent way, ensure that the staff of the garden (of all kinds administrators, accountants, librarians, horticulturists, scientists, etc) are adequate, both in terms of their knowledge and their number, to the programme being undertaken; recording and management of the collection is both demanding and time-consuming, if done properly;

the watchword for new gardens should be to grow as FEW plants and taxa as are necessary to achieve the objectives of your garden, not as MANY as is possible.

Format of document
The design of the document should be given careful consideration. Its appearance is important. It is a working document so ensure that this is built into its design. Make it easy and pleasing to handle, clearly set out, especially in the section which deals with actions use tables, allow notes to made on it (perhaps in a generous margin), be sure that the binding and spine are robust enough to cope with frequent use. Consider also other ways to convey the policy, perhaps by electronic means (if they are available). Should it go on an electronic local area network or be available wider still, on the internet for example? The document is a communication tool, therefore it is generally valuable to make it widely available in whatever form is appropriate. Dont confine it to the directors office. Consider issuing and distributing subsets of the main text or a summary for use by groups or individuals with more interest in a particular part or section of the main policy document.

Monitoring and review of the Policy

If a policy is found to be unworkable, make sure that it is reviewed. Reviewing the policy should also be part of the business plan of the organization and part of the annual work plan. The frequency of review may be dictated by the planning cycles of the organization, the financial year, the requirements of boards or government departments. Parts of the policy may need to be re-written as circumstances change. Once the changes are made they should be communicated throughout the institute just as they were when the policies were first established. Compiled by Etelka Leadlay, BGCI, from contributions by Mark Flanagan, Crown Estate Office, The Great Park, Windsor, Berkshire SL4 2HT, U.K., Andy Jackson, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, Wakehurst Place, Ardingly, West Sussex RH17 6TN, U.K., David Rae, Royal Botanic Garden, Inverleith Row, Edinburgh EH3 5LR, U.K. and Esteban Hernndez Bermejo, Jardn Botnico de Crdoba, Apdo 3048, 14080 Crdoba, Spain.

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4. Collections management
Introduction
A main aim of a botanic garden is to manage and present its collection of plants in a way that will achieve the aims and objectives of the garden, as stated in the collections policy and the business plan. This chapter discusses how to achieve a smoothly-functioning garden to fulfil these aims. The main emphasis is on the management of the living collections of plants - other collections are discussed briefly at the end of the chapter. This chapter also suggests ways to organize the management and maintenance of the plant collections. and activities (e.g. pruning, irrigation, pest and disease control, labelling, paths) (See Table 1). This scheme has enabled some institutions to evaluate the tasks in the garden more objectively and to devise an efficient maintenance schedule. A scheme for evaluation could take the following form: 1) secure staff participation, 2) inventory the work to be done and the resources needed to accomplish it, 3) describe each task, 4) determine standard time necessary for the task, 5) decide the frequency necessary for the task, 6) decide the schedule, e.g. weekly, monthly, with a long-term schedule for seasonal tasks, 7) implement the programme, 8) monitor work and schedules. This system allows for objective planning and scheduling of work, instead of responding to demand and emergencies and allows priorities to be assessed on the basis of accurate information. The system can be used for routine maintenance tasks such as mulching,

1. Garden maintenance
A useful concept for combining general management of a botanic garden and day to day maintenance is to divide the collections into High, Medium and Low Zones of maintenance for the allocation of staff and equipment. These zones can be described in terms of the collection types they contain (e.g. rock garden, systematic beds, Cycad collection, grassland) and tasks

Zones of maintenance

High

Medium

Low

Plant collections

Herb garden Bedding plants Specimen plants Rock garden Systematic beds Demonstration garden Labelling & accessioning Annual seasonal planting Hand weeding Detailed pest control Hand weeding Frequent irrigation Hedge shearing Topiary

Arboretum Lawns Shrub Collections Bulbs New wildflower areas

- Massed tree plantings - Established mixed grasslands - Naturally occurring communities - Woodland Labelling & accessioning Mow 2-3 x per year Selective clearing Management for safety Remote roads and walks

Activities/tasks

Labelling & accessioning Mow 10-15 x per year Shrub transplanting Broadcast fertilizer and spraying Routine pruning Integrated pest management Occasional edging Main paths Occasional irrigation

Table 1 Zones of maintenance in a garden

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Medium Maintenance Arboretum, Trinity College Botanic Garden, Dublin, Ireland.

High Maintenance Herb Garden, US National Arboretum, Washington DC., U.S.A pest and disease control, general plantings and also for the maintenance of collections of rare and threatened plants. The job can be costed in terms of hours of labour, equipment and materials required, which provides a basis for prioritising tasks and ensures that a planned approach to sourcing resources can be taken. Maintenance scheduling can be managed efficiently by using a computerized landscape management system. The maintenance requirements of any particular accession, its location in the garden and any other critical information can be added to the database and the task printed out on the computer generated work schedule at the appropriate time.

Low Maintenance Grassland, Jerusalem and University Botanical Garden, Israel Good displays or exhibitions of plants will further the purpose of the collection, e.g. for conservation, reference, evaluation or beauty. The purpose of the collection should affect the way in which the plants within the collection are displayed. A good display of plants should be designed and evaluated in the same way as other interpretative material is produced (see chapter on Interpretation). Displays should be stimulating, intellectually satisfying, aesthetically pleasing and leave one slightly curious. Public gardens need to present plants in the best possible way appropriate to the people who use the garden.

2. Management requirements for the collections

Display and exhibition
Most mission statements for public gardens include the desire to provide an aesthetically pleasing environment. A beautiful garden will inspire people about the wonder of nature and provide mental relaxation. This will be a major factor in attracting visitors to the garden and will be a source of community pride and public support.

Thematic collections
Thematic collections do not necessarily have many specimens of each taxon grown or represent their genetic variability. These collections should be correctly identified and labelled but, depending on their purpose, they do not necessarily always need to be as well documented as the conservation collections. However, the minimum record should include: a) the name, b) origin (provenance), c) location and d) condition in the garden. The management unit is a plant or group of plants grown in a particular area of the garden.

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Collections for conservation

Conservation collections aim to conserve genetically important populations of rare and endangered species held ex situ to support species recovery programmes and to provide long-term back up collections of such plants. The size of populations of plants grown for conservation purposes tends to be very variable, and it depends on the type of plant (annual, herbaceous, shrub, tree species, etc.) and on the extent to which a garden is required to maintain different genotypes. Their permanence in the garden can also vary. Some plants may be grown as long-term parts of the collection. Others may be maintained on a temporary basis as part of a specific ex situ project or to support an in situ conservation effort. The information recorded for taxa in the conservation collections and in field genebanks generally requires more detail than for general plantings in the garden. Additional information such as ecological data from where the plant material was collected (sun exposure levels,soil types etc.) will often help in its cultivation. Data recorded for conservation collections may include not only information on their taxonomy (names), origin, distribution, collector and date of receipt of the accessions, but also information about their ecology and biology, current status, levels of threat faced and risks of extinction observed. Field genebanks The term field genebank is used to define a conservation collection planted in the open ground. This is the main conservation strategy used to maintain long-lived perennials, recalcitrant species and vegetatively produced species. It also provides a useful working collection of living plans for experimental purposes. These collections aim to ensure the conservation of the different taxa (species, cultivars, etc.) and the range of variability within each taxon. The management unit of the field genebanks is usually the population, ecotype, cultivar and clone. Adequate labelling and identification of each unit is of crucial importance. These collections must: contain a sufficient number of specimens from each taxon, so that the specimens of each accession ensure an adequate representation of the original populations genetic diversity; be properly documented; be labelled; be physically secure; be contained in a facility which provides long-term security; have a clear, efficient and fair system for access to the germplasm kept in the collection, so that potential users can have access to the genetic material and to the information

held about the collection; be assessable for potential economic and conservation use; be applicable for various propagation and cultivation techniques required for its maintenance and use.

Field genebank of native plants from Kerala at the Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute , Kerala, India

3. Management practice
Structure and organization
A garden needs to be clear about who is responsible for the management and maintenance of its collections. The effective management of the collections will generally devolve to one individual staff member (Curator or someone of similar status). This person often reports to more senior management and works with the education, scientific and conservation staff to carry out the policy agreed by the Board, Director, Scientific and Advisory Committee or similar body. In larger gardens a curatorial structure may be created which assigns curatorial tasks for particular collections to different individuals who may themselves then report to a person (the Curator) with overall authority for the management of the collections. In general the duties and functions of curator will be to: control and supervise the management and maintenance of the plant collections; supervise the day-to-day work to be carried out by the horticultural staff; supervise and be responsible for the recording of the collections; maintain the labelling of each taxon in the gardens display areas in good condition; ensure that the staff have access to the necessary training. The curator may also take the lead in: making use of such available information as exists to ensure that the horticultural techniques (fertilization, watering

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regimes, pest control, propagation, etc.) used are appropriate and recorded, where necessary (see spraying card in Horticulture chapter); or, if little information exists, carrying out and recording reasonable trials, (e.g. different kinds of cuttings, treatments for rooting, seeds treatments, etc); ensuring that there is a minimum number of specimens of each conservation accession to represent the genetic variation of the taxon and that the diversity of this collection is safeguarded; ensure there is a back-up collection of seed stored in a seed bank or living plants in the nursery in case the collection is lost through pest, disease or by accident; prevention of contamination of stocks, by hybridisation or miscellaneous seeding and vegetative spread of one accession into another; adding more taxa to the collection in accordance with the accessions policy and other constraints such as space and staffing; providing and manipulating habitats and microclimates (soil, sun exposure, shade) suited to the plants that are grown.

Box 1 Procedures
Some gardens have living collections policies or institutional manuals which describe the procedures (e.g. for record keeping and horticulture) (sometimes known more formally as protocols). With the support of the U.K. governments Darwin Initiative, BGCI worked with Kebun Raya Indonesia (KRI) to computerise their living collection records over three years. As part of this work a series of records management policies and protocols were prepared, agreed and implemented in the four KRI gardens. Protocols were designed to ensure that plant records accurately reflected the composition of the living collections and were as up to date as possible. Protocols prepared were: Protocol for receiving and registering accessions; Protocol for planting-out collections from the nursery and registering locations in the garden; Protocol for producing plant name labels; Protocol for changing names; Protocol for moving plants and changing bed numbers; Protocol for monitoring collection flowering and fruiting; Protocol for the propagation of living collections; Protocol for dead plants.

A good policy is to make one person responsible for one or more plant collections or for a particular area of the garden. This person must receive timely and appropriate training concerning the collection and general guidelines on its maintenance (for example, on what taxa are included, the importance of labelling, most valuable specimens, the significance of the collection and its purpose and uses, etc.). All staff should have a clear written job description so that they know their responsibilities, in general terms and to any particular collections that may be under their care.

Guidelines on procedures
Most gardens will develop procedures for practical curation issues. These procedures will be guided by the Collections Policy. Procedures can be published as staff handbooks or institutional manuals. These procedures provide continuity over many generations of staff change, and a standard quality of maintenance (see Box 1). The major procedures or protocols required for the management of collections are outlined below: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. acquisition of material; labelling; plant identification; evaluation of collections; de-accessioning; procedures for accepting and releasing material; monitoring process.

Record keeping procedures are discussed in the chapter on Plant Records. Horticultural procedures, such as propagation and pest and disease control, are discussed in the chapters on Horticulture and Equipment.

1. Acquisition Any potential acquisition should be screened and selected in accordance with the accession policy and in accordance with legal requirements, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), as discussed in the chapter on Collections Policy. Before accepting or collecting plants for cultivation, the purpose of the specimen(s) should be assessed. Each accession should only be added to the collection if the gardens resources, (funding, staff time and space) are sufficient to maintain it. Is there enough space in the nursery and staff time to propagate and cultivate the accession? Acquisitions should also be evaluated on arrival at the garden for their potential as vectors of disease and pests and their potential to become invasive or weedy. Quarantine procedures are important to ensure that disease and pest problems are avoided, especially if the stock is to be used for reintroduction programmes or in any work that involves the material potentially passing on diseases or pests to other conservation plants or into natural habitats. If the identity of the accession is uncertain it should be identified as soon as possible (see Verification below). 2. Labelling Labelling of a living collection of plants is one of the most important and difficult of the curatorial tasks. The

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types of labels used in botanic gardens and the materials available are discussed in the chapter on Equipment. Labels in the nursery or propagation unit Many gardens use a temporary nursery label until an accession number is assigned. Care should be taken when adding the permanent label to ensure that details are transferred accurately. In a propagation unit, where many pots/pans of seed, or many pots/pans of cuttings or grafts may be grown of the same accession, it is absolutely vital, though extremely tedious, to label every pot/pan. An old and widely applied British tradition of labelling the first pot in a row and then going bottom to top, left to right without labelling until a new accession is reached is extremely unreliable. Pots can be moved and labels misplaced. Burying an additional label in the pot will help re-identify the specimen if the visible label is lost. Nursery labels should include the collection number, and if possible, the name of the accession.

Illustration of dog tag and dymo Permanent labels Permanent plants should have an accession tag or small metal label (e.g. engraved or impressed aluminium) directly attached to every plant of the accession, preferably wired or otherwise securely fastened to one of the branches in the centre of the plant towards the base. This includes all plants that have permanent branches (including herbaceous perennials and even many alpines), even if these plants are in pots. This label is additional to the (single) display labels (whether in the soil or attached to the plant). Then if display labels are damaged, stolen, removed for scrutiny by members of the public and wrongly replaced, or removed or re-arranged (either maliciously by visitors, or picked off by birds or animals, or knocked off by gardening tools) then it is possible to re-label the accession completely accurately from information provided on the back-up accession tag. Some gardens create a map (either accurately drawn or even a simple sketch map showing the location of each plant in relation to its neighbouring plants). These maps can be a useful back-up in case all of the labels are lost. Problems can occur in the garden when labels are detached from the plant and herbaceous plants or bulbs die down in winter. Metal labels with accession numbers included attached to long stakes could be used. One person should be responsible for the labelling of a plant collection or group of plant collections in an area of the garden and ensure that the plants should be regularly monitored for labels, replacing any that are missing, damaged or deteriorating. During stocktaking, labels should also be checked for loss or damage.

Labelled seedlings at the Conservatoire et Jardin Botanique de Mascarin, Ile de la Runion, Indian Ocean

3. Plant identification Plant name For reference and research purposes all plants need to be correctly named if they are to have any value beyond the garden in which they are grown. A wellknown local name can convey a mental picture to many people about what the plant looks like, where it grows, what it is used for and where it can be obtained. However, the scientific or Latin name is standardised by written descriptions of the plant which include the

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characters (e.g. number of petals, type of fruit, position of leaves) by which it can be recognized (diagnostic characters), drawings and herbarium specimens. This means that identification can be consistent. The Latin name of a plant is a vital key to accessing the scientific literature about the plant. Names are thus an essential means of communicating information about plants. Scientific names are given to plants through the science of biological classification or taxonomy. Taxonomy, through examining many different aspects of plants (e.g morphology, chemistry, cytology, DNA), identifies groups of plants and their relationships. These groups of plants such as families, genera, species, subspecies or varieties have occurred through evolution and are considered natural. Knowledge of these relationships can give clues to their successful management and use. For instance, related genera can often be propagated in the same way, used in a plant breeding programme or indicate sources of shared or similar chemical compounds. These natural groups of plants such as families (e.g. Gramineae, Primulaceae, Compositae), genera (e.g Oryza, Citrus, Ficus), species (Triticum aestivum, Vanilla planifolia, Bellis perennis), subspecies (Rhododendron fortunei subsp.discolor) or varieties (Anethum graveolens var. esculentum, Brassica oleracea var capitata) are called taxa (singular taxon). When people refer to the number of taxa grown in a botanic garden, (unless they state the category or rank - as in this garden holds 250 genera belonging to 70 families) they are referring to the number of species, subspecies, varieties and cultivars represented in the garden. Verification of identity and name One should not assume that all plant material comes into a garden correctly named or that it is correctly identified even after it has been accessioned and studied. Verification is first and foremost a procedure for checking that a previous identification is correct or assigning a name to an unnamed accession. Some botanists prefer to use the terms determination and determined to identification and identified. Checking the name involves two separate procedures: Identification, which is the determination of a plant as being identical with or similar to a particular taxon. This procedure uses taxonomic experts, taxonomic reference books such as floras and monographs and other scientific material such as accurately named herbarium specimens or living plants. Nomenclature, which is concerned with the determination of the correct scientific name of a known plant according to a nomenclatural system. This naming is regulated by internationally accepted rules laid down in the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (W.R. Greuter et al., 1994, Koeltz Scientific Books, Koenigstein, Germany). and the International Code of

Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (R.P. Trehane et al., 1995 Quarterjack Publishing, Wimbourne, U.K.). Thus this procedure establishes that the name used is: a) the current and preferred one (and correctly spelled) under the rules of nomenclature and b) the appropriate one to be assigned under the system of classification used in the garden (see example). EXAMPLE The information relating to the taxonomic identity of a plant requires some previous agreement amongst the staff of the garden about what taxonomic system of classification is followed within the institution. For example, it must be decided what taxonomic system is to be adopted consistently throughout the record. This determines questions such as: which plant families are to be recognised and which genera belong to which family; which genera are to be recognized. For instance, the genus Polygonum is often interpreted to include a number of different genera that are sometimes separated out under different classification systems, e.g. is Polygonum to be recognized in the broad sense, or split into its segregate genera, Bistorta, Bilderdykia, Fallopia, etc. Such questions have to be resolved to prevent plants of the same taxon being recorded in the same system under two or more different names. Another example is as follows: a plant is received from Japan labelled Magnolia tomentosa. When checked, it is found to be correctly identified, but the name M. tomentosa (favoured for a time by Japanese botanists) is no longer currently accepted. The current name according to the World Checklist of Magnoliaceae is Magnolia stellata. In older lists it may appear as M. kobus var. stellata, so the name to be used will depend on the system currently adopted by the garden and the current name accepted under the international rules of nomenclature. It is valuable for a botanic garden to indicate the degree to which the identity of each accession in their living collections have been checked. Some botanic gardens use a verification form of which the degree to which an accession has been checked can be recorded. Clearly, in the course of its life in a particular botanic garden, an individual accession may be identified several times, by different people, possibly with different results. The ITF provides several levels of confidence in the form of a simple scale that can be applied to the verification of an accession (Table 2). The verification details should include the name of the person who has verified the plant and their institution, the date of verification, citation of literature used for identification and the annotations of previous identifications.

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Description: The level to which the identification of the plant has been verified.

Box 2 Evaluation scoresheet, after one developed by Strybing Arboretum and Botanical Gardens, San Francisco, U.S.A.
1 What is the relative importance (priority) of the plant/plant collection within the total collection in the Arboretum? Is it unique, rare or uncommon? Is it an endangered species? Is it an outstanding specimen? Does it have historical value? Is it popular with the general public? Is it appropriate to the climate and the soils? 2 Is there adequate space to accommodate a representative collection? 3 Can the plant/plant collection be maintained properly with the current staff and resources in the Arboretum? 4 Is the plant/plant collection properly located within the Arboretum? (Consider soil and microclimate conditions, as well as accessibility for both staff and public). 5 Is the plant/plant collection in good health and representative of the natural character of the plant/plants? 6 Is the plant/plant collection properly labelled and are record in order? 7 Does the plant/plant collection serve a particular educational purpose? (Is it presently an integral part of a self-guiding walk? Is it regularly included on guided tours.)? 8 Is the plant/plant collection being used for its intended purpose? 9 Is the plant/plant collection better represented in another arboretum or botanical garden in the region? (Could it be propagated for use, donated etc.?).

It is not known if the name of the plant has been checked by an authority. The name of the plant has not been determined by any authority The name of the plant has been determined by comparison with other named plants The name of the plant has been determined by a taxonomist or other competent person using the facilities of a library and/or herbarium, or other documented living material The name of the plant has been determined by a taxonomist who is currently or has been recently involved in a revision of the family or genus The plant represents all or part of the type material on which the name was based, or the plant has been derived therefrom by asexual propagation

0 (Zero)

Table 2 Verification Level taken from The International Transfer Format for Botanic Garden Plant Records (see Chapter on Plant Records) 4. Evaluation of collections The collections should be evaluated on a regular basis to ensure that they are constituted in such a way that they contribute to the purpose(s) for which they were assembled (see Box 2). Staff, visiting curators, botanists and horticulturists can advise on the content of the collection and recommend future additions. These evaluations will contribute to the planning for future acquisitions, planting, plant removals, horticultural practices, maintenance and design needs. The content of the collection is guided by the policy but procedures need to be in place to make the decisions about how the policy is applied. Some gardens have one or more staff members or a committee who help implement the accessions policy. Horticultural evaluations of existing plants and plantings can be undertaken by a committee of qualified and interested people (Plant Collections Committee or Living Collections Committee). Occasional independent reviews are a helpful way of evaluating many practices within a garden, such as: scientific research activities, results and priorities; priorities for staff development and training;

curatorial and horticultural staff priorities and practices; collection development; management methodologies and practices, etc. The National Tropical Botanic Garden, Hawaii, U.S.A. uses Research Associates, visiting curators and staff to advise on the curation of the collection. 5. De-accessioning De-accessioning of any unwanted plant material will follow on from any evaluation process undertaken. If a particular accession is found to be no longer required for inclusion in the living collection it may be gifted, sold or composted. In the case of a redundant research or conservation collection a procedure should be in place to ensure that it is disposed of responsibly. Plants should also be disposed of in accordance with any previously made agreements under which the original material was obtained by the garden (e.g. plant material may have been obtained subject to a material transfer agreement stating how such material might be used).

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Box 3 Proposed guidelines for de-accessioning developed by the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, U.K.
For the whole collection: 1. Check that all the plants have been named and that the names have been verified recently. 2. Ensure that the cultivation and propagation requirements for the group in general are well understood and recorded. 3. Preserve and photograph specimens of the most important species, unless this has already been done in the course of taxonomic research. At present traditional herbarium sheets and spirit collections offer the only practical way of preserving plant material and from these at least the morphological structure of plants can be studied. In the future it should be possible to preserve samples of intact DNA. 4. Decide which are the conservation plants. These are species that are rare, threatened or endangered in the wild. This should have been determined when the collection was being cultivated but it must be checked again before disposal as the status might have changed. If in doubt about status the following groups or sources should be consulted: Botanic Gardens Conservation International; IUCN Species Survival Commissions Specialist Groups; World Conservation Monitoring Centre; the taxonomist who has been working on the group; a botanic garden, government agency or natural history society in the country concerned. 5. Dispose of the non-conservation plants; try to disperse as a collection rather than as individuals. For the conservation plants: 6. Ascertain the cultural and propagation requirements of each species. Record the results. It is obviously better to start doing this while the plant collection is being amassed and worked on rather than at the end. 7. Preserve and photograph all the plants. Most of this work will have already been done at step 3. 8. Offer the collection to another botanic garden that has an interest in the group. This option is likely to offer the best long-term survival as plants will be tended more carefully in an institution that has a special interest in the plants (be it for research, display or cultural purposes) rather than in a garden that has only a general interest. However, there can be no guarantee that this botanic garden will want to keep the plants indefinitely. 9. Offer the remainder to a botanic garden in the plants country of origin. 10.Consider reintroduction. Arguably this should be at the top of the list but the many problems, such as the availability of suitable sites for reintroduction and their future management means this is not yet often a practical option. At present, botanic garden collections that have been accumulated to support taxonomic, rather than conservation aims, typically have very few accessions of each species and a policy of reintroduction based on asexually propagated plants from the same individual would be seriously flawed. If it is considered, then it should be done in conjunction with the appropriate authorities in the country concerned and as part of a planned species recovery programme. 11. Offer the plants to a nature reserve nearest to their original collection point. 12.Keep the accessions as seed if possible, after taking appropriate precautions to avoid hybridization; alternatively, investigate the possibility of keeping them as micropropagules, or as deep-frozen in-vitro tissue. 13.Offer them to a gifted amateur if realistic assurances can be given about their futures. 14.If the plants are of the same accession as other individuals grown in at least 5 other botanic gardens then they can be disposed of, but ensure that the other gardens are informed. 15.If they are of different accessions or if they are grown in less than 5 other botanic gardens and cannot be responsibly gifted, then there is an obligation to keep them until any of the above criteria can be met. These steps are intended to be responsible yet practical and realistic. There can be no guarantee that a plant gifted to another institution will be held for ever but the procedure outlined above has been designed to bestow a reasonable degree of security on conservation plants held in botanic gardens.

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The Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, U.K. has developed institutional guidelines on how plants may be de-accessioned from its collections (see Box 3). 6. Procedures for accepting and releasing material Each garden should have a Code of Conduct or ethical policy on the acquisition and disposal or plant material held by the garden, as discussed in the chapter on Collections Policy. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) provides a legal framework on how the movement of plants between institutions should operate. It is extremely important that botanic gardens should have a written policy with regard to how the provisions of the CBD will be adhered to in the garden. All staff should be aware of this policy (and follow it scrupulously) and know how it translates into procedures and practices. These practices and procedures should include: obtaining official permission to collect plant material in their own and other countries; obtaining relevant permits before plant material is transferred from its country of origin to another; ensuring that benefits derived from the use of plant material are shared with the country of origin of the plant material; ensuring that plant material transferred to third parties will be used fully in accordance with the terms of the CBD. Any benefits accruing from the use of biological diversity of another country should be equitably shared with the country of origin. Any benefits accruing from the use of our own national genetic resources should contribute to the conservation and sustainable development of the biological resources of our own country. Benefit does not simply mean financial benefit but could also mean the sharing of data, results, cooperation, technology transfer and capacity building. The is not retrospective and only concerns plant material obtained or distributed after 29 December 1993, when the Convention came into force. However, many botanic gardens believe that it is essential that they implement the spirit of the Convention by means of a voluntary code of practice for all their collections, including those plant collections obtained before the Convention came into force. Such a voluntary code can extend to botanic gardens in countries that have not yet signed and ratified the Convention. To implement CBD policy, many gardens have developed agreements or contracts between the providers of material and the organization (or individuals) which wish to obtain the material. Botanic gardens should now only distribute plant material subject to such agreements, a practice that is in line with the provisions of the CBD. This helps to ensure that benefits arising from the use (including commercialisation) of genetic resources and benefits arising from research and development are shared with the country of origin. The CBD stresses that the

provision and access to these genetic resources must be on mutually agreed terms. Thus the movement of plant material between botanic gardens, individuals and other scientific institutions is now carefully controlled and may only be acquired under written agreements such as a Material Acquisition Agreement or Material Supply Agreement (collectively termed material transfer agreements). If commercialisation is sought it should be subject to another agreement such as an Understanding, Trial Agreement or Licence Agreement (which can include Plant Breeders Rights), Plant Material Supply Agreements etc. The CBD clearly also affects the international seed exchange programme between botanic gardens. Traditionally, botanic gardens produced lists of seed available for free exchange (Index Seminum) which were sent to all collaborating gardens. An increasing number of botanic gardens include Material Transfer Agreements (MTAs) with their seed lists. Although there is no single standard MTA used by botanic gardens most include similar provisions, as outlined below. In signing these agreements, the recipients agree only to use the material for the purpose for which it was supplied at the time of application (e.g. for research, display and education). If the recipient wishes to commercialize or pass the genetic material, products or resources derived from it to a third party for commercial purposes then written permission must be sought from the garden. The recipient also agrees to acknowledge the supplier of the plant material in any publication resulting from the use of the material and submit copies of the publication(s) to them. All plants in the garden that were received subject to an agreement should be tracked as such. A record should be kept of the use of any material from which benefits have been derived so that these benefits are shared fairly with the original source of the material. The management of access and the benefit provisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity present major challenges for botanic gardens to implement fairly and reasonably. Nevertheless it will increasingly become both a moral and legal responsibility for botanic gardens to do so. Advice and assistance on these matters may be obtained from botanic garden organizations such as Botanic Gardens Conservation International, who can supply gardens with materials such as copies of CBD policies from other botanic gardens, texts of standard Material Transfer Agreements and guidance on how to track the use of material subject to such agreements within an individual institution.

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7. Monitoring process There should be an effective process to monitor the plant collections within the institution. Monitoring is a vital part of the process of applying collections policies. A close check needs to be kept to make sure that work is being carried out at the right time and in the right way. Structures need to be in place to allow for monitoring to take place throughout the organization. Time should be built into the work programme for staff to accommodate reviews. Informal discussions about progress should be part of the normal dialogue between colleagues. Above this, however, there needs to be a more formal mechanism. Agreed job plans can be a focus for monitoring. These should be reviewed between the appropriate staff on a regular basis. Reviews should be kept simple; the object is to review agreed actions. Other collections A botanic garden does not only contain living plant collections. Most gardens host, study, conserve and transmit a varied range of materials related to the plant world. A botanic garden can also include important documentary or archival material, which is sometimes accessible to the general public and to technicians, scientists or other experts. The most important are mentioned below. All of them present specific conservation, management and documentation problems. Herbaria Herbaria are the traditional way in which dried plant material is stored in the long-term. The majority of botanic gardens in the world maintain herbaria, sometimes numbering millions of dried specimens. The consultation of plant material in a herbarium is the everyday task of the taxonomist. Herbaria conserve the typus (type specimen) of each taxon described by botanists (an original specimen to which a particular name was first applied). They are also an important documentary fund as regards the distribution, phenology and variability of the plant species. New interest has recently arisen because of their utility for the study of the DNA and other biochemical extracts of the specimens conserved. Libraries Apart from books, journals and other published articles relating to plants and their taxonomy and distribution, a library can contain many other published and unpublished materials, such as newspapers or collections of paintings, designs and other iconographic representations of plants. Libraries represent substantial and important documentary resources for and within botanic gardens. Although they are not elements of plant diversity themselves, they are collections of vital importance for the study of such diversity. In the last few years the libraries containing computerized databases and information have enriched the collections and documentation conserved in the botanic gardens.

Seed Banks Seed banks have become a common and important method for germplasm conservation, mainly in those botanic gardens involved in conservation programmes. They allow the storage of a large number of accessions in a small space, which are easily accessible. When the seeds are orthodox, i.e. they retain their viability for a long period of time under conditions of low moisture content and temperature (below 0C), they guarantee the germplasm conservation for decades and sometimes for centuries. In the case of recalcitrant seeds (seeds which quickly lose their viability when stored under conditions of reduced moisture content and temperature), the seed bank can only be used to store such material for short periods of time. The recommended and preferred standards for longterm seed storage of orthodox species International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), are to: dry the seeds to a moisture content of below 7%; seal the dried seeds in a moisture-proof container such as laminated foil bags, aluminium cans or glass jars; and store at a low temperature of -18C. Clearly this is only applied to true orthodox species. However because less is known about wild species than many crop plants, a temperature of -4C and moisture content of 7-8% is advisable to begin with. The activities in seed banks should take the following sequence: collection; seed preparation; seed drying; packaging; storage; periodic germination tests; seed regeneration; re-storage; documentation at each stage of activity.

Tissue collections The storage of germplasm in laboratory conditions (in vitro) is especially suited for the long-term conservation of recalcitrant species and vegetatively propagated species. Tissues can be stored at low temperature, under slow growth conditions or cryopreserved in liquid nitrogen at -196C. Cryopreservation has so far been successful with only a relatively few species but is a very promising development for long-term storage. The main limitation of in vitro storage is the need for special equipment, an understanding of laboratory techniques and specially trained staff. The cryopreservation of orthodox seeds represents an advantage over low-temperature storage at -20C, both economically and in terms of viability, as liquid nitrogen is a relatively inexpensive cryogen and the seeds retain the same viability as they had immediately before storage. Therefore regeneration

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costs are lowered and viability testing is reduced. However, more research is necessary to define the mechanisms of desiccation and chilling injury and to investigate methods of alleviating it. Pollen banks Pollen collections may be useful for research and conservation purposes although obviously they cannot contain the full complement of genetic diversity of the plants from which they are obtained. Like seeds, pollen can be divided into desiccationtolerant and desiccation-intolerant. However, information about storage characteristics of pollen from wild species is fragmentary, existing mainly for some crop relatives and for some medicinal and forest species. DNA banks The creation of a network of DNA banks (DNA Bank-Net) to complement activities already being undertaken in ex situ conservation and other germplasm collections can allow large quantities of genetic resources (genes, DNA) to be stored quickly and at low cost. Such storage could act as an insurance policy against rapid loss of the worlds gene pool. It could be used as a tool in the study of molecular phylogenetics and systematics of extinct taxa, and genes. DNA samples have been mainly used for bioprospecting and studies undertaken on the assessment of biodiversity. The use of DNA banks in conservation is limited, as whole plants cannot be reconstituted from DNA, although genetic material can be introduced to other genotypes for plant breeding and enhancement purposes. Its potential remains promising however. Carpological collections Carpological collections refer to collections of normally non-viable seeds and fruits kept solely as an element for reference, study and comparison, in a similar way to a herbarium sheet. They are documentary sources useful not only in plant taxonomy but also in other disciplines such as archaeology (identification of seeds in historical sites), agronomy and weed science (identification of weed seeds in the soil or contaminated seeds for sowing), animal ethnology and nutrition (identification of food in the intestinal tracts of herbivores, ants nests, etc. Palynological collections Collections of pollen and other similar plant materials such as spores and micro-fossils, generally in form of preparations for microscopical study are of great interest, beyond plant taxonomy, for the development of other sciences or technologies, such as aerobiology and preventive medicine (identification of pollen and spores in the air, especially those causing human allergic diseases), archaeology and palaeobotany (study of archaeo- and paleofloras), etc. Timber collections Collections of timbers in macroscopic samples and in sections for microscopical study, are especially useful for timber identification. These are of great interest in the industrial and commercial sectors (furniture, crafts, building, import of timbers, etc.).

Palaeobotanical collections: Although not many gardens have a Paleobotanical Unit, some gardens have important collections of plant fossils. Besides being used for the development of this science and the study of the palaeofloras and processes of plant evolution, they have complementary applications of great economic interest in stratigraphy (datation and assessment of sites containing fossil fuels: coal and oil). Ethnobotanical collections Tools, implements, fibres, medicinal plant drugs, textiles, other artefacts made from plant materials, etc. constitute the heritage of the ethnobotanical museums that are occasionally developed as an outstanding element of botanic gardens. In addition to their undoubtedly anthropological and documentary value, these materials now have a similar use to that of herbarium sheets and plant fossils, i.e. as reference elements (or typus) of the values and applications of the plants studied and described by ethnobotanists. Ethnobotanical collections are also widely used by botanic gardens for educational purposes.

Bibliography
The Public Garden The Journal of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta (AABGA) publishes useful articles on all aspects of public garden management. AABGA, 351 Longwood Road, Kennett Square, PA 19348, U.S.A. Compiled by Etelka Leadlay, BGCI, from contributions by James Cullen, Stanley Smith (U.K.) Horticultural Trust, Cory Lodge, PO Box 365, Cambridge CB2 1HR, U.K., Mark Flanagan, Crown Estate Office, The Great Park, Windsor, Berkshire SL4 2HT, U.K., Andy Jackson, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, Wakehurst Place, Ardingly, West Sussex RH17 6TN, U.K., David Rae, Royal Botanic Garden, Inverleith Row, Edinburgh EH3 5LR, U.K.and Esteban Hernndez Bermejo, Jardn Botnico de Crdoba, Apdo 3048, 14080 Crdoba, Spain.

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Introduction
This chapter provides a basic introduction to horticulture. It attempts to review the main points of importance to botanic garden managers. It discusses the general principles of horticulture and reviews the essential practical techniques and their underlying principles. Horticultural practice today is the product of experience, knowledge and skills that have been refined through generations of gardeners and landscape architects. Certain fundamental guidelines and best practice are universal and can be modified according to the circumstances. Practical details are illustrated by some examples. The first section discusses general principles and approaches to horticulture that a garden manager might choose e.g. organic and commercial approaches. The second section discusses how plants are brought into cultivation from the garden or the wild. It looks at methods of collecting plants, their propagation and care in the nursery and the siting and planting of the plants in the garden and their cultivation. The final part of the chapter looks at ways in which the environment within the garden can be managed. This section examines the soil, its care and management and the control of pests, disease and weeds. Watering is discussed in the chapter on Equipment. techniques. Commercial horticulture cannot afford to fail; it is planned to achieve high propagation success which is efficient and cost-effective. Planning and standardised practices, using the best technology available, can benefit the propagation of rare and threatened plants to maximise the effort of time and resources invested. The organic approach recognizes that all living things are inter-related and inter-dependent and that the whole environment is more than the sum of its individual parts. Wastes are recycled, soil is treated as a resource that needs to be protected, wildlife is encouraged and its environment protected. There is no dependence on artificial chemicals. The soil is fertilized using composted organic material without the use of artificial fertilizers; pests and diseases are controlled without the use of pesticides; weeds are controlled by mulching, hand weeding or cutting without the use of herbicides. This is in contrast with modern intensive agriculture, which is controlled with artificial fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and cultivation methods to provide the perfect environment for crops. However, despite the best intentions it can be difficult to meet ideal organic standards. In a botanic garden there will almost always be other goals which might be difficult to achieve using organic methods. Permaculture is an approach to growing plants (usually food) which copies natural ecosystems as closely as possible; these are sustainable and favour low-energy inputs, such as not turning the soil by hand or by plough, and perennial food crops. The basis of permaculture design is to listen, observe and to learn as much as possible about the ecology of the garden so that the best use is made of the microclimates in the garden. This approach is already in use in most gardens where plants are selected to fit the microclimates available, reducing the need for external resources such as special nutrients, mulches, watering, pruning. This is illustrated by a minimum intervention technique for lawn or grass sward management (see below and Box 1). Permaculture and the organic approach have the same goal but each starts from a different point. Permaculture emphasises the relationships between different components in an overall system and is thus about design, whereas the organic approach is more concerned with method. A garden may decide to keep some areas wild or semiwild to retain remnants of native vegetation more or less as they are. A minimal intervention technique can

1. What is horticulture? Principles and approaches

Horticulture is the intensive management of a site to grow plants for human use (e.g. for display, in places of recreation, for food, medicine and to support conservation). This section outlines some approaches to horticulture that can be adapted for use in a botanic garden i.e. commercial, organic, permaculture and hydroponics. The chapter recommends a combination of techniques and approaches, with a bias towards the organic approach. The choice of approach depends on the mission of the garden and on practical, economic and ethical considerations which will be made clear in the collections policy for the garden (see chapter on collections policy). Botanic gardens may benefit from adopting a commercial approach to propagation and cultivation

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be used on sites with have required intensive, regular maintenance such as lawns (see example). If the lawn is cut only once or twice each growing season the species diversity is improved. The technique can have many benefits, including encouragement of habitat diversity, conservation of species assemblages rather than of single species, reduced staff input and the reduction of need for tools (grass cutting implements). The key to the development of a plan for any site is an understanding of ecological processes. This includes processes already acting on the site and processes which need to be introduced or simulated.

Hydroponics is the method of growing plants in a nutrient solution without a soil-type medium. Hydroponic systems are commonly used in commercial horticulture for the production of food crops, usually under glasshouse or similar protected conditions. In a hydroponic system, the plants are grown with their roots submerged in a nutrient solution, and the stem and upper parts of the plant supported above the solution.

Box 1 The use of a minimum intervention technique for lawn or grass sward management
Grass lawns are a feature of many public gardens. These open areas provide space for public recreation and assembly, but are usually low in species diversity, and may require a heavy investment of staff time and machinery for regular maintenance. A lawn that has been cut at short, regular intervals, may be remanaged and cut only once or twice each growing season, so that species diversity is improved and management intervention is reduced. Cutting regimes will need to be designed to achieve a balance between those species that are to be encouraged and other undesirable species. The flowering and seedsetting cycles of the relevant species will determine the time for cutting. Clear signs which explain the goals and the reasons for these techniques can help to encourage public acceptance of the changes. The following steps can be used as a guide to achieving a grass sward under this method: 1. Survey the site geology and relief, soil, existing vegetation with particular attention paid to the presence of exotic species; the cultural pressures - site use. 2. Projection the effects of restriction of access to the site, including effects on surrounding areas; the effect on the rest of the garden due to increasing the diversity of the site. This may include an increase in numbers or diversity of bird species which may then reduce pest levels. 3. Development of goals The goals for an individual site can be varied, for example: the reduction in short-cut lawn area; the development of a habitat for grassland herbaceous species. 4. Match the site characteristics (altitude, geology, soil characteristics etc.) to those supporting natural habitats. This will lead to an identification of a suitable goal habitat type. 5. Assessment of resource needs, staff input and costs. the labour required to implement the work; the input required for weeding/removal of exotic species; the need for particular plant resources in the form of seed or small plant plugs (of appropriate genotype); the necessary funds. 6. Development of a detailed work plan and cutting regime. The plan may involve: the manual removal or chemical treatment of species which initially flourish under the changed management regime; the reduction in soil fertility through repetitive cutting and removal of vegetation or through the physical removal of a thin layer of top soil. 7. Education Erection of clear signs for the public that explain the goals and the outline of the plan for the site.

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2. Working with plants

This section looks at the practical techniques for working with plants including collecting plant material for propagation from the garden or the wild, the care of young plants in the nursery, the siting and planting of plants in the garden and their maintenance.

for pests or pathogens. Discard any seeds or fruit, which show signs of insect predation. If seeds or fruits are ripe, remove seeds from fruit body. If the fruits and seeds are unripe, store the whole fruit plus the pedicel in paper bags until it appears to have ripened. Then seeds should be cleaned and separated from the fruit. Desiccation-tolerant (orthodox) seed can be spread into shallow layers within cotton bags. The bags can be stored in a larger container with silica gel to reduce moisture (see Box 2). Seeds intolerant of water loss (recalcitrant) should be stored under moist conditions, in moss or other moisture retaining material, within plastic bags and often within the fruit. Never expose seed collections to direct sunlight or leave them in hot unventilated conditions (such as inside a vehicle) or they will deteriorate rapidly. After collection, start germination tests for desiccationtolerant seeds to assess the viability and the need for pretreatments (see Box 3 Seed Testing).

Collecting plant material for propagation

Knowledge of the methods of propagation (see Propagation) is essential when collecting plant material for cultivation. It is usually obvious to an experienced horticulturist which methods will be most successful. Where there is no established practice, it will depend on the material available and knowledge of the propagation of related species and the growth habit of the species. Plant material for propagation can be collected in the form of seed, whole plants or vegetative material. Always, record the collection number, origin and date of collection and make sure that a nursery and/or accession number is given to the material so that accessions are not lost or mixed up (see chapter on Plant Records).

Box 2 Storage of orthodox seeds

The primary determinants of how long stored seed remains viable are seed moisture content and storage temperature. Drying seed to an equilibrium at the correct relative humidity and temperature will prepare them for long-term storage. A relative humidity (RH) of 15-20% at 150C is suggested for drying although that recommended by the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is lower 10% RH. Moisture should be removed rapidly. A dessicant silica gel or even dried beans or rice can be used to draw moisture out. Silica gel is used with a blue indicator which changes to pink when saturated with moisture. For long-term storage seeds should be placed in airtight, moisture-proof containers and stored in a freezer (-180C 00F).

Collection of Fragaria viridis in the Volgograd region of Russia Collection of seed and handling after collection Ensure that uncleaned seed has a collection number secured on the container. Examine all fruit and seeds

Collection of whole plants in the field The collection of whole live plants is best carried out in the early morning when plants are turgid. Try to ensure that all collections are carried out in shaded conditions without strong drying winds, which will increase water loss. Explore the location to assess the variability of population. Check for signs of healthy growth. Examine plants for signs of pests or pathogens. Spray all leafy parts of the plant with water from a mist sprayer. Cut completely around the plant, with the blade of the spade to cleanly sever all roots, before attempting to lever the root ball out of the ground. The root ball should be as large as possible for the expedition circumstances. Lift the root ball into a sack or plastic bag. A loose tent around the leafy part of the plant can

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be made from the plastic bag to reduce water loss. The whole mass can be stored and carried in a semi-rigid container such as a basket. Where transportation of soil is impossible, lift plants, carefully remove the soil from around the roots, trim the roots with sharp secateurs and pack with moss before wrapping in paper. Small seedlings can be collected bare-rooted. Carefully wash the soil from the roots and gently wrap them in moss before rolling in moist heavy-duty paper or plastic. Collection of vegetative material Hardwood cuttings The advantage of taking hardwood cuttings is that they are not readily perishable and may be shipped over long distances if desiccation is prevented. Wrap bundles of cuttings in moist sacking material, heavy paper or moist moss, label securely and store at low temperatures (refrigerate in cool-box where possible) in darkness. Avoid bud development. Plant as soon as possible in nursery beds. Succulent herbaceous stem cuttings Wrap plants in newspaper or sacking material and store in shade conditions to dry. On return to nursery conditions, clean cut ends with a sharp knife or razorblade; cuts can be sterilized with hydrogen peroxide and potassium permanganate mixture and sealed with finely ground charcoal and flowers of sulphur. Leave to dry in shade. Insert the cuttings in pure sand rooting medium. Root cuttings Wash and cut away damaged material and pack in containers of moist sand and keep cool.

With this method there is no intervening sexual stage to bring about any recombination of the genetic material. All plants vegetatively produced from one original parent form what is called a clone. This method produces plants identical to the parent plant and is used extensively in commercial horticulture (tomato, chrysanthemum, banana). In nature this occurs when, for example, plants produce creeping stems which develop roots and eventually become independent, or when bulbs die after flowering, leaving bulbils which have replicated themselves from the parent. In vitro techniques are where the plant material is grown on a sterile nutrient medium in vitro (literally, in glass). This method is used extensively for rapidly multiplying vegetatively propagated crops and has proved particularly useful in botanic gardens with groups of plants which are difficult to propagate using conventional techniques or if the amount of available plant material is very small. This method can be used for seed e.g. germination of seed (orchids), embryos and spores (ferns) and vegetative material (culture of meristems, stems, leaves, and buds). Historically, the term micropropagation has been used for in vitro propagation using dormant buds as opposed to taking cuttings in the conventional way, though it is now used generally for in vitro techniques. The detailed techniques involved in micropropagation are not covered in this manual. The techniques of seed and vegetative propagation are outlined in this manual. Seed propagation Propagation by seed is appropriate for annuals, biennials and many perennial plants. The advantages of propagation by seed is that genetic diversity is maintained through sexual reproduction and the risk of cross-generation transmission of pathogenic infections (as in vegetative propagation) is reduced. In botanic gardens, if seed is collected from the garden there is risk that the seed may be the result of hybridization with other populations of the same species or with related taxa, or, where the populations are small, that it will have been influenced by in-breeding pressures. Garden collected seed should therefore be used with some caution, particularly if it is required to support conservation programmes. Seed germination involves knowledge of the seeds requirements and a suitable environment for germination. Success will depend on using viable seed. Some taxa have low viability (e.g. some Celmisia spp. only have about 10% germination rate). A simple seed germination test will measure their viability and indicate requirements for germination (see Box 3). Seeds sometimes require pretreatments to enable them to absorb water or overcome dormancy (see below). Direct field sowing and protected sowing are discussed below.

Propagation
Introduction Propagation comprises the whole range of techniques used to produce more plants from existing ones, including sowing seed, taking cuttings, and dividing tubers or rhizomes or in vitro. Most of these techniques imitate processes that happen in nature. To increase plants successfully, it is necessary to be familiar with the various methods so that the most suitable is used for each collection. Record dates and method of propagation, the number of individuals propagated for each accession and the number which are successful (see chapter on Plant Records). This information can be used to assess the success of the method for a species. Seed is the most usual method of propagation in nature. Seed is (usually) the product of a sexual process and genes are recombined to produces plants that exhibit variable characteristics. Individuals will generally be different from the parent plant. The principle of vegetative propagation is that pieces are cut from the parent plant and encouraged to grow independently; the cuttings are incomplete plants as they lack some of the parts to become self sufficient (e.g. a piece of stem will be encouraged to form roots).

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Pretreatments Any ungerminated seeds should be carefully examined to see if they have been unable to absorb water (hardcoated seeds) or are resisting germination even though they have absorbed water (dormant). Dormancy is a protection mechanism for a species so that the seed only germinates under suitable conditions in the wild. Hard-coated seeds require a degenerative treatment of the seed coat (scarification) to enable water to be absorbed. The seed coat can be scraped (mechanical) or the seed soaked for a limited time in hot water or acid. Scarified seeds are more susceptible to infection by pathogens and will not store as well as non-scarified seeds. Seeds that have absorbed water (are imbibed) but resist germination, require treatment to break the dormancy, such as a change in light or temperature. Where there is no known established pretreatment, it is advisable to mimic natural environments in which the plant is known to germinate or to look up propagation techniques of better known relatives at the genus or family level for use as a guide. Many seeds require a combination of treatments - softening of the seed coat followed by treatment to overcome dormancy. Record all pretreatments in nursery records. The following treatments can be used to overcome seed dormancy: stratification - this is the process whereby dormant seeds are subjected to a period of chilling to ripen the embryo. Seed is placed in moist soil or sand in outdoor pits over winter or treated in a similar way in a refrigerator. diurnal variation of temperature - many seeds, especially temperate tree species (for example, Catalpa spp., Ailanthus spp., and Cercocarpus ledifolius), require a diurnal (twice a day) variation of temperature. Several other species such as some pine species (Pinus densiflora, P. echinata, P. elliotti, P. taeda), many Rhododendron species and Sequoia and Sequoiadendron) require light exposure together with the alternating temperatures. smoke treatment - smoke treatment is required for seeds of many Australian and African taxa, predominantly those from habitats where fire has played a significant evolutionary role. Smoke can either be applied directly or as smoked water (water through which smoke has been passed). Smoke impregnated papers are available from the National Botanical Institute, South Africa. chemical stimulants (hormones) to facilitate germination these include gibberellins which overcome physiological dormancy in various seeds and stimulate germination in seeds with dormant embryos, cytokinins which stimulate germination by overcoming germination inhibitors, commercially available as Kinetin and BAP and PBA which are more potent for flowering plants than Kinetin. washing - sometimes rinsing the seed repeatedly in water can break the dormancy by washing away the chemical inhibitor.

Box 3 Seed Testing

Where seed germination requirements are not known and the seed is to be stored or distributed to other gardens it may be advisable to first assess the germination capability of the seed. This can be determined by carrying out a germination test on a representative sample of seeds (ideally where seed availability allows, 200 seeds in 5 replicates should be used). Seeds for testing are given optimum conditions - light and temperature: seeds are germinated on absorbent paper, cotton, papertowels, vermiculite or sand often using petri dishes. To discourage the growth of microorganisms, all materials should be kept clean, and sterilized where possible. There should not be so much water available that a water film forms. Seeds should be checked daily and germinated seeds should be counted and removed. Germination tests usually run for four weeks, but can continue until seeds germinate or rot.

Direct field sowing This is appropriate for annuals, and for species which are to be grown as a field conservation collection (field genebank) in a permanent position and for land restoration, species reintroduction experiments and for erosion control. This includes some tree species such as large-seeded palm species. Direct seeding may reduce costs through reduced handling and may increase the rate of growth and seedling development through removing any checks on growth due to transplanting. A method for sowing pre-germinated seed is shown in Box 4. Record all dates of sowing, method used and aftercare treatments. Considerations for direct sowing are: the sowing time must be carefully chosen with regard to wet seasons and ground temperatures, as water and temperatureare the major factors which affect germination; the seed bed must be prepared with a loose but fine physical texture that ensures close contact between the seed and the soil to facilitate water uptake by the seeds; be aware of crusting potential of soil surface and surface drying time; planting depth - when exposure to light is necessary for germination, plant seeds shallowly. In other cases avoid surface drying and plant seeds to a depth approximately three or four times their diameter; seed spacing - reduce thinning requirements by sowing seeds evenly and sparely and as near as possible to their final position; be aware that seed predation may occur after sowing and consider if you can take measures to reduce or avoid this.

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After care - moisture, nutrient and weed control: moisture - seedlings require adequate moisture which is best applied by droplet sprinklers. Sprinklers can provide water falling onto the plants or water at ground level. Porous hose-pipes can be used to seep water close to the roots of the seedlings, minimizing wastage of water. dilute liquid fertilizer can be applied through the irrigation system after the appearance of the first true leaf. Avoid spaying fertilizers when the leaves are in strong sunlight. weed control through manual or chemical action may be considered to reduce competition for water, light and nutrients between desired and spontaneous seedlings and to remove undesired plants which may act as pest or disease hosts.

Box 4 A method of direct seed sowing:

Petroselinum is known to exhibit irregular, staggered seed germination and can be primed or pre-germinated before sowing. Dry seeds are mixed into a water-based starch compound such as a starch paste (wallpaper paste). The mixture is kept at approximately 220C temperature for 7 days to stimulate germination. One corner is cut from a strong plastic bag and, just prior to the radicle or shoot emergence the starchseed mixture is put into the bag. The mixture can be gently squeezed out through the cut corner, into the prepared drill lines and lightly covered with soil. This technique can be used for large quantities of seed, and the mixture distributed mechanically (hydroseeding). Fungicides and fertilizers can be added to the starch base. In conditions adverse for seedling growth, the presence of the aqueous starch compound, and other minerals can increase the potential for obtaining plant cover. This example is based on work undertaken at Walworth City Farm, London, U.K.

true-leaf stage. Otherwise modular or plug trays can be used (Figure 1); a good medium for germinating seed is 1:1 loam/sand or 1:1 loam/vermiculite (see discussion on potting mixes below). Seeds do not need additional nutrients if they are pricked out at the first true-leaf stage into a potting mix; technique - the medium should be firm and moist, cover seed tray with glass sheets, place in polythene tent or use fine mist spray to prevent surface drying; alternatively, porous pots can be plunged in a seedbed to ensure they do not dry out instead of using overhead irrigation which might wash the seeds out; temperature - depends on seed species and the planting time. If one attempts to mirror the wild in glasshouse conditions an alternating temperature might be necessary. In a shade house temperature control is limited; hardening-off - trays of germinated seedlings should be moved to lower temperature and good light conditions before transplanting; fungal infections should be treated immediately (see Pest, disease and weed control for details); transplant seedlings into larger containers (see pricking out in Nursery Practice).

Vegetative propagation The benefit of vegetative propagation is the maintenance of individual clones to increase a rare or single plant accession or other important genotype, reduction of the time required for a plant to reach reproductive maturity through the use of material from the mature growth phase and the maintenance of vigour within a clone through propagation. The disadvantages are the possible transfer of pathogens through vegetative material, possible somatic mutation through multiple generations and the loss of sexual reproduction involving genetic recombination in the life cycle. All vegetative parts of a plant have been used for vegetative propagation. The techniques described here include: Cuttings: stem, leaf, root; Layering: air and ground; Division: e.g. rhizomes, tubers, offsets, crowns, bulbs. a)

Protected sowing Cultivation of seeds under glasshouse or protected conditions can prolong the growing season and help to avoid adverse field conditions during the vulnerable seedling stage. Record the date of sowing and conditions in nursery records. Considerations: seed beds - the nursery area can give some protection to open seed beds; containers - seeds are usually sown in flat, shallow pans or trays and pricked out when they have developed at the first

b)

Figure 1 a) Seed-plug tray to show open base for easy plant removal with b) matching push-out plate

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Cuttings Stem cuttings are segments of shoots containing lateral or terminal buds which, under appropriate conditions, will develop adventitious roots (roots which develop from stems) and grow into independent plants. The propagating environment should enhance root development and maintain the cutting until it is selfsupporting. The ability of a stem to form roots is dependent on the age of the parent plant, the time of year, the water stress of the source plant and exposure to light. The kind of stem cuttings taken depends on how woody the cutting is. Hardwood cuttings are made from woody stems. They only require minimal environmental control for survival and are valuable for field collection due to the ease with which material can be stored and transported. They can be stored over winter in a heeling area (pile of potting mix in a shaded corner and covered, protected from the wind). Semihardwood or semi-ripe cuttings are taken from new shoots arising from a flush of growth and are only partially matured. This is a suitable technique for woody, broadleaved or evergreen species. Softwood cuttings usually have leaves and are taken from young growth that has not hardened or from species that do not lignify at all (i.e. non-woody species). These cuttings are vulnerable to drying out, so, to encourage root growth and minimize water loss, some environmental control is required, such as the use of a closed, propagating unit, the more sophisticated of which supply bottom heat and mist irrigation (see Equipment chapter). Many plant groups can be propagated successfully from root cuttings (alpine, herbaceous, sub-shrubs, shrubs, trees and climbers). Roots can be cut into sections and embedded/inserted in a suitable potting mix for cuttings (see Nursery practice).

Practical aspects of taking cuttings: use of root-promoting chemicals enhances the innate capacity of a stem to produce roots. Natural auxins such as indoleacetic acid (IAA) and synthetic auxins such as indolebutyric acid (IBA) and naphthalene-acetic acid (NAA) stimulate the production of roots in stem cuttings. For general use, IBA and/or NAA are recommended. Hormone powder has a limited shelf life and should be kept in a sealed container in a cool area out of direct sunlight or stored in a refrigerator to prolong viability; wounding - basal wounding is often beneficial in helping to root cuttings, especially where older wood is used. A wound can be made by creating a central, longitudinal split, removal of a section of bark or the making of several small incisions. The wounds break the cambium layer, which may be inhibiting root development; types of cutting are illustrated in Figure 2; medium for cuttings is similar to seed germination e.g. equal parts of organic material (sieved) and sand (1:1 loam/sand or 1:1 loam/vermiculite) with the addition of slow release fertilizer (see discussion on potting mixes below). Layering This is a propagation method for woody plants, whereby roots are encouraged to form on a lateral stem while it still remains attached to the parent plant. Layering is a valuable technique for difficult-to-root species. Stems near the base of the plant can be ground layered: bent (not broken) pinned and buried in the surrounding ground. Air layering can be effective for stems high above the ground; this requires that the bark be completely removed for a one cm section of stem and the wounded area wrapped in moist moss or other moisture-retentive material and sealed in black plastic to exclude the light. Successfully rooted ground and air layers can be separated from the parent plant by cutting the stem below the new roots. Division Division is a common way to propagate many herbaceous perennials, which includes those with tuberous roots (dahlias, begonias), fleshy or fibrous crowns (Hosta, Chysanthemum, Rudbeckia, Caltha), and modified stems such as tubers (dahlias, Caladium, potato, water lily - Nymphaea spp.), rhizomes (irises, Zantedeschia, Strelitzia), corms (Crocus, Gladiolus), bulbs, (Lilium, Hyacinthus, Narcissus), offsets (Agave, pineapple, Yucca) and runners (strawberry, some grass species) and woody shrubs which produce suckers (shoots that develop their own root system e.g. some species of Prunus and lilac). At its simplest, division is splitting up a clump or mat-forming plant into strongly growing pieces well equipped to start a life of their own.

Vegetative propagation of native plants at Tam Dao Botanic Garden, Vietnam

Nursery Practice
A plant nursery is a place where plants are propagated, and protected until they can grow without additional nursery support (see Equipment chapter). This involves providing a controlled environment in open ground or

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a)

b) e)Softwood cutting taken from young, fresh growth at the top of the stem; cut below leaf joint, remove leaves on bottom third of cutting

a)Internodal cutting; with cut between the buds or nodes. Used for woody material b)Nodal cutting; cut just below a bud and leaf. Used for semi-woody material because stem below node is harder and more resistant to fungal infection

f )Leaf-bud cutting; make an angled cut just above bud in the leaf axil and 1-1.5in stem below top cut; used for any type of stem cutting c) Heel cutting used for woody material. Increased hormone activity in the heel or hardwood region often promotes root generation in difficult species

Begonia sp

Sansevieria sp

Saintpaulia sp

g)Leaf cuttings can be successful, especially in the families Begoniaceae, Crassulaceae and Gesneriaceae. d)Mallet cutting used for woody material

Figure 2 Types of cutting

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prepared beds, containers, glasshouses, cold frames or shadehouses and the use of potting mixes (soil), fertilizers, and watering equipment. During the first year it is important to give young plants the best growing conditions so there is no check on their development e.g. adequate growing space or correct pot size, nutrition, water, protection from wind and changes in temperature. Hygiene is particularly important to avoid infection of young plants. Clear away fallen leaves and debris from the pots daily and clean glasshouses and cold frames regularly. Wash and scrub all plant containers after use. Overcrowding and poor ventilation may also lead to fungal and bacterial problems (see also Pest, disease and weed control). Young plants germinated or rooted in trays or pots can be grown-on successfully either in open ground, prepared beds or in individual containers. Most plants will grow fastest when planted into individual containers or pots where the root environment can be carefully controlled and there is no competition for water or nutrients. Open ground or prepared beds Suitable for collections of plants which are to be grown as a field conservation collection (see Seed propagation - Direct field sowing) or for woody, slow growing plants grown in bulk for mass or background plantings. Careful planning should be undertaken over the location, orientation and preparation of open ground beds. The following factors should be considered: location - site may be occupied for many years, so can be located on land which will not be needed for other uses e.g. peripheral land; drainage - ensure land is adequately drained; orientate beds to optimize exposure of individual plants to the sun, access for irrigation lines and for any necessary maintenance; shelter belts may be needed - wind can be critical in terms of mechanical damage, increased transpiration which will increases water requirements and soil erosion; thorough, initial site preparation through the removal of pernicious or invasive weeds and the improvement in the soil organic content will have a lasting impact on the successful growth of the plants. May need to adjust the pH of the soil to suit the species e.g. by spreading lime. Container production area Careful planning should be undertaken before the development of any container production area. The following factors (see also Open ground cultivation above) should be considered: Location - the degree of protection (glasshouse, shade structures or open conditions) afforded to container grown plants will depend on the climatic conditions, the value of the plant collection, and on the management resources available. Capital investment in structures and irrigation facilities may be required, so future growth, development Mist propagation unit with rare and endangered native plants of Mauritius, Curepipe Botanic Gardens, Mauritius and needs should be assessed. Access - handling of containers into and out of the site can be efficiently done when they are packed into large carrying trays and hand carried, or loaded onto trailers or carts. Orientate access points to minimize access problems and to facilitate bulk handling. Drainage - ensure the site is adequately, and evenly drained. Weed control - the physical removal of weeds from the site can be effective. Then, woven, black plastic matting, carpet or even thick, sheeted cardboard can be used to control subsequent weed growth through the exclusion of light. Container arrangement containers are usually arranged in blocks beds, approximately 120 cm wide (i.e. no more than the length of an arm from either side) and as long as necessary. This arrangement facilitates hand weeding and handling of the individual containers. Care should be taken to ensure irrigation reach covers the entire width of the container block (if circular sprays avoid missing corners). Paths between beds should be sufficiently wide to allow efficient bulk handling of containers. Potting mixes for container grown plants A potting mix provides physical support, must be well aerated, retain sufficient water, hold nutrients and conduct warmth and maintain these conditions for the time it is in use. These qualities are provided by a mixture of organic and inorganic material. The organic material retains the moisture and the inorganic material provides aeration and drainage. Suitable organic materials are loam, peat, coir fibre, weathered sawdust, spent hops and poultry waste. Although, loam has important qualities of holding nutrients and retaining moisture, it cannot be a standard material and it is often used as a minor component. Production of loam from turf is described in Box 5. In areas where peat has been used extensively in potting mixes it is now being substituted by composted bark, coir fibre, and composted straw because harvesting peat destroys the habitat of natural bogs. The inorganic component is chemically inert and sterile such as sand, grit, perlite (a neutral, sterile, granular medium derived from volcanic rock), vermiculite (a sterile medium made from

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expanded mica), and graded coal dust. In order to protect the young plants from pests, diseases and weeds, the components of the mix should be sterile (see Equipment chapter). Often potting mixes are called composts, which is a confusing term as composting is the method of breaking down organic matter to provide compost as described below. There are many commercial potting mixes on the market made up to specifications, such as John Innes. Potting mix for plants in containers (parts by volume): 7 parts loam (sterilized); 3 parts organic material (compost, peat substitute, coir fibre); 2 parts sand; blood, fish and bone 150 g/9 l (2 gallon bucket) or proprietary fertilizer base (slow release).

either inexpensive home-produced fertilizers or commercially produced proprietary fertilizers. Seaweed and liquid manures can supply a full range of trace elements. Iron can be supplied by iron sulphate. Commercially produced fertilizers should carry a clear indication of the mineral balance available in the form of a standard ratio, for example nitrogen:phosphate:potassium (N:P:K). The fertilizer ratio appropriate to use will depend upon the plants and their stage of growth. Chemical fertilizers are soluble in water and are easily available to plants. Nitrogen makes proteins and helps leaves and shoots to grow. Fertilizers high in nitrogen should not be used on very young seedlings or on cuttings until they are strongly established. Nitrogen in the form of ureaformaldehyde may be available commercially or organic fertilizers in the form of blood, fish and bone, hoof, horn or bonemeal and worm compost as discussed below. Phosphate is important in root growth, germination and seedling development. Phosphate can be added to soil mixes in the form of superphosphate. Potassium (K) has a role in the formation of proteins and encourages the production of flowers and fruits. It increases frost, pest and disease resistance and influences the uptake of other nutrients. Potassium can be added to the soil in the form of rock potash or seaweed meal or in the form of a potassium-rich compost made with vegetative material from plants which concentrate potassium, such as Symphytum sp. Calcium can be supplied by ground limestone or chalk. Calcium and magnesium can be supplied by dolmitic limestone and calcified seaweed at appropriate levels depending on acidity of the soil. Chemical fertilizers greatly influence the rate and manner of plant growth. For example, if a fertilizer high in nitrogen is applied it may result in rapid growth of soft, sappy tissue. High levels of potassium can supress the uptake of magnesium and lead to the plants exhibiting magnesium deficiency (turn yellow). The Jerusalem and University Botanical Gardens, Israel uses potting mixes which originate from commercial sources or are prepared on the spot, as required for each species. The needs of the plants govern the compost mixture - rich levels of phosphates and potassium commonly occurring in commercial composts are toxic for many of the species grown by the garden such as Proteaceae, which have originated from the ancient, leached and nutrient deficient soils of the Southern Hemisphere . Cultivation of young plants under nursery conditions Pricking out Once seeds have germinated and the young plants have grown the first true leaf, they should be pricked out

Box 5 Production of loam from turf at the Komorov Botanic Garden, St Petersburg, Russia
Friable loam for use in container compost mixes can be made from grass turf and the soil in which the grass is growing. use only turf which is free from perennial weeds; cut the turfs into regular pieces using a spade; lift the turf and the rooted top soil by cutting horizontally beneath the turf at a depth of approximately 6 cm (3-4 in); stack the cut turfs, grass-side down. Leave for 2 years; sieve the resulting soil through a 5 mm horticultural sieve. It may be useful to cover the stacked turfs with a porous but light-excluding cover such as old carpet or large leaves.

A standard or basic recipe potting mix can be altered for different taxa by addiing extra sand or grit for arid land species, extra organic matter for forest species and extra nutrients and fertilizers (see below). Plant nutrients and fertilizers for plants in containers Plants get carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) from the air and water in photosynthesis. Other nutrients come from the soil. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca) are needed in fairly large quantities. Trace elements are needed in much smaller quantities but are still vital to plant growth. These include iron, zinc, copper, manganese, boron and molybdenum. Even with a high organic soil mix, plants growing in containers need the addition of supplementary minerals. Growers can use

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from the seedling tray and potted individually, into small pots. Record the numbers of seeds germinated and date of transplantation in nursery records. Do not throw away the seedling tray, as there may be later germination. Repotting The roots of container grown plants will grow to fill the container. Restriction of the roots or poor compost conditions reduces the rate of plant growth and inhibits the plants establishment after planting out. To avoid such a check, it is important to repot plants when roots begin to show at the base of the pot. Avoid overpotting; only use 1-1 12 in bigger pot. Hardening off Hardening off is the necessary but gradual process of conditioning plants to grow under protected conditions. The usually warm and humid conditions under which young plants are started will encourage tender growth (elongated and weak), which means they are susceptible to disease and insect attack. For example, young seedling plants or rooted cuttings can be moved from the controlled conditions of a glasshouse, to a shade house and then to less shaded conditions before planting out into the open ground. If using polytunnels the skirt of the tunnel can be lifted by a couple of feet during the day and lowered again at night. Planting out from nursery into the garden site Consider the following: observing the correct time for planting out will minimize plant losses. deciduous plants can be transplanted bare-root with little or no transplanting shock, when dormant; evergreen species - unlike deciduous plants, do not have a clear dormant period. In cold climates, growth will be very slow during the winter season, but the plants are still actively growing. Evergreen species therefore usually do not transplant easily as bare-rooted plants unless they are very small or unless a root ball is maintained. Such plants are best grown in individual containers or dug from nursery beds and the root balled wrapped to maintain soil-root contact in a ball; container grown plants can be planted out at almost any time of year without problems unless the soil is frozen or very wet. Aftercare conditions are important for containergrown plants to encourage roots extend to out of the container compost mass. Adequate watering for up to 3 months, partial shade and at least temporary wind protection are recommended. consider seasons: make the most of wet seasons to provide moisture for newly planted material. Main planting-out times in temperate regions are usually spring and autumn. Hot summer months not suitable for planting out in the tropics unless shade and water are provided.

The siting and planting of plants in the garden

Siting and planting considerations The careful placement of plants within a site should reduce environmental stress. Mimic, where possible, the natural habitat conditions: Suit the plant to the site. Site preparation before planting Effort invested in preparation will reduce the maintenance required and increase the success of establishment. Consider carefully the following: appropriate soil conditions. Most plants will benefit from a reasonable supply of organic and inorganic minerals; water needs of the plants. Where possible, reduce the site water requirement through careful plant associations, location and through the management of soil water-loss through the application of surface mulches; pest organisms and weed competition - the appropriate pruning of trees and shrubs to reduce pest incidence and to promote strong growth, and the removal and destruction of infected plants and plant material; be aware of, and encourage naturally occurring beneficial organisms such as birds and bats, which can reduce the impact of sucking insects; be aware of the activities of ants which often manage insect pests for the harvest of their sugary secretions; consider the longevity of the plant and its characteristics throughout its life; light requirements - too much or too little light can be detrimental to most plants. Species which naturally occur in forest understorey layers, require shaded conditions in cultivation. Shade can be provided by living plants (trees, lianes), cut vegetation, or by artificial materials. Woven plastic shade cloths treated for ultra-violet resistance, are widely available in differing densities. The shade provided is expressed as a percentage of full light penetration - 50% and 70% shade cloths are commonly used in tropical conditions; succulents - in nature, some succulents, including many Crassula spp., Duvalia spp., Haworthia spp., Huernia spp. and Stapelia spp. grow in shade provided by nurse plants and are only exposed to dappled sunlight. 40% shading is necessary for these species. Other succulents require approximately 20% shade conditions to flower. This group includes the plants known as the midday flowering succulents: Dinteranthus spp., Lithops spp. and Pleispilos spp.; species which grow in alpine or high altitude conditions, where they may be exposed to high ultra-violet light, require high light conditions in cultivation. Water requirements all plants require water, but requirements vary considerably. Some species exhibit adaptations to low water availability, others require constantly available water and others are adapted to seasonally available water which may often be linked to temperature variations (winter rains or summer rains). Through manipulation of drainage, irrigation and

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plant associations individual plants can be placed to suit their water requirements. low-consumption irrigation units such as porous hosepipes or drip irrigation units can serve individual plants as well as rows and groups of plants. Plants which require drier conditions can be associated with larger, sheltering companions. Temperature requirements plant species may be tolerant of temperatures within a broad or a narrow temperature range. Where a single species occurs over different temperature bands, individuals of separate populations may possess different tolerances to different temperature ranges. Through selection of propagules from individual populations, temperature tolerances may be matched with those present on the proposed planting site. alteration of site temperature can be achieved by construction of a controlled-environment system, either in the form of a glasshouse, a shade house or a coolhouse. Technological input will vary, depending on the degree of change required. Controlled-environment systems which require a substantial increase or reduction of the site temperature, are usually financially expensive to construct and to operate. Planting The planting hole should be approximately 4 times as wide and as deep as the root ball it will receive. Ideally, trees and shrubs should be secured with guy ropes attached to stakes driven below the ground because they allow a certain amount of movement encouraging root growth and therefore secure anchorage. Use rubber ties (old bicycle inner tubes or hosepipes are appropriate) to cover the guys so the bark is not damaged. If conditions are very bright and aftercare limited, a temporary shade and/or windbreak structure can provide valuable protection for a newly planted plant. Planting lawns Care should be taken over choosing appropriate grass cultivars for lawn planting. The site characteristics and future use will influence the choice of cultivar. Leaf size, silica content (durability of grass under pressure), tillering, clump formation, and flower characteristics (erect or semi-prostrate flower spikes influence efficiency of cutting equipment) should all be assessed. Primarily, the choice of mix should depend on the availability of light, drainage and expected wear. Soil preparation is of great importance if the turf/lawn is to support pedestrian traffic and be long-lived. On a well established but compacted turf, growth will be patchy due to the reduced entry of water and air into the grass root zone. This can be dealt with by regular spiking, initially when the soil is moist (softer), and subsequently on a regular (twice per growing season) basis. Specialist tractor-drawn spiking rollers, or hand forks, spiked boards or a modified compacting roller

can be effective. Deep aeration may be necessary for lawns which have not been maintained for an extended period. The use of a specialist sub-soiling plough or mole will break any hard pan that may have developed beneath the soil surface.

Pruning
Pruning is the removal of any part of a plant to encourage growth, flowering or fruiting as desired. Pruning of plants has various benefits: improved public safety or access through the removal of dead or damaged material; removal of dead material which may be a retreat for pathogenic organisms or destructive insects; reduction of plant mass to increase light; improvement of plant shape, for aesthetic or plant health reasons; encourage flowering; removal of spent flowers or seed heads can prolong flowering; drastic or hard pruning can often stimulate regrowth of a senescent specimen, particularly if coupled with watering, feeding and mulching. Principles of pruning It is important to understand the growth habit and the growth phases of the species or individual, as well as the life cycle or flowering cycle, before any pruning is undertaken. Most woody plants have at the end of each shoot a terminal or apical bud. Below it on the stem, lateral or axillary buds are arranged in a characteristic pattern which varies between species. The buds may be alternate, opposite, whorled or arranged spirally and their position will determine where the future branches will form. The terminal bud exerts what is know as apical dominance over lateral buds, that is by producing a chemical which inhibits the growth of lateral buds it grows more rapidly. If the terminal bud is cut away or broken off, the lateral buds or shoots below will grow with renewed vigour. So, when we pinch out the soft tip of a young plant or prune back a woody shoot we are breaking this dominance by removing the source of the inhibitor. This fact is basic to all pruning. The degree of the apical dominance varies from species to species and sometimes seasonally within a species each of which has a characteristic growth cycle. Generally trees in the first few years of growth exhibit strong apical dominance, while shrubs that are intricately branched show less. The growth, flowering and fruiting characteristics of the plant will govern the technique needed to obtain the maximum decorative effect or optimum cropping capacity. Shrubs, which produce flowers from the previous seasons wood, should be pruned immediately after flowering. This should allow time for regrowth. Species, which flower on stems produced the same season, should be pruned before growth starts,

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following a dormant season. Knowledge of growth characteristics will help to determine when pruning should be carried out, but as a general rule the best time of year to prune is that which allows the maximum growing period to produce either flowering shoots or growth which will flower the following season. Arboriculture Arboriculture is the basic care of trees and is also discussed in the Equipment chapter. In public gardens, safety is usually a major concern. Dead and diseased tree limbs above paths should be a priority for removal. Regular (annual) checks or inspections should be carried out on all tree specimens within the site. Tree pruning Where trees are a major element or feature of a site, care should be taken to encourage a safe and strong habit in the young trees. Amongst the precautions that can be taken are: correct staking of young specimens will encourage development of a strong trunk and a supportive and extensive root system. Tree stakes tied too high on the trunk, and left in place too long will discourage the development of a thick trunk or root system able to resist strong winds. the corrective pruning of a split trunk. Where two leading shoots grow erect and close together as the result of broken lead shoot, water and debris may collect in the crotch, and provide a site for rot. One of the leading stems must be removed as soon as possible or a passage made for drainage. Branches can be removed from a mature canopy for several reasons, amongst which are: to open the canopy, allowing more light through to the understorey layers; to reduce the crown of the tree, so reducing vigour, growth rate and root extension as well as water consumption; to remove damaged branches, or those whose continued growth may result in a potentially dangerous situation (split crown, rubbing branches, proximity to other structures such as electrical power lines); to stimulate growth in senescent specimens; regeneration or healing of pruning cuts is most rapid during an active growing season, particularly, in the early months of the season. Damage limitation If a mature or important individual tree (an individual planted by XX, an individual grown from seed collected by XX etc.) develops either an unstable structure (damage of major branches by wind, internal rot etc.) or requires treatment to prevent it becoming a potential danger to the public, the expense and practical difficulties of the work should be carefully assessed.

In special circumstances it is possible to give support to weighty or unstable branches but care must be taken to create a safe structure which should be regularly checked. wire cable can be used to support weak branches by linking them to a stronger branch. Where the cable encircles the branches, a broad sling should be inserted to prevent the cable cutting into the branch. prop supports for low branches can be erected, supporting the weight of the branch. Props must be stable, and protected from interference. Cleaning out of dead or rotten tissue from a tree trunk or bole, should be carried out as soon as the situation has been identified. Care must be taken to contain infection through the sterilization of tools on completion of the work and by disposal of infected tissue. Cavities should be left open, not filled with cement or other filler, but netted to prevent the collection of leaves and debris. Hedge Pruning The value of a hedge as an effective barrier will depend on regular maintenance. Cutting or pruning should aim to develop a strong, branched structure from the base upwards. For many species it will be necessary to encourage branching by either removal of the leading growing point or by severe pruning. Thereafter, regular pruning should be carried out to develop a stable A shaped structure, which is wider at the base than the top. Laying of a hedge: For some appropriate species (Crataegus spp., Corylus sp., Duranta sp. etc.) approximately two-thirds of the erect stems, may be cut half through just above ground level, bent or laid horizontally, and woven through the remaining upright stems to form an interwoven hedge which will provide an effective livestock barrier.

3. Managing the environment

This final section looks at creating habitats for plants. It examines the soil structure and discusses how it can be managed. Nutrient requirements are discussed in the section on Nursery practice. The main methods of producing organic matter are discussed: composting, leaf mould, worm compost and green manure. The use of mulching is discussed. Pest, disease and weed control is reviewed.

Soil structure and management

The first step is to analyse the soil to determine the structure and then manage it for your purpose. Half the volume of soil is usually made up of mineral matter from weathered rock and organic matter from plants

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and animals. The rest is made up of air and water. The mineral particles are divided into three classes based on particle size and their properties: sand, silt and clay. Most soils contain a mixture of these sizes and are known as loams. For instance, a medium loam has 50% sand and 50% silt and clay, and a sandy loam contains more sand. Organic matter in soils comes from dead plant material and animal manures. Organic matter is biodegradable; it is broken down by the soil microorganisms (e.g. worms, bacteria and fungi) to form humus. Humus can retain nutrients and bind soil particles, creating a crumbly texture, which gives the soil its structure. Humus is eventually broken down by the soil organisms to release nutrients and gases. The pores between the crumbs allow drainage, aeration, passage for roots which enables strong root growth and space for soil organisms to thrive. Organic matter The most important aspect of soil management is a good soil structure. Organic matter is essential in soil management because it improves and maintains the structure of all types of soil. It aids drainage in clays and silty soils and improves water holding capacity of sandy soils. It provides nutrients for soil organisms and plants (nitrogen, phosphate, potash and trace elements). Organic matter can be supplied: in a rotted form (e.g. compost, leaf mould, composted animal manures) by digging into the soil or as a mulch; as green manure or cover crop such as growing nitrogen fixing plants (Leguminosae spp.); in an unrotted woody form (e.g. straw, chipped bark, coir) as a mulch. Compost Compost is a good source of organic matter. Compost is made from waste plant material from the garden, (grass clippings, prunings, pond and flower-bed weeds and leaves) and other imported biodegradable materials such as animal manures, old packing materials, straw, crop residues (such as rice husks often available from a threshing mill or waste from sugar cane processing). Any organic matter that will rot will compost. Compost making recycles vegetable matter, which reduces the reliance on landfills and incinerators for dealing with waste. Botanic gardens can play a major role encouraging composting in an urban community. Organic materials piled up into a heap will eventually become smaller (rot down) as microorganisms on the materials and in the soil reduce the material to compost. Composting is the biological reduction of organic waste to humus and is essentially the same process as that found in nature. The compost heap will artificially speed up the decomposition process by providing suitable conditions in which aerobic (oxygenrequiring) microorganisms can operate. Their activity

generates a high temperature in the heap, which stimulates other decomposition processes by fungi and bacteria.

Leaflet available at Jardim Botnico da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal A backyard and community composting project (Bronx Green-up Composting Project) designed to teach all borough residents everything they need to know about composting, efficient waste management and source reduction has been initiated by the New York Botanical Garden, U.S.A. (NYBG). The project is sponsored by the New York City Department of Sanitation with a view to reducing the organic portion of the citys solid waste matter. The project, run by the public outreach program of the NYBG, has several key elements amongst which is the development of permanent demonstration centres for the display of different compost bins and featuring educational posters and signs. Practical aspects of composting An adapted INDORE method is shown in Box 6. The composting process is a complex interaction between microbes, organic wastes, particle size, heap size, aeration, and moisture. The greater the diversity of wastes the better. A balance of carbon and nitrogen (C/N ratio) in the materials is required to achieve an optimum composting rate. Most authorities recommend the material should have a C/N ratio of approximately 30-40:1, providing sufficient nitrogen for the micro-organisms to use up the carboncontaining nutrients. If the compost were solely made up of fibrous material (wheat straw), all the nitrogen will be consumed before the carbon has been utilized and conversely if nitrogen is in excess of requirements it will be lost from the heap, often liberated as ammonia. To increase the nitrogen content, add either animal manure, dried blood, grass cuttings, seaweed or activators (specific nitrogen-containing compounds and formulations) and to increase carbon content add more fibrous materials. In order to retain heat, which is essential for the heatloving micro-organisms to act, the heap should be at least 0.7 cu m (1 cu yd) (approximately 0.5 tons of waste is required). If the heap is too small, too much heat will

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be lost from the surface. The heap should be completed in one session. Temporary heaps should be made if there is not sufficient material or if there is too much of one particular type of waste for the right C/N ratio. The heap should be made up in layers or alternatively, the material can be shredded and mixed together before constructing the heap. Shredding speeds up the composting process because the surface area available for microbial action is increased, the aeration of the compost mass is improved (shredded material has less tendency to pack down) and the heap is easier to turn and handle. The balance between aeration and moisture is also very important. Too little moisture will halt the activity of the microbes and decomposition will cease and if there is too much water the pore spaces will become waterlogged, reducing the oxygen and thus the biological activity. The heap would become anaerobic and decomposition would occur at a very low rate and unpleasant putrefying compounds can be produced. Materials should be wetted but not waterlogged. The heap should be covered to keep the keep the moisture content constant. A balance between aeration and heat retention is also important to achieve the maximum efficiency of the process. Aeration at the base of the heap can be provided by the use of a line of bricks or by the use of coarse, fibrous materials such as twigs or large thick palm leaves. The best way to keep the materials aerated is to turn the heap frequently which will of course lower the temperature, but the self-heating process should recover. Avoid using diseased plant material or perennial weeds (e.g. Convolvulus) and corms of plants such as Oxalis because these are often not killed by the composting process. Many plant diseases form spores which can resist the heat and decomposing reactions, which take place within a small compost heap. Diseased materials can reinfect plants in the garden or worse still natural habitats after enrichment planting or reintroduction programmes. Diseased material should be burnt. Three types of garden waste recycling are practiced at the Jerusalem and University Botanical Garden, Israel: woody materials are chipped and used to mulch individual plants or whole garden sections; weeds or herbaceous materials are composted in the various sections in the garden and used in the garden for soil conditioning; kitchen and other refuse is composted in a central facility in the nursery. Staff were educated and given instructions about how, why and where for these management procedures. Leaf mould Fallen deciduous leaves can be a valuable resource for adding fibre to a mixed compost heap, or when allowed to decompose alone, as a medium for growing

Box 6 The adapted INDORE method of making compost

Where shredding machinery is not available, the INDORE method is the most widely used for both large or small-scale humus production. This method depends upon the construction of a compost heap in strict layers based upon their texture and carbonnitrogen ratio. The heap is constructed in sections approximately 2 m (6 ft) wide x 1-1.75 m (3-5 ft) high, and can be up to 10 m (30 ft) long. The layers are as follows: rough fibrous waste forming the base of the heap; high nitrogen layer - animal bedding/grass clippings; coarse garden waste, including additional materials such as packing materials, crop residues, Eichhornea etc.; high nitrogen waste. REPEAT until height has been attained. finish the heap with a thin layer of soil, sprinkled with any of the following: lime, phosphate rock, granite dust, wood ash (fresh); add a sprinkling of bone meal and pulverized limestone to each of the compost layers; on completion, water the heap thoroughly, so that it is moist throughout, but not loosing water through drainage. Watering with slurry (water + manure) will increase the rate of decomposition. The temperature of the heap will rise to approximately 650C (1500F) and then remain steady for a short while before falling as the decomposition rate decreases. The maximum temperature depends on the quantity of waste and therefore insulating power. Turn the heap at this point, placing the material which was on the outer edge on the inside. The temperature will rise again and should remain steady at approximately 38-430C (1300F).

containerized plants. At Vumba Botanic Garden, Mutare, Zimbabwe, fallen leaves are simply dumped into excavations in the ground where they rot and are used when the traditionally prepared compost has been used. Green manure and cover crops Soil which is left bare can rapidly loose fertility and structure due to the impact of heavy rains and hot sun. Where a site has been cleared and the permanent planting has not been resolved, a fast growing seed crop can be sown as a temporary cover. Legume plants which produce nitrogen storing root nodules, and raise soil fertility are often used. Either annual plants such as alfalfa, Lupinus pilosus (as used in the Jerusalem and University Botanical Garden, Israel) or perennial plants such as Lespedeza sp. can be used. The green manure

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also suppresses weeds, encourages soil organisms, adds organic matter to soil and reduces erosion. Plants used as green manure should be cut and dug into the soil before they set seed. Worm composting Compost worms convert biodegradable waste into a rich humus which does not require sterilisation before use as part of a medium for growing plants in containers. Worms such as members of the genus Eisenia, live exclusively on organic matter and can be collected from existing compost heaps or piles of organic waste. The following points should be considered when commencing the production of worm compost: worms work near the surface, and need air. Use containers which have a large surface area; worms require moist conditions, so the inside of the container should remain moist, but not water-logged. The surface of the wormery can be covered with a porous material such as old newspaper, carpet, sacking or a soil capping; temperature - worms are most active between 18-250C (64770F). The containers should be kept out of direct sunlight and protected from cold winter conditions; the liquid as drainage from the wormery is valuable plant fertilizer, which can be collected, dilute approximately 1:10 and used as a liquid feed. It is also suitable as a mulch for pot plants, a layer of 12 cm spread on the soil surface is recommended. In the Jardn Botnico Francisco J. Clavijero, Xalapa, Mexico coffee bagasse (waste) is used, which is quickly turned in to a high quality humus called wormicompost. In coffee-growing areas the disposal of coffee bagasse is a serious problem, often contaminating rivers. Wormicompost is non-toxic and can be used as a soilimprover as well as a fertilizer. Mulching Mulching means covering the soil surface with a layer of material. A mulch will add organic matter and also serves to: retain soil moisture; protect soil structure from rain erosion; suppress weeds; reduce soil temperature fluctuations.

fine gravel or grit is appropriate for plants from arid regions where the soil organic content is low. A layer of gravel will have similar benefits to an organic mulch. manufactured plastic, bitumen treated felt sheets can also be used. The woodland garden of the Garden in the Woods, New England, U.S.A. is mulched with shredded leaves collected from the woodland itself. Shredded leaves are an attractive mulch. Oak leaves from the dominant species form heavy mats and decompose only slowly. Shredding speeds up decomposition and the resulting finer texture allows the growing shoots of herbaceous plants to emerge through the mulch. Slow-release organic fertilizers are applied before the layer of leaf mulch is spread on the beds in the spring.

Pest, disease and weed control

Policy In order to encourage healthy and vigorous growth in the plants of a living collection, it is necessary to reduce the impact of grazing and sucking insects, feral animals, rodents, fungal, bacterial and viral pathogens and competition from weeds. The control of pests and weeds in a garden can be most safely managed if the institution has a general policy which sets out the principle response activities. Suggestions for institutional consideration concerning pest and disease management: appoint a Pest Management Officer (see Box 7); pest levels should be kept within acceptable limits. The presence of a pest organism does not necessarily indicate a pest problem. The elimination of a pest is not necessarily essential. The level of tolerance for pest or disease infestation will depend on the individual plant value, the pest population density, the time of year and the philosophy of the garden; develop a programme to monitor plant pests and diseases in the collection and keep records. Assess the destructive impact of the infection, seasonal changes in the pest/disease population and check for predator or other organism activity in the infected region; ensure that before any treatment is enacted, the pest organism has been identified; promote, through positive management, physical or mechanical control to reduce pest or weed problems and so limit chemical use; encourage the development of an Approved Chemical List for use by garden staff, with consideration of the chemical impact on insect and vertebrate life (birds, reptiles etc). This should favour the least toxic chemicals which have an acceptable level of success against the pest organism; ensure that all chemical pesticide operators receive adequate training in aspects of integrated pest management systems (IPM) (see Box 7) and especially in the safe use, handling and disposal of chemicals.

A variety of materials can be used for mulching: unrotted and rotted materials will also add organic matter and nutrients to soil. Unrotted organic material should not be dug into the soil because the bacteria may use the nitrogen in the soil causing a nitrogen shortage, indicated by the plant leaves yellowing. Avoid introducing weeds and diseased material.

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Box 7 Pest Management Officer

The identification of a single person to take responsibility for the implementation of an integrated pest management system, and the storage and application of chemicals is an effective management technique. The responsibilities of this post may include the following activities: to ensure the correct identification of any pest organism or weed problem; to instigate and oversee pest monitoring programmes; to research pest organism management options; to develop an approved treatment list, including biological control options, chemical treatments and to work with other garden staff to develop cultural controls; to scrutinise literature and information channels for information concerning the following: toxicity, including safety and health risks to determine whether a particular chemical should be approved for use within the garden or not; compatibility with other chemicals - chemicals can be applied simultaneously to save time but compatibility must be established beforehand; risks of insect and weed resistance - especially important for chemicals used in the control of mites (e.g. red spider), when chemicals must be used in alternation. to develop training programmes for garden staff in integrated pest management systems, with particular attention to the safe handling and use of chemicals; to manage records of chemical use. Under USA federal law, pesticide application on public sites must recorded and the records kept for the following 3 years; many chemicals have accumulative toxicity, and the exposure time of each individual user should be monitored. Each user of a chemical should be required to fill in a spray report card (SRC), to ensure a clear record is kept. The SRC may be set out as follows: Date + spray time Name of operator Chemical used Dilution rate Litres of spray mixed Problem treated Host plant Location

to manage records of biological control organisms employed in the garden; to ensure the minimization of risk of exposure to chemicals for the general public. Controls should be placed on the timing of spray applications to avoid busy times for the garden such as opening times. to ensure the availability and placement of clear warning signs: Chemical spraying in progress. No entry. Signs should be placed before spraying starts, and remain in place until chemicals have dried; to maintain a record of any accidents and treatments which befall spray operators or the equipment; to ensure safe chemical storage.

Pathogens and insect pests One of the basic guidelines for any pest or disease programmes is: KNOW YOUR PROBLEM. Correct identification of the pest organism or pathogen is essential in the treatment and the impact of all treatments is increased by the correct timing of application. The following pathogens and insect pests cause problems: Fungi Important pathogenic fungi are particularly associated with propagation such as those which result in damping-off, amongst which are Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp., and Rhizoctonia. spp. Other fungi such as black rots and sooty moulds are mainly secondary infections which result from infestations of sap-sucking insects. Control: a) elimination of pathogens from the propagation medium, the plant material and from any tools or instruments used; b) manipulation of propagation environment to avoid conditions which promote disease fungi (for example the optimum temperature for Pythium ultimum and Rhizoctonia

solani is between 20-300C (68-860F). If damping-off occurs after seed germination, spot treatments with liquid fungicides may control spread until plants have growth through their vulnerable stage. Black rot in succulents can be controlled by removing all infected plant material and drenching with Benomyl (Trade name Benlate) followed by dusting with flowers of sulphur. Control of the sap-sucking insects will give eventual control of sooty moulds. Bacteria Pathogenic bacteria can be particularly harmful during vegetative propagation phases where cuts in plant tissue are necessary. Bacteria will invade plants through the open wounds or through natural openings where moisture exists such as pores in leaves and lenticels on bark. Major sources of infection are through contaminated parent material, cultivation media, (especially soil-based media) and tools. Control: eliminate sources of contamination, sterilise propagation tools and media. In cases of rarity or particular plant value, antibiotics or other bactericides can be employed.

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Viruses Virus infection is of particular concern where vegetative propagation is employed. Viruses live within plant cells. Many viruses will initiate the death of the plant, others affect physical features, and others have little visible effect. Viruses are transmitted by contact, most viruses require a vector such as aphids, nematodes, mites, more rarely through infected pollen and on and within seeds. Control: Control insect vectors and use pathogen-free source material. Nematodes Parasitic nematodes are microscopic worms which attack roots, stems, leaves and flowers. Nematodes may be surface parasites or internal parasites and usually cause the formation of gall tissue or otherwise stunted or deformed plant tissue. Nematode infection may also lead to secondary fungal or virus infections. Control: Careful examination of accessions to prevent introduction with new plants and through sterilization treatment of soil, tools and cultivation media. The use of strongly-scented plants such as Tagetes spp. grown as a companion plant or as a soil cleansing plant (grown and dug into the soil) has had some positive reports. The use of chopped fresh neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves (approximately 1 kg/sq m) as an addition to media will have a disinfecting effect. Insects and mites Pest insects can inflict physical damage through biting into tissues and through sap-sucking, infecting both aerial and root parts of the plant. Some insect are only pest agents during one phase of their life cycle, others throughout the life cycle. Through their physical actions insect pests can affect the vigour of the infested plant, increasing its susceptibility to secondary infections. Many insect pests act as vectors for pathogenic viruses and fungi. Control: Optimum cultivation conditions and the encouragement of beneficial insects. There are many examples of successful biological controls agents for insect pests especially for glasshouse cultivation systems. Soil-dwelling insect pests such as vine weevils and scarid flies, can be controlled by the use of parasitic nematodes. Integrated pest management (IPM) Cultural methods of pest management This is the first level of any IPM system (see Box 8), and is of primary importance in the reduction of the incidence of pest or disease occurrence in cultivated plants. Healthy plants usually have the ability to grow through an infection or pest infestation. Good practice includes: introduction, maintenance and use of only healthy source plants; careful and appropriate environmental and plant hygiene from the starting point of cultivation through to the removal of the plant from the collection;

the careful placement of plant accessions to reduce environmental stress, matching as far as possible the natural habitat conditions : Suit the plant to the site; the maintenance of fertile or appropriate soil conditions, through which the plants are well supplied with organic and inorganic minerals; mechanical and manual cultivation techniques to limit pest organism incidence e.g. through the use of mulches to reduce weed problems, appropriate pruning of trees and shrubs to reduce pest incidence and promote strong growth, the removal and destruction of infected plants and material; the conservation of naturally occurring beneficial organisms; the introduction and release of predators and pathogens to establish acceptable levels of pest control; the use of chemical treatments as appropriate and necessary.

Box 8 Integrated pest management (IPM)

It is rarely cost effective or acceptable to confine pest, weed and pathogen control to the use of chemical treatments. Concerns regarding occupational and public health issues, the development of resistance in pest insects, the impact on the environment and the financial cost of chemicals have led to the development of integrated pest management systems. IPM systems combine various approaches to control or suppress pests and diseases to tolerable levels by incorporating a variety of management techniques as shown in the text.

Hygiene Good hygiene is important in reducing pathogen introduction to plant collection. The following techniques can be considered: Quarantine and hygiene controls for new accessions may include the following: carefully inspect all incoming plants prior to introduction for visible indications of infections; remove and sterilize all accompanying soil due to concerns over importation of soil borne pests; reinspect bare-rooted plant. Where there is interest in mycorrhizal fungi associates, the soil surrounding the incoming plant material can be retained and fungal cultures grown from it and introduced to otherwise sterilized soil; for plant groups prone to known viruses, cultivate incoming plants in isolation with insect barriers. Where possible, cultivation should be under cool conditions which will encourage development of disease symptoms; sterilize the cultivation medium to reduce incidence of soil-borne diseases, particularly during propagation (see Equipment chapter).

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Biological control at Kobenhavns Universitets Botaniske Have, Copenhagen, Denmark On completion of the steps listed above, if plants show symptoms of disease or infection either incinerate all infected material, or consider growing the plant under the optimum cultivation conditions, with strict vector isolation. This will enable the plant to become well established and develop ample carbohydrate reserves to withstand any of the following treatments: vegetative propagation of uninfected parts - some parts of the plant may be infected and others not; high intensity heat treatments of short duration - effective treatment for plants, cuttings, bulbs and seeds infected with fungi, bacteria and nematodes. Treatments vary including hot water soaking, exposure to hot air or aerated steam for different time durations. For example hot water treatments at temperatures from 43.5-570C (110-1350F) for 12 to 4 hrs will kill most pathogens; low intensity heat treatments of long duration will free many kinds of plants from virus diseases. Established plants are held in a heat chamber at 37-380C (98-1000F) for 2-4 weeks. Young growth can then be removed for cuttings or shoot apex culture. Biological control Biological control is the practice of managing pest problems through the use of natural agents such as parasites, predators and pathogenic agents. Biological control offers the following advantages: environmental safety: there are no side effects affecting human or livestock health; long-term solutions - no development of pest or weed resistance. Selection of biological control agent and its placement in the garden Guidelines for the use of biological control agents in a garden: correctly identify the pest organism; observe and monitor the impact of the pest on the host plants; research the availability of biological control agents; develop programme of introduction for the control agent, with consideration of pest life cycle and predatory action of the control agent; avoid using residual pesticides for a month prior to introduction; order control agent at the correct time in the life cycle of the pest to maximise the impact; ensure that temperatures are conducive to the predator e.g. predatory nematodes for vine weevil will not move in the soil if the soil temperature is below 100C; introduce the control agents as soon as they are received from the breeder. Avoid the use of chemicals which might have an adverse effect on the control agent; monitor pest-predator levels and record. The method and timing of control agent introductions will vary depending on the pest and predator habits. For example, introductions of a predator which feeds only on larval stages of a pest should be continued until no adult phase pest organisms remain. Often the use of sachets containing breeding colonies of control agents will reduce the labour involved in introductions and ensure higher densities of the predators on the plants.

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Useful addresses: The International Institute of Biological Control (IIBC) maintains a global database of biological control introductions against insect pests which practitioners can consult. There is a similar database on weed control. There are IIBC stations in Kenya, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Caribbean and Latin America. International Institute of Biological Control Silwood Park, Buckhurst Rd, Ascot; Berks SL5 7TA, U.K. Tel: +44 (0) 1344 872999 Fax: +44 (0) 1344 875007 e-mail: cabi-iibc@cabi.org Internet: http://www.cabi.org/institut/iibc/iibc.htm Chemical Treatments In some gardens chemical treatments are used to treat established pest and weed infestations. Pesticides and herbicides can offer a cost effective management tool in terms of labour, however they should always be used in accordance with clear institutional safety guidelines (see Equipment chapter). Weeds Plants are perceived as weeds when they are growing where they are not intended to grow. Weed plants may have the following features: the ability to invade or colonise new ground; the production of prolific quantities of viable seed which may remain viable for long periods in the soil; the ability to grow from vegetative material such as roots, bulbils, or sections of stem; they may not be susceptible to local insect pests. Control: Herbaceous weed species can be controlled by manual cultivation techniques such as hoeing, cutting and mulching. These activities should be carefully timed so that the control action is carried out BEFORE the weed population has set and distributed fresh seed. Diligent manual or mechanical control can eventually reduce the weed population. The soil seed bank (dormant seed in the soil) can be depleted by encouraging germination of weed seeds before planting - through watering and where necessary, covering the soil with plastic sheeting temporarily to raise soil temperatures. Pernicious perennial weeds such as Convolvulus spp., which are able to grow from vegetative organs, or root or stem sections, may be difficult to control. Avoid the distribution of chopped vegetative sections in the soil. For these weeds, manual removal and incineration of all parts of the plants or the careful use of systemic chemicals are the most effective control mechanisms. Woody perennial weeds can be controlled by manual removal or by the use of systemic chemicals. The sap wood of a freshly cut stump should be treated with the

herbicide mixture. For trees with multiple trunks each trunk must be treated. It is essential that herbicide treatments are carried out while the plants are in active growth.

Waste Management
Botanic gardens can make a contribution to the sustainable use of resources by the management of their own resources and through their education programmes. The concepts can be summed up as REDUCE, REUSE and RECYCLE. Organic waste management is discussed above in the section on soil structure and management. Compost all organic material whenever possible and burn or destroy diseased material to avoid contamination of healthy plants. If the municipal waste-disposal system accommodates recycling then separation of waste material should be carried out e.g. materials such as mixed office paper, cardboard, and metals such as brass, aluminium, copper, and galvanized pipes. Collections systems should be in place and all waste management systems assessed. There should be training sessions for staff to learn about waste recycling. Air-contamination regulations should be complied with if burning in the open is practised.

Bibliography
C. Brickell, 1996, Pruning The Royal Horticultural Society Encyclopaedia of Practical Gardening Mitchell Beazley, U.K. A. Brooks and A. Halstead, 1996, Garden pests and diseases The Royal Horticultural Society Encyclopaedia of Practical Gardening Mitchell Beazley, U.K. P.D.A. McMillan Browse, 1997, Plant Propagation The Royal Horticultural Society Encyclopaedia of Practical Gardening Mitchell Beazley, U.K. J. Stanley and A. Toogood, 1981, The Modern Nurseryman Faber and Faber Ltd., U.K. Author: Blaise Cooke, c/o Sarah Cox, 49, Ritherden Road, Balham SW17 8QE, U.K.

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Introduction
This chapter is designed to give an overview of the equipment and facilities for horticultural tasks used in a botanic garden. It discusses the reasons for their choice, safety and maintenance. The possibilities for mechanization and automation are unlimited, especially for the larger and better funded gardens worldwide. In developed countries, labour is relatively expensive and machinery is readily available, which means that mechanization makes best use of the available labour. However, in countries where labour is cheap, mechanization is usually expensive (and made more so by the limited availability of machinery, the related problems of the maintenance of the equipment, relying on the import of spare parts and so on). It is therefore not unusual to see lawns being mown with machetes and earth being moved in hand-held baskets. In the U.K., for example the cost of machinery and transport is the next largest cost to wages for most types of landscape maintenance and can comprise up to 25% of total costs. It is therefore essential that the decision to buy equipment is carefully analysed and that the machinery is fit for the purpose and that it is reliable. The type of machinery in use can affect the design of the garden. For instance, large capacity grass mowers need wide-open spaces and efficient hedge cutters have made hedges easier and cheaper to maintain. Certain hand tools are indispensable regardless of how well-off the garden is, e.g. buckets, watering cans, shovels, picks, forks, rakes etc. and will not be discussed in any detail here. However, there are certain pieces of machinery that are affordable even by the poorest gardens and these will be covered. Here again, the question to be asked is; what is to be maintained? Obviously a motor mower will be unnecessary for a small regional botanic garden in northern Mexico which only has a collections of succulents and cacti and no lawns. In this case hand weeding may be appropriate and concrete, gravel or gravel mulches may be sympathetically used to both horticultural and economic benefit.

1. Grass Maintenance
Grass lawns are a feature of many public gardens and can require a large investment in staff time, water and machinery.

Mowing
The most important lawn operation is mowing, which is a form of pruning. The type of mowing affects the composition of grass species. The most common types of cutting mechanism are the cylinder or rotary. The regular use of a cylinder mower, cutting the grass not too closely is necessary for fine to medium turf. The moving blades are in a horizontal plane and form a horizontal cylinder which is rolled over the grass. The grass is trapped between the moving blades and a fixed blade and is cut using a scissor action. This is combined in parallel with a heavy cylindrical roller which provides a uniform finish. A rotary mower has a blade, which rotates parallel to the lawn cutting through the grass on impact. This is more robust and is used for cutting coarser vegetation on areas which are cut less frequently. Some rotary mowers have a fan mounted on the crankshaft to increase the air pressure under the canopy and lift the machine clear of the ground. These air cushion or Flymo mowers are useful for cutting banks because they are light weight and easily handled. A strimmer or clearing saw uses the same basic working principle as a rotary mower but it is hand-held and has different attachments (blades or cords) and is suitable for areas of coarse vegetation or brushwood that only need be cut once or a few times a year (Figure 1). For detailed cutting around tees and fixed objects a small electric nylon cord strimmer is a useful tool, provided a power supply is at hand. Detailing can also be done by hand with a machete or shears. For large areas of fine turf, a gang mower (several mowers in series and parallel) pulled by a tractor (see Box 1) or even horse-power is required. For smaller and more detailed areas where access for a larger machine is difficult to manipulate a smaller hand operated petrol/gasoline motor mower can be used. The small ride-on mower tractors can be a useful alternative to the pedestrian motor mower for larger areas, if a larger tractor with a two-cylinder mower is unaffordable. In a botanic garden, where mowers are in constant use they are subject to wear and tear such as rust problems, loosening of joints, metal fatigue etc. For instance, the cowling (a case to cover the blades of a mower) is often of sheet metal, which tends to crack through metal

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fatigue and the wheels do not have robust bearings and can be a constant source of trouble. Although heavier, a cast-metal cowling is more durable for professional use lasting over 15 compared with to 2-3 years for the lighter sheet metal type (Figure 2). Machines for continual and heavy use need to be robust and well engineered.

Removing the clippings

Clippings can be collected by means of a grass box attached to the mower. This is more important in wet conditions because clippings cling to the lawn surface, impede soil aeration, become unsightly as they decompose, encouraging worm activity and retaining surface moisture which increases the spread of disease. Another disadvantage of leaving mowings is that seeds of grass and weeds and cut stems of perennial weeds can infect other areas. However, mowing is easier without a grass box and the clippings can act as a mulch increasing drought resistance and deterring moss. Large quantities of mowings should be dried out before composting as they contain a high percentage of water. Alternatively, clippings can be collected by hand brooms and spring-tine rakes. Petrol/gasoline driven air blowers are a fast alternative for collecting grass cuttings and leaf litter.

Figure 2 Petrol driven push mowers. On the left a lighter model fitted with a sheet metal cowling; right, similar model but with a cast metal cowling.

3. Tree Maintenance
Tree maintenance or tree surgery is essential in public areas for safety, to prolong the life of important specimens and is aesthetically desirable in shaping and training developing trees. However, in woodland or forests the removal of dead wood and the treatment of cavities in trees discourages wildlife. Tree maintenance is potentially very dangerous because of the use of motorised cutting tools and working at height and should only be attempted by staff who have undergone specialist training. Where no such trained staff exist in a garden, there may be the possibility of bringing in skilled aboricultural expertise from outside, as specialist contractors.

a)

b)

Figure 1 Petrol clearing saw and strimmer showing interchangeable a) metal saw blade and b) cord cutter

Safety
Staff have to be adequately equipped, trained and supervised. Staff need to be physically and mentally fit and must be fully aware of the dangers and safety elements of the work. A garden should have first-aid and accident procedures. Staff should never work alone, even on the ground. Help must be within calling distance. In principle, only one person should work in a tree at any one time to avoid lifelines and tools becoming tangled. Weather conditions can make climbing hazardous e.g. rain, wind, extreme cold, ice and fog. Appropriate clothing is important. For climbers, footwear is probably the most important item of clothing. They should have a good grip and protection from cutting tools and branches. Trousers and body clothing should be of tough material for protection against cold and scratches. All arboriculture

2. Weeding
Hand weeding will always be necessary for collections of herbaceous plants. Blow-torches can be used to burn weeds along paths and steps. Petrol/gasoline powered strimmers or brushwood cutters are useful to control scrub or invasive species. A brushwood cutter is a very useful piece of machinery unless manual clearance is cheaper.

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Box 1 Tractor
A tractor is a high-power, low-speed traction vehicle and power unit powered by internal-combustion engines running on gasoline, kerosene (paraffin), LPG (liquefied petroleum gas), or diesel fuel. It can pull a variety of implements, such as a trailer, mower, fertilizer spreader, an irrigation bowser (container for liquid), a hollow-tine cultivator (removes plugs of soil) for aeration) or a spring-tine scarifyer (for scarifying grass). An important feature of a tractor for use in a botanic garden is the power take-off (p.t.o.), which can be used to operate a tree lifter, a winch, a trencher to dig drainage ditches or chipper machine. Many tractors also have a hydraulic front acting loader which can carry a bucket or a digger. The best basis for choosing a suitable tractor is experience and practical trials under the conditions in which the machine is to work. Features for consideration are: Flexibility of purpose; Traction (tractor power) - A tractor described as 40 horse power will have a lower power at the power take-off and less at the draw-bar to pull implements. A small tractor for horticultural and light use will be 25-40 horse power or 19-33 kilowatts; On-site manoeuvrability and the compaction of the soil e.g. wheel track width, overall weight and wheel ground weight, ground clearance and turning circle; Ease of adjustment and servicing - e.g. adjustment of wheel track width and changing wheels or tyres; High power output to p.t.o. drive - (examples in text); Two- or four-wheel drive - Two-wheeled drive versions do less damage to the soil structure. Four-wheel drive versions have increased pulling power compared with similar powered two-wheel drive versions and can be used under many soil conditions (e.g. logging operations); Four large equal size wheels or large rear wheels and smaller diameter front wheels -traction greater with four big wheels; Tyres should be suited to the surface - Road tyres break up grass areas and grass-area tyres wear out quickly and are dangerous on road surfaces because they have a shallow tread and slip. Tracklaying tractors (caterpillar tyres) cause very little soil compaction and give more grip on loose surfaces e.g. sand; Availability and cost of spare parts; Adequate and well-designed safety features e.g. guards are necessary over the moving parts of a power take-off; In many countries there are government health and safety regulations and recommendations for the use of machinery; Machines for continual and heavy use need to be robust and well engineered - e.g. chain and gear mechanisms instead of belt driven, roller bearings instead of journal bearing or brushes, heavy metal framings instead of light framings and mountings (see grass maintenance). Factors influencing costs are the capital cost (size and type of machine) including interest payments, the number of days machine is used annually, the type of work performed (i.e. can the work be done manually, and the comparable manual costs), the maintenance requirements and the cost of staff training. Cost can be calculated by keeping records of the amount of use, repairs and replacement parts, fuel, lubricating oil, licence, insurance, housing and staff training. A simple method of calculating the depreciation is to assume a life of say eight to ten years and spread the capital cost equally over the period. The costs can be compared with hiring, contracting out work and buying second-hand equipment. Training A training programme for staff for tractor operation is essential to ensure safety and efficient use of the equipment and should include: Daily checks; Familiarisation with controls; Driving straight forward and reverse; Driving around the garden; Attaching mounted machines to the three point linkage; Hitching trailed machines; Attaching p.t.o. shafts; Connecting machines to the external hydraulic services; Manoeuvring with a mounted machine; Manoeuvring with a two-wheeled trailer/trailed machine; Jacking up tractors and wheeled machines; Fitting wheel and frame weights; Altering wheel track width; Water ballasting tyres; Fitting a pressure control hitch; Operating a fore-end loader and any other tools used in the garden.

Training should also be given for maintenance: Servicing tractors (excluding engine); Engine lubrication; Servicing cooling systems and vehicle low voltage electrical systems.

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staff should wear hard hats and ear-protectors when using chain saws bearing in mind that head gear can restrict communication with the ground staff. Gloves should be worn for use with the chain saw and chemicals. Goggles produced for industrial purposes protect the eyes against sawdust and twigs - the most common minor accident in tree work. Even with access to hydraulic platforms or extension ladders, climbers should be fitted with safety harnesses, ropes and strops (these secure climbers in a selected position). Equipment and skills used in other trades, services or sports such as building, the fire brigade or mountaineering can be useful for tree surgery. At the Parc Botanique et Zoologique de Tsimbazaza, Madagascar, the removal of numerous self-seeded Fraxinus sp. was outside the skills of the permanent garden staff. Within Madagascar there are no arboriculture tree contractors. The Antananarivo City Fire Brigade, was brought in to carry out the work under contract. This arrangement used the climbing skills and equipment (ropes, ladders etc.) of the Brigade and the horticultural skills of the garden. The work was partially paid for with the wood from the cut trees. Public safety is important and warning signs should be displayed and the area roped off particularly in the area where the debris may drop, even if work is carried out when the garden is empty.

suitable for cutting above the head. Hand saws should be kept clean and rust-free and stored clear of ropes and harnesses. A pole saw is a pruning saw on an extended long handle (Figure 3b). Axes, mattocks, hooks, slashers or machetes are used for rough cutting jobs like grubbing out roots, cleaning and cutting up brushwood. Other useful hand tools for cleaning cavities in trees are a range of scrapers, carpenters chisels, rubber mallets and purpose made cavity tools.

Figure 3 A range of cutting tools

Sawing, cutting and cleaning tools

One of the most useful power tools used in tree maintenance is the chain saw. It comes in a variety of models and sizes with a large range of attachments (see Box 2). This has replaced to a great extent the use of the axe and bow saw and the two-man cross cut forestry saw. The most common use of a saw in tree work is to cross cut green wood. (cutting across the grain - transverse section). Despite the development of chain saws, a number of hand tools for tree work are still necessary for smaller branches. These include crosscut or carpenters saws, bow saws. small pruning saws and pole saws, loppers (long handed, strong scissor-type shears), secateurs and pruning knives (Figure 3). The fleam tooth pattern is ideally suited and is fitted to the carpenters saw and bow saw. If there is a large number of teeth, the teeth are smaller which results in a finer cut which is good for hard woods. Softwoods need a fairly wide set of teeth which help clear the sawdust. The size normally preferred for tree work is 512 points (teeth) per 25 mm. The main advantage of the bow saw is the detachable and replaceable, maintenance-free blades - the teeth on a bow-saw blade are hardened and can be replaced when blunt. Hand saws need regular sharpening and occasionally the teeth have to be filed down to one level and then recut and sharpened, which is a highly skilled job. Pruning saws usually have the Grecian pattern teeth that cut on the pull and are particularly

a) hand tools: axe, cutlass or machete, hand saw, bow saw and loppers

b) pole saw and attachments: poles (4) to make extended long handle for use with pruning saw, lopper and hook which are all jointed with a fine screw thread

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i)

ii) d) pruning knife has curved blade and heavy handle so that it can be firmly gripped

c) secateurs with locks so that they are not dangerous and the cutting edge is protected i) anvil-type ii) scissor type (spring-loaded so they reopen automatically after each cut)

Box 2 Chain saw

The most common type of chain saw is that powered by a direct drive two-stroke petrol/gasoline engine. The following attachments are available: auger for cavity work and cable and rod bracing of trees, hedge cutters, cavity cleaning, and a clearing saw for clearing undergrowth and young trees. The most important safety requirement is that one-person chain saws must be fitted with either a guard between the handle and chain or a rigid bar which extends above and along the back of the saw for at least 230 mm (9). In addition every prime mover must be fitted with a device by which it can quickly be stopped. The purpose and method of operation of this stopping device must be clearly indicated.

1. ON/OFF switch 2. Left-hand guard 3. Throttle lock out dead mans control prevents inadvertent throttling and hence chain movement. The throttle cannot be activated unless the palm of the hand is positioned correctly. 4. Chain catcher pin reduces possibility of broken chain hitting the right hand guard 5. Right-hand guard 6. Anti-vibration mountings 7. Exhaust system -directed away from operator

1 3

4 5 6

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Stump removal
Many tree operations and manoeuvres such as large tree-pulling and stump removal can be made more efficient and safer by the use of portable hand winches. Work load capacity of a hand winches varies from 1,600 kg to 5 tonnes depending on model. If the safe working load is exceeded a purpose-built brass shear pin will break and the load will be maintained. The winch can be reversed safely. Heavier hand-winches with more load capacity can be mounted on small wheels for easy transporting; designed to be operated by two persons, the winch gives a line pull of 5 tonnes which can be doubled by using a snatch block (pully). Large trunk pulling and heavy work should be done by a motorized winch, normally a tractor or 4x4 mounted pick-up. These vary in size and load capacity and are powered by the vehicles engine via power take-offs. Some vehicles have optional front mounted hydraulic winches or centre-mounted hawser (steel rope) capstan winches. A front-mounted capstan winch is an economical option and safer to use by unskilled personnel (two persons required) since manila rope is employed and is less dangerous if it breaks. It is similar to those used on boats. In combination with a snatch block and land anchor it is very successful for pulling out quite sizeable root-stumps. The disadvantage with this winch is that it cannot be reversed, the pay-loads somewhat limited and it takes two persons to operate it efficiently (one person controlling the 4-wheel drive vehicles hand throttle and another pulling on the end of the rope to keep it tight around the bollard). There are a number of electric winches on the market for 4x4 vehicles but these are designed for self rescue and are not recommended for lengthy winching operations since these winches are powered directly from the vehicles battery and can render it flat well within half an hour. Safety precautions must be taken when using any type of winch; never stand anywhere near steel hawsers under load since their snapping can result in fatal accidents. Always examine hawsers after each winching operation to detect fraying which could result in snapping under load.

hydraulic shovels or buckets. Moving earth by hand, using temporary labour, is often the most cost-effective solution where the cost of labour is low.

5. Vehicles
Ideally, botanic gardens on a tight budget should at least have access to a pick-up truck and a small tractor for use with a mowing attachment or a trailer for moving materials from one part of the garden to another. At Jardn Botnico Francisco J. Clavijero, Mexico no vehicle is owned by the garden, but a Nissan pick-up truck and a 4x4 Dodge pick-up are available for use from the Instituto de Ecologa on a booking schedule. Vehicles owned by botanic gardens vary from bicycles, cars, busses, trucks, trailers 4x4s, pick-ups, dumper trucks and electric golf-carts. Some larger gardens use electric golf carts or electric trains for staff and/or visitor transport around the garden.

6. Environmental Control/Special Effects

Some special effects such as fountains are purely ornamental but others are designed to provide specialised habitats for vegetation types such as aquatic wildlife gardens, bogs, rock gardens and desert which require careful construction and management. Examples are discussed in chapter on collections policy. There appears to be no limits to the provision of plant displays from any habitat. Several gardens have outdoor rain-forest exhibits outside natural rainforest zones (Lowveld National Botanical Garden, South Africa; Fairchild Tropical Garden, Miami U.S.A.; Australian National Botanic Garden, Canberra). Air humidity is maintained by a network of overhead water pipes fitted with spray nozzles running through the tops of trees, this way epiphytes are also kept moist.

Water features
Many gardens have an artificial ponds with electricpowered streams and/or fountains. Electric pumps can be manual or electric timers can be incorporated to automate the turning on and off of the water. Keeping water clear Keeping the water crystal clear in artificial systems has always been a problem, especially where fish are also on display. In the tropics, it is advisable to keep a certain number of fish in ponds, no matter how small the pond, as this helps to eliminate mosquito larvae. However, any living creature including mosquito larvae will produce ammonia which encourages algal growth which can be unsightly. Chemicals can be used, but are

4. Earth Moving
Since large earth moving operations are not common in botanic gardens it would be a luxury to own specialized earth moving equipment (dumper trucks, diggers, excavators etc). They can be hired on an hourly or daily basis for use by garden staff or the operation contracted out. Some gardens own diggers or dumper trucks or have access to trucks for moving earth. Some models of tractor or 4x4 can be adapted with small optional earth moving and drilling equipment such as

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not recommended as they are not only expensive but will also affect the beneficial algae (e.g. on which snails feed). A mechanical filter will remove debris from the water, such as sticks, stones and some algae. Biological filters have been developed by Koi Carp enthusiasts to remove the nitrogenous waste produced by fish thus doing the water-cleaning job naturally. The system uses oxygen, moving water and aerobic bacteria. Biological filters consist of system of tanks and pumps which operate outside the pool. They are rather large, ungainly devices which are difficult to disguise and should be sited with care. Possibly, the best low cost permanent solution is to achieve a natural ecological balance by growing plenty of submerged water plants which provide shade or floating plants which cut down the surface area keeping the algae under control and keeping relatively few fish. In most cases, a balance will occur after the first year.

New York Botanical Garden, U.S.A. has a permanent composting facility (30,000 square foot) which has a tub grinder (chipper machine) and front-end loader and dedicated staging area with two large holding bins in which organic materials are processed year-round from grounds maintenance as well as all other parts of the garden. This is part of the community gardening outreach programme and has halved the waste which was formerly sent to the New York City Department of Sanitation.

Composting site
An ideal composting site will have: easy access for vehicles, machinery or wheelbarrows of materials entering the site as well as for the resulting humus to be removed; sufficient space for the construction of a single large heap (min 2 m2) as well for several smaller, enclosed and covered heaps; space for storage of compostable materials prior to adding to the heap; sufficient space surrounding the compost zone for activities such as shredding materials prior to composting, burning large woody sections if necessary and for turning the heap; water availability - the composting process requires the addition of water; control of water run-off so that water courses and ponds are not polluted. The Royal Tasmanian Botanical Garden, Australia has a dedicated compost storage and handling area with a large concrete pad (20 m x 80 m) used for compost handling and brick-built storage bins for prepared materials.

7. Composting
The practice of composting is discussed in the chapter on Horticulture. Most gardens keep some kind of compost heap in their nurseries that receives leaf litter, clippings and other organic waste generated in the garden. Composting varies from dumping of waste in excavations in the soil to rot to traditional compost heaps using alternating layers of manure, soil and plant clippings, leaves etc. This last method is labour intensive since the whole heap has to be turned over from time to time. Some gardens use mechanical devices to turn the compost over such as digger-loaders or electric cement-mixers. Some gardens use a chipper machine to reduce woody material down to composting size. The

Compost site, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K.

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8. Nursery Site
When considering a nursery site; careful consideration of present and future requirements for space and resources in the nursery area ensure optimal use of the resources. The nursery site should be enclosed, hedged or fenced securely against unauthorized entry. Plant movement into and out of the nursery should be controlled and documented. Increasingly, gardens are losing plants due to theft as insecure nursery sites are vulnerable targets. Fences may also provide a useful barrier to grazing animals and chickens. Access must be controlled. Wherever possible, permanent paths within the nursery compound should be sealed with a smooth, hard-wearing, non-slip surface to prevent accidents and reduce spillages. This is particularly important for paths which are frequently wet. Water is necessary for all controlled-environment growing structures. Irrigation systems can be installed for automatic watering, distributing water from above through spraylines, or through a system of controlled flooding, or minimal irrigation using drip points located in individual pots or plant sites. Sufficient water pressure must be available to distribute the water through the system by pump. For many propagation processes, electrical power is useful and industrial frequency voltage (4-phase) is recommended. Points may be situated in the relevant structures. Alternative, sustainable sources of energy such as solar panels and wind pumps can be used which may also be of education value in a botanic garden. The Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Kerala, India, uses solar panels to generate the power (DC) to operate the misting unit in their propagation house.

covers or closures to keep out weed seeds and fungal spores; storage bins should be located for easy access by delivery vehicles as well as personnel using the materials; chemical should be kept separate, preferably in a purposebuilt chemical store. Useful in the potting shed are: eye-level storage cupboards for labels, and other small items; wall-mounted racks to which larger hand tools can be locked; stable shelving-units for holding pots and other cultivation containers; water point and sink for pot washing.

Sterilization
Loam used in potting composts should be sterilised. Sterilization can be achieved through: steam sterilization - steam and air blown through the cultivation medium which raises the temperature of the medium to 60oC for 30 minutes by means of a steam generator or a dry electric heating element. Sterilization by heating kills weed seeds and most micro-organisms. If the medium contains high levels of incompletely decomposed organic matter, the high temperatures can lead to the formation of toxic compounds which can be leached out by water or will naturally degrade during a 3-6 week delay in planting; or ovens - small quantities of medium can be sterilized in a microwave oven. Solar cookers may be appropriate in dry tropical or sub-tropical conditions; or chemical treatments - chemical drenches can be applied to the medium. Many fungicides are applied in this fashion, either before or after seed sowing or planting of cuttings. The Vumba Botanical Garden, Zimbabwe uses a simple method for compost preparation for the nursery: the organic compost mix is loaded into a drum which has been split in half longitudinally and mounted onto metal stands where the contents are heated (roasted ) for up to 12 hours, with the contents being turned every three hours to ensure uniform treatment. The idea here is to reduce weed seed germination amongst potted plants or germinating seedlings in the propagation house. Fungal spores or bacterial ova (sic) or other pests are killed during the heating process. Sand for intensive propagation units (mist benches) or micropropagation can be sterilized with acid solution. Soil in greenhouses should be sterilized when the greenhouse is empty to destroy weed seeds, nematodes, fungal spores, weevils and other pests and is an essential hygienic practice to increase the success of propagation.

Potting Shed
The potting shed is a roofed or partially enclosed work area for the handling of plants in pots and containers, the preparation of potting mixes and other work such as labelling, seed sowing, cuttings etc. A well-planned shed or headhouse is important for staff to work in and to store materials, soil mixes and other sundries. Features to be considered are: efficient lighting; the potting bench (work surface) should be flat and smooth and tall enough to avoid back strain when working, either standing or sitting; chairs and stools set at a comfortable height; a refrigerator is essential for the storage of rooting hormones and stratification of seed; access should be wide enough for a trailer or wheelbarrow; minimum changes of level or steps; efficient moving for a large numbers of pots at one time; easy maintenance for hygiene; staff should not stand on concrete all day; storage bins for each of the most frequently- used materials such as washed sand, organic compost, soil or loam etc. These are usually permanent structures which have secure,

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Commercial propagators use chemical methods of sterilization which are expensive and dangerous in the form of gas (methyl bromide), liquid (formaldehyde), or solid granules or powder (commercial products).

different climates within a single structure such as tropical, temperate and desert ecosystems. Traditional greenhouses have been renovated by replacing the benches by well-interpreted habitat displays.

Pots
A variety of pots and containers are used in botanic gardens. Many are made of plastic, or clay. Some garden containers are made of plant materials (woven palm leaves, cut bamboo stems etc.) or recycled materials (oil drums, cut off plastic bottles, cans etc.). Polythene bags and or plastic sleeves are in use in the nurseries as well as multicell trays. Pots need to be scrubbed between use to remove sources of infection. Some gardens have electric-powered rotary brushes mounted over a sink unit for the purpose.

Production greenhouses
The variations of a climate allow only the most robust species to be propagated in the field. In plant propagation there are two environments to consider. The aerial environment - humidity, temperature, light and gaseous balance and the environment of the medium (potting compost) - temperature, moisture, aeration and reaction (pH). The ideal environment allows minimum water loss from the plant material, cool air temperatures, adequate light for photosynthesis, normal atmospheric balance between soil mix and air, good drainage and warm soil temperature with a neutral pH.

9. Greenhouses
The use of greenhouses and lathehouses extend the range of plants that can be cultivated and propagated by modifying the environment. The prime requirement is to maintain the optimum temperature, water and light for the plants concerned. This control is achieved by balancing natural and/or artificial heat, ventilation, shading, heat loss from the structure and the humidity.

Public greenhouses
Public greenhouses range from those in which the plants are of primary importance and visitors might not be aware they were under glass to greenhouses which are sculptural objects in the garden or are used for restaurants, gift shops and classrooms. However, the main aim of most public greenhouses is to display plants in an inspiring way, fulfil an educational role and provide optimum growing conditions. The measure of success is that visitors linger and learn and return later. The structure of a large greenhouse affects the interior space and amount of light. The basic types of structure are rectilinear and curvilinear and need internal pillars to support a large structure. Curvilinear structures allow the best light transmission because the light strikes the glass at a 90 degree angle and less light is deflected. This effect will be more marked at high latitudes in winter when the sun is low. The geodesic or dome-type structures as exemplified by the Climatron at the Missouri Botanical Garden, St Louis, U.S.A., and the pyramidal greenhouses at the Botanic Garden of Adelaide, Australia have maximum structural strength and good light transmission but are limited by the internal area and height. Some greenhouses have exterior frames in order to obtain clear spaces without interior structures (Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, U.K., Hamburg Botanic Garden, Germany). Modern greenhouses can be designed to provide examples of

Nursery and greenhouse structure, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K. Cold frame A box can provide the simplest controlled environment with a piece of glass on the top acting as a lid. This closed-case environment helps to increase the soil temperature, reduce temperature fluctuations, maintain humidity and allow light through. However, the air temperature rises sharply in the sun which necessitates either airing the case to reduce the temperature and thereby losing humidity or shading the glass to cut down the light input which reduces photosynthesis. Glass can be substituted with plastic but glass conserves heat more effectively due to the so-called greenhouse effect. The short-wave radiation of the sun passes through the glass and is absorbed by the contents of the greenhouse but is reflected as long-wave radiation, which cannot pass out through the glass, and so heat builds up. Traditional cold frames are constructed of wood or brick with a single pane or several panes of glass sloping towards the sun and placed in a protected but well lit position (Figure 5). Cold frames outside are also a useful facility for hardening off plants, rooting cuttings, and seed stratification.

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have a lower cost and have an easier access but benches are probably easier for smaller quantities and the wide range of plants propagated in a botanic garden. Fogging uses special equipment to create very small evenly distributed water droplets to create constantly high humidity conditions (93-100%). This is a good system to root large soft cuttings and there are fewer problems with poor drainage of the soil substrate. Fogging is useful for cooling greenhouses in warm areas and is essential for a cloud forest display. Figure 5 Cold frame The Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Kerala, India, use sunken frames for seed germination and rooting cuttings and a fibreglass roofed area for cacti and succulent seedlings. Greenhouse In a greenhouse more precise environmental control is possible especially with a mist unit. It employs special nozzles that periodically spray fine droplets of water on to the cuttings. It automatically maintains the moisture level while allowing good light and the use of bottom heat without increasing the air temperature. Soil or bottom heat can be provided by plastic-coated heating cables or mats or water. The moisture level can be controlled manually, by a time-switch or more effectively by an electronic sensor which measures the evaporation rate of the water and can switch the system on and off. However, there is a risk of waterlogging of the rooting substrate unless they are checked every day. Many nurseries make beds for cuttings at floor level (c.f. polytunnel see below) which Polytunnel Another useful propagation facility is an outdoor low polythene tunnel (polytunnel, sun or solar tunnel) where plants or cuttings are placed at ground level and the polythene sides can be rolled up. These are usually about three feet wide and three to four feet high with or without a mist line down the centre (Figure 6). These unheated tunnels are used in botanic gardens worldwide.

Planning a greenhouse facility

The type of greenhouse required for propagation and care of plants will depend on the gardens geographical location and local climate, the use to which it will be put and the budget available for construction. Three points need to be considered when planning propagating facilities in a botanic garden: extensive planning in the choice of design and potential for future expansion; the needs of the garden whether scientific research collections are to be maintained or extensive propagation programmes for display purposes or both;

Figure 6 Polythene tunnel

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having skilled technical staff who will maintain and operate efficiently the day-to-day needs for effective propagation and plant culture. Construction materials The structure or frame of a greenhouse can be made from aluminium alloy, steel, wood or pre-stressed concrete. The choice of covering material for a greenhouse influences the detailed design: aesthetic appeal, control of light, condensation, control in humid areas, provision of services, access and maintenance. Glass is the traditional material and is used in most display houses. Flexible man-made covering materials such as polythene perform the same functions as glass and are cheaper. Polythene sheeting is weakened by ultra violet light and can split during storms. Rigid covers such as fibre glass, acrylic and polycarbonate, are all lightweight, stronger than glass and have good light-transmission properties. New materials are continually coming onto the market and so the relative economies must be considered at the time of construction in relation to the initial cost and the expected life span. Energy The cost of heating a greenhouse is a significant longterm expense and reduction in energy costs are a prime consideration. The siting of the greenhouse, the use of windbreaks, insulation of greenhouses, and the design of beds and benches all influence energy consumption. Regular maintenance is important. Low energy consuming systems such as infra-red heaters which heat the plants and not the greenhouse air can be employed. Retaining solar heat in banks of water drums can reduce night energy consumption. Heat loss at night can be reduced by the use of thermal curtains drawn over the plants, effectively creating a lowered ceiling. Heating can be supplied by hot water systems powered by solid fuel, oil, gas or paraffin, and electricity. Environmental control The control of the climate needs very careful monitoring to provide the optimum environment for the plants from manual to fully automated. Computerized environmental controls can integrate temperature, ventilation, humidity, applications of liquid fertilizer, mist or fog irrigation systems. The maintenance of complicated systems is often a limiting factor. Humidity, ventilation, watering and shade can be controlled manually by skilled garden staff. Examples of environmental control A humid tropical forest climate needs year-round minimum temperatures to maintain healthy growth and a humid atmosphere. Under glass, artificial heat will be necessary with roof shading during the hottest months and frequent damping down to provide humidity by wetting the greenhouse floor and benches which also causes slight cooling by evaporation.

Some alpines in their natural habitat are protected from frost and excessive transpiration caused by freezing winds by a layer of snow; this also provides a dormant rest period. Glass replaces snow as a winter covering, providing protection from rain which can cause rot. Supplementary lighting can provide high light intensity. The greenhouse site needs to be open and unshaded, with good ventilation to provide positive airflow to remove stagnant humid conditions. Refrigerated benches provide a cool root run for highaltitude alpines. These conditions will mimic those in the wild and help maintain the characteristic habit of alpines. Many South African plants need continuous ventilation under glass by the use of fan heaters or extractor fans to reproduce the open, windy conditions in the wild. In arid countries extractor fans can be used to reduce greenhouse temperatures. A special horticultural and technical challenge is to grow plants from a temperate area in a warm climate. This has been achieved in the Singapore Botanic Garden which has a cloud forest facility which creates conditions of an equatorial montane forest. Cloudforest displays in temperate regions are achieved in relatively cool greenhouses fitted with misting and fogging equipment, those used at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K. are computer-automated. Supplementary lighting for both day-length control and /or increased light intensity is most useful for forcing plants into early growth from cuttings and carbon dioxide enrichment can also be used to promote growth.

10. Shade houses

At their simplest, a shade house (lathhouse) consists of a frame covered with shade material to protect plants from high temperatures and high light intensities. They rarely have walls or doors. These tend to be more in use in hot areas where shading takes precedence over heating and are very important in the lowland tropics and sub-tropics. The materials for constructing these vary immensely, from manufactured metal pipes or aluminium poles and shade netting to the partially home made stuctures of timber with shade netting to the completely locally obtained materials such as timber with wood or bamboo slats for shading. Shade houses are very useful for exhibiting epiphytes in warm areas. About half of the nursery area of TBGRI (one acre) is converted to shaded areas and Fairchild in Miami, Florida has an extensive area protected by net shading.

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Propagation house, Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Kerala, India

Shaded nursery stand, Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Kerala, India

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all paths should be wide enough to walk down whilst carrying plant trays. Wheelchair access should be considered in display lathe houses; shade houses used for propagation in tropical and subtropical climates can be provided with mist units or other water administering systems.

11. Chemicals
Chemicals used to treat pests, disease and weed problems are poisons and can affect other wildlife in a botanic garden as well as humans. An integrated management system described in the horticultural chapter will limit the need for chemical use. Application techniques can include the following: spot treatments of chemicals applied as needed. Where individual plants are infested chemicals can be applied as a local soil drench, or as a spray treatment. Established weeds can be treated with contact herbicide (that kills only those green parts of plants with which it comes into contact e.g. paraquat) or systemic herbicide (that is absorbed into the sap-stream and kills the whole plant); low volume pump action sprayers. This requires the use of specially formulated chemicals applied through particular sprayers. The sprayers release very small electrically charged droplets, which are drawn to earth on the upright plant material. These sprayers dispense very small volumes and can ensure a good coverage of the plants with the chemical; low toxicity treatments including the use of soft soaps and petroleum oils as well as naturally occurring chemicals such as pyrethrin; pest-specific chemicals such as Pirimicarb, which is a specific aphicide, has no harmful effects on beneficial insects, or grass-control herbicides can be used in broadleaved ground-covers (Fluazifop-P butyl = Fusilade).

Lathhouse under construction, Tam Dao Botanic Garden, Vietnam

Propagation House, Vumba Botanical Garden, Mutare, Zimbabwe Features to consider when planning a lathhouse are: the frame can be made from any strong, rigid material such as concrete, brick, wood or aluminum pipes with stretched wires. The construction will depend upon the weight and rigidity of the material used to provide the shade. The frame structure is often built to be long-lasting, and the shade covering periodically renewed; shade covering materials give dappled or diffused light. Shade can be provided by narrow wooden poles such as split bamboo, reed mats, dried leaves or by woven plastic netting. The density of the material used will control the density of the shade achieved. Both the top and the sides of the house are usually covered with shade material; considerations of space-use and internal drainage should be similar to those for greenhouse construction; in tropical, high-light conditions, benching may be constructed like shelves with the benches at different heights. Plants requiring dense shade can occupy the lower benches, and plants requiring higher light can occupy the higher benches. Elsewhere, the shade house may be used for hardening-off container grown plants, which can be stood in blocks on the open ground, not on benches;

Safety procedure:
be aware of weather conditions before planning to apply chemicals. Never spray during hot sunny weather, in strong winds or when rain threatens; always try to reduce hazards to non-target species; the optimum time to apply chemical treatments is when the plants are fully turgid, in the cool early morning or in the evening; never eat, drink or smoke when handling chemicals. If you need to take a break during the spraying process, wash your hands and face before eating or drinking; always read and follow the directions on the container; use rubber gloves when handling any chemicals or chemical containers. Be aware of and avoid splashes, dust and fumes; always wear protective garments including a face-mask when mixing and applying chemicals. If no face masks are available do not handle chemicals;

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wear appropriate protective clothing as specified on the chemical container. If no protective clothing is specified, wear an overall or old cloths which cover your body or waterproofed clothing. Never handle chemicals wearing a short sleeved shirt. The most common risk of operator exposure to toxic chemicals is through skin contact. Change when spraying is completed. Wash clothes separately; wash well after spraying. Wash immediately after any contamination or spillage onto yourself; be aware of use by dates. Never use chemicals which are older than their recommended date. These may be degraded and their chemical state altered from the original intended condition. Old chemicals can be dangerous; make sure you fill in a Spray Record card before you commence handling the chemicals. Complete the card when you have completed the application (see Horticulture chapter).

Chemical storage Chemicals used in horticulture are often flammable and may be toxic. Their storage should be carefully considered and wherever possible a purpose built store be designated. The store location should be clearly marked with NO SMOKING, POISON and FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS signs. The following points may be useful in planning a chemical store: location - isolate the chemical store from other buildings. Choose a location where fire could be contained and prevented from spreading; construction - avoid the use of flammable materials. Use stone, brick or concrete or corrugated metal. The base of the store should be concrete, and should be constructed like a basin which will contain approximately 25% of the total quantity of liquid stored. It should have a small ridge around the circumference and a drainage point; ventilation - the store and the chemical mixing area should be separate and have adequate ventilation; security - chemicals are dangerous and expensive. Their use should be carefully controlled. This is most easily achieved if the store can be securely locked; must follow local codes and read directions for storing chemicals; store liquids below powders on the shelves.

Spraying Equipment
Back-pack pump sprayers are in common use in botanic gardens, providing maximum manoeuvrability for the operator when working in tight spaces in greenhouses in conjunction with agricultural respirator hoods which provide head, face and eye protection and are fitted with cartridge respirators that provide respiratory protection from fine airborne droplets. Larger gardens may employ a tractor-pulled sprayer which can contain 200 gallons (900 litres) or hand pulled bowsers. Maintenance and use of spraying equipment Spraying equipment should be regularly maintained and checked to ensure efficient and safe use of chemicals. A log as follows can be a helpful means of managing spray equipment: Sprayer Number Date of Maintenance check State of Sprayer

12. Water
The availability of water is major factor on the choice of plants grown in the garden and provision of water for a botanic garden must be considered from the outset. Water in botanic gardens is obtained from the public water supplies and drawn from local lakes, rivers, storage dams and boreholes. Water is a valuable resource and increasingly gardens should give consideration to reducing water usage and water recycling. Through appropriate planting, the management of the organic content in soil, careful preparation and mulching the water requirement for a site can be reduced. Consideration should be given to collection, storage and recycling of waste water. Drainage of natural precipitation and watering run-off from paths and beds can be collected. Greenhouses or other structures can be fitted with guttering so that water can be collected from the roofs. Storage tanks can either be buried or open cisterns can be used that run under the greenhouse staging. The latter system has the advantage maintaining a high atmospheric humidity and having rain water readily available for watering and at the correct temperature. Water consumption can be reduced by repairing leaks and adjusting irrigation schedules. Recycled or gray water from sources other than sewage can be used for irrigation, flushing toilets and evaporation cooling.

All spray equipment must be rinsed with clean water after each use. The rinse water should be further diluted and spayed on waste land. It should not be stored and used for dilution of the same chemical for the next spray treatment because it will change the dilution rate. Protective clothing including gloves, boots, waterproof overalls, cotton overalls, hoods, respirators, face masks should be checked and maintained. All protective clothing should be washed after use. Empty chemical containers need to be safely disposed of. This should include an awareness of use by dates printed on chemical containers. Many municipal bodies now have a disposal service or policy for dealing with chemical containers especially those which still contain chemicals passed their use by date.

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Gardens can save money by treating their own wastewater and sewage for reuse in the garden. Longwood Gardens, U.S.A. has a self-contained system with its own storage pond which is designed to store approximately a 90-day supply of treated effluent. At Highgrove House, U.K., H.R.H The Prince of Wales has installed ponds and reed beds to treat sewage and waste water. Innovative solutions to water recycling can be extremely interesting for garden visitors. Where mains water supply is depended upon, emergency tank storage must be considered, especially if the supply is intermittent. Tank capacity should be calculated to supply water requirements during the cutoff periods. Many municipalities treat water with chlorine at 0.1-0.6 parts per million (ppm), which is not normally sufficiently high to cause injury to plants. However the addition of fluoride at 1ppm can cause leaf damage especially to tropical species. Water hardness should be also considered when using municipal water. Water in limestone areas might cause havoc with plants that require watering with soft, acid water. There are a number of commercial water softening systems available. Water pumped from ponds, rivers, wells or lakes can be used but the following steps should be undertaken: Strain and filter to remove debris and grit. Add chlorine to suppress algal growth and disease pathogens at 0.5 ppm or 0.5 mg/l Other points for consideration are as follows: watering can be manual or automatic. The systems used will depend upon water pressure and location; irrigation is most effective if applied at night when loss of water due to evaporation is minimized. Plants should never be watered in sunny conditions; for optimum irrigation, each garden sector should be supplied with water points at 100 m centres; water points can be sunk beneath a secure metal cover, or can be raised erect on a stand pipe; taps which are open to public view can be made secure from unauthorized use by the use of removable turn-key tap fittings; hosepipes should be stored coiled and always transported and stored away from the site when not in use; irrigation fittings can be fixed or mobile. Revolving sprayers can be set to irrigate a complete circle or a section of a circle, the radius of which will depend upon the water pressure; permanent plantings can be irrigated by porous hosepipe or by drip irrigation units which drip water at the base of individual plants. Either system can be laid onto or buried below the ground surface, supplying water close to the roots of the individual plants; container-grown plants can be irrigated by fixed or movable overhead irrigation lines, by drip units pegged securely into the individual containers, or by regular flooding of the container site.

13. Labels
Plant labels link the living plant in the collection to the information held in the records. This is a vital part of the control of plant collections in botanic gardens; this is discussed in the chapter on plant records. The procedure for labelling each plant in a botanic garden is discussed in the chapter on collections management. For visitors the label provides information or has an interpretative role. There are three major type of labels: 1. Accession labels/tags- used by the staff and contains the minimum information for the identification of an individual plant: a code consisting of letters and/or numbers (accession number see chapter on Plant Records). The addition of the scientific name will help garden staff recognize plants and act as a cross-reference. Many gardens have temporary nursery labels which have the plant collection number or other identification while awaiting the accession number to be assigned. This could be separate from accession labels or could serve the same function. If considered as separate this would be fourth type of label. 2. Plant identification labels- used by the public and contain the basic information: the common name, the scientific name, scientific family name and the origin of the taxon in addition to the accession number. 3. Interpretive labels- this is an extended version of the Plant identification label which includes graphics such as a distribution map, plant parts or text telling a story about the plant. When expanded, these become interpretive signage (see chapter on Interpretation).

Materials
Accession labels or tags need to be legible, durable and easily attached to the plant. Embossed plastic or metal have been extensively used. The Dymo system is a simple hand held unit which can produce several lines of text. The plastic tapes can be peeled off but the metal embossed labels are very durable. Embossed labels can be produced in metal using dog tag embossing technology interfaced to a computer, which is much faster and easier than the old hand punch type embossing machines. For nursery use, the propagule type received e.g. seed, cutting, woody plant will dictate the initial label used. Durable plastic labels have been developed for commercial growers e.g. rigid, pointed, stick-in labels for pots and seed trays, loop-lock labels for cuttings and tie-on labels with copper wire through eyeletted holes for shrubs and trees. In conjunction with marker pens the information can withstand the effects of sun, water and extreme temperatures. Labels can also be made from wood, bamboo or other natural material or metal with the name written in

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pencil. Plastic labels can also be made cheaply form waste plastic bottles cut with strong scissors or sharp knife. Inexpensive display labels can be produced by hand painting, hand lettering on metal and stencilled on plastic or wood. The technology and materials used for machine produced labels are changing rapidly. A specification for metal labels at the Singapore Botanic Garden, Singapore is given in Box 3. One of the most common machine-produced label used by botanic gardens are rotary engraved plastic, usually produced by computerdriven models which have the advantage of storing the text and graphics (see label at the Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, India). Many gardens use outside contractors for this technique. The plastic has two layers of contrasting colours so that after engraving the lower layer is exposed. However, plastic labels can fade, become brittle, chip, craze (small cracks appearing on the surface) or crack around the rivet holes after three to five years. It is important to specify exterior quality acrylic laminate which is u/v light fixed which can last over ten years. Laser engraving technology is decreasing in cost and maybe more available to gardens in the near future. Some gardens (U.S.A.), routinely use laser printers (common computer printers used for papers) or photocopiers to generate both accession (inventory) and interpretive labels on plastic papers. These can survive in the garden for more than a year and are good for temporary displays of annuals etc. All incoming stock to the Mount Tomah Garden nursery, (a satellite of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney, Australia) is barcoded. A single barcode links to the full propagation history of any individual plant. Operations

now catered for include initial propagation, movement in propagation, propagation results, tag requests and tag placement. The costs will depend on the quantity needed and must include replacements for those stolen, damaged or weathered. For comparing different methods the cost per label must be calculated to include materials, the machinery and labour. This will include the estimated life-span of each method considered.

Box 3 Specifications for labels at the Singapore Botanic Garden, Singapore

Material: anodised aluminium, with anodised layer 20 microns resistant to solvents, ultra violet light, scratches and corrosion Name plate: 150 mm x 100 mm x 1.5 mm Name stand: 25 mm x 900 mm x 8 mm solid aluminium 3M scotch VHB tape and rivet attaches the name plate to the name stand

Interpretive label for Hevea at Singapore Botanic Garden

Labels at the Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Kerala, India

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blow-lamp for soldering copper pipes and a bench vice is indispensable as well as a 38 inch power drill. The garden tool storage shed can be used as a make-shift workshop when needed. A larger more permanent workshop should include apart from the hand tools mentioned, a small pillar drill, an electric welding system (for light gauge sheet metal) and an electric grinding wheel for sharpening garden tools etc. A good pump type oil can is useful as well as a grease gun. It is also useful to keep a small store of spare parts for the machinery in use at the garden such as drive belts, spare mower blades, wheels and some engine parts, parts for the pump sprayers, especially washers, O rings and pump seals, also parts for the label engraving machine such as belts and label engraving bits and their sharpening tools. Every organisation has a servicing and repair policy which will be a compromise between programmed and breakdown maintenance.

Resin interpretive label which withstands strong sunlight and vandals, in a protected area, California, U.S.A.

14. Meteorological station

Many gardens keep daily records of temperature, hours of sunshine, barometric pressure, rainfall etc. These data can then be related to plant performance with in the garden.

Bibliography
P.H. Bridgeman, 1976 Tree surgery: a complete guide. David and Charles, London. D. Pycraft, 1996 Lawns, Weeds and Ground Cover Mitchell Beazley, U.K. Author: Andrew P. Vovides Jardn Botnico Francisco J. Clavijero, Instituto de Ecologa, A.C., Apdo Postal 63, Xalapa, Veracruz, 91000 Mexico.

15. General maintenance of tools and equipment

There should be a regular maintenance routine for all tools and equipment after use and even when stored. For instance, the blades of secateurs should be wiped with a solvent such as petrol or carbon tetrachloride and /or fine emery paper to clean off resins, plant juices and residues that otherwise may quickly impair cutting edges and might become a source of infection. The blades should then be wiped with light oil to prevent rusting; the working parts oiled to keep them in working order. The cutting blade will need periodical sharpening. A small workshop for general maintenance carried out by garden staff is very important. Major and specialist repairs and servicing can be contracted out e.g. tractors, mowers and chain saws. The keeping of a maintenance workshop will depend on the machinery and other tools used at the garden. However, a minimum number of tools must be kept if there is no workshop such as a set of open ended and ring spanners, screw drivers (straight and Phillips), Allen keys, hammers and mallets, hack saw, wire cutter, pliers, Mole wrenches and a Stilsons pipe wrench. A small gas

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7. Plant records for living collections

Introduction
Plants in botanic gardens are not grown only for ornamental value (amenity) or structural value but are used for: reference (e.g. plant identification, providing plant material from their collections for pharmaceutical screening, education); research (e.g. taxonomy, ethnobotany, horticulture, conservation biology); breeding programmes using stock plants maintained in botanic gardens; maintenance of conservation collections (long-term back up collections of wild plants in cultivation); population reinforcement and reintroductions for species recovery programmes. Botanic gardens are organisations which grow plants for a purpose and have other characteristics which increase the value of the plants. They: guarantee the long-term management and maintenance of the living collections (even though individual components (plants) may die); possess a certain level of cultivation skills, necessary to maintain the enormous diversity of plants grown; maintain a certain level of (accessible) knowledge about the plants in the collection, to serve the needs of their users: gardeners, educators, scientists, students, artists, tourists, and the general public; provide a service to the public by providing information on plants to visitors. Therefore, the plants in cultivation need to be correctly identified and documented. The ever-accumulating information on plants grown today and in the past needs to be consolidated by keeping good written records. This can be done by actually writing down the information in ledgers, on index cards, by completing forms, maintaining horticultural notebooks, etc. Nowadays, computers have opened up new options, allowing us to organize the data even better and faster. It now even allows us to accumulate and sort horticultural observations in a computer file, thus providing a possible solution to the problem of the accumulated knowledge being lost when a gardener retires, as generally happened in the past. Record-keeping, then, is the way to consolidate and accumulate relevant information for future use. That future may be tomorrow, when a botanist wants to know how a certain plant was obtained, and whether it was collected in the wild, since he/she needs both plant and information to be used for ongoing research. Or a gardener might need to how a species has been propagated in the past, or whether it is poisonous and potentially hazardous to young children. In addition, knowledge on plants is essential in raising public support for conservation. Only through knowledge can concern be kindled, and concern is the basic requirement for conservation. Keeping records of plants gives added value. Not only are plants grown, but in addition, relevant information, once acquired, is put down in a structured way, thereby adding to the value and importance of the plant collection. Thus, the plant collection moves away from being merely a resource for ornament to being a commodity to be used for various means. It is the combination of plants and the relevant information about these plants that differentiates the botanic garden from a public park, or a nurserys demonstration garden. Record keeping therefore is one of the key activities which constitute the essence of a botanic garden.

1. Plant monitoring system

It is necessary to monitor the plants from the moment they arrive in the garden and maintain records even after the plant has died, been lost, given away or discarded. A plant record system is essential for managing (curating) a living plant collection so that a curator is able to locate a plant in the garden and source all of the information held about it. This is achieved through accessioning, labelling, mapping and monitoring the development of the plant in the garden.

Procedures and practices

To keep consistent records and maintain the link between the records and plants, accessioning, labelling, de-accessioning, mapping and consistent procedures must be streamlined. Some gardens have written procedures (staff or Institutional Manuals) (see Collections Management chapter). The Flow chart (Figure 1) shows how an accession might be monitored in a botanic garden and the main sources of information about it..

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Figure 1 A flow chart to show how an accession might be monitored in a botanic garden and the main sources of information about it. Developed by Kebun Raya Bogor, Indonesia. Accessioning Accessioning is the process by which a plant becomes a permanent part of the living collections, and more specifically a part of the plant records (i.e. an accession). At the accession stage, all the information about the origin of the plant is recorded. Each plant should be assigned an unique accession or inventory number (see below). Accession information is the primary or basic data normally available together with the seed or plant which comes into the garden: accession number (reference number); name as received; date obtained; propagule type received e.g. seed, cutting; source (including origins and any other numbers given by collectors or previous institutions holding the material); location of the plant in the institution. As part of each accessions documentation, a herbarium specimen should be prepared whenever possible. This specimen should be deposited in the garden herbarium or in another associated herbarium. If the accession does not have a name it should be identified as soon as possible. At a practical level, a temporary name may be assigned giving its family or generic affinities. This will help to distinguish the plant or accession in the garden and help communication (e.g. Cruciferae aff. Sinapis). See Verification in chapter on Collections Management). Labelling Having accessioned the material, it is very important to keep the link between the plants accession record and the plant in the garden by means of labels. Each plant or batch of plants should at all times have a label on which the accession number and name are clearly shown. The accession number and name are the key information about the plant.

Labels on Saxifraga spp, showing the accession number and name at Kobenhavns Universitets Botaniske Have, Copenhagen, Denmark

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The text of an interpretive label to illustrate the importance of plant labels, Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, Cape Town, South Africa.

De-accessioning De-accessioning in the strict sense is the process of amending the records of plants removed from the garden and not the actual disposal of plants. The policy and procedure for the disposal of plants is discussed in the chapters on Collections Policy and Collections Management. It is very useful to keep a record of the fact that a plant was once in the collection and whether it was given away and to whom or why it died, (to what other gardens did it go - can we get more stock if we need to?) and whether it was propagated etc. Sometimes plants, which were thought to be dead were in fact overlooked, dormant, or mislabelled.

Plant labels of Haworthia sp. showing the tracking of individual clones of a wild accession, Karoo National Botanical Garden, Worcester, South Africa Mapping Garden locations can be coded and maps drawn with coordinates to specify the location of each plant. Such maps showing the location of individual or groups of plants are often prepared as part of the design development stage of designing a botanic garden (see Landscape chapter). Maps may also be digitised for storage on computer. If the preparation of a map is not possible in the early stages, a list of accessions at each coded location should be maintained.

2. Management of plant records

Staffing and responsibilities
Some member of the staff (or group of staff-members, or volunteers) should be responsible for the maintenance of the records. Such responsibility implies proper training in the nature of the records held, and in record-keeping in general. Staff are necessary to ensure that the locations of plants are tracked and someone must provide continuity and be responsible for

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monitoring the plants in the collection to ensure that they are not lost and that the record system provides an accurate representation of the actual plants in the living collection.

(loss or switching of labels, one plant seeding into the pot of another, etc.) can persist unrecognised for many years. Efforts should be made to cross-train staff in record keeping, software and hardware methods and use. Cross-training may help improve the functioning of the botanic garden, as well as overcome the loss of information if/when there are changes in staff.

Regular stocktaking
Stocktaking is a check that the plant (and its label) is still present. Such a regular stocktaking inventory will encourage staff to look for and at every accession on a regular basis, and may get them recording additional data such as flowering times. This can be achieved by using special index or inventory cards, which are supplied to those responsible for the day to day care of the plants in the open ground or under cover, for annotating as necessary. Cards are returned to the records office and used for updating the database. In this way garden staff can help with stocktaking and updating without necessarily having computer skills or special equipment. The Curator should oversee the amount and quality of feedback from the collections. All records should be dated and initialed. The introduction of bar-coding onto plant labels is being considered by some botanic gardens. Such a system could be used to help undertake quick and effective stocktaking. Bar codes are read by means of hand-held electronic recorders and this information is then transferred later, or linked, to the main computer system. Such a bar-code recording system is already in use in several gardens, such as Mount Tomah (a satellite of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney, Australia).

Security of the records

However the records are maintained (either manually or on computer), there is a need to guard the records against various hazards. This is generally achieved by maintaining back-up copies of the records in a safe location away from the main centre. If paper records are maintained by an institution they should be stored in a secure and safe location, protected from damage by flood, fire, hurricanes and other hazards. Ideally, a duplicate copy of the records should also be kept but this is not easy with a card-index system. Making duplicate copies is very simple with a computerized system from which backup copies can regularly and quickly be produced on media of small physical size (diskettes, tapes, compact discs and detachable hard drives). Back-ups should be kept on a separate site, from which the original system can be fully restored should this be necessary.

Training for records management

Explanation of the importance of the record system and the procedures for maintaining it should form a basic part of staff training. No matter how sophisticated the record system, it is relatively useless if the staff have no familiarity with it or confidence in it, and therefore do not pass on the necessary information regularly and accurately. No system is better than the staff who operate it. All members of the gardens staff (or volunteers), but especially those concerned with the growing of the living plants, need to understand: the importance of accurate records for the proper management and curation of the collection and its use in answering queries from both internal and external sources; that information is lost when staff leave if it is not written down; the procedures for transferring information from the garden (such as the germination of seed of an accession, the movement of plants of an accession from one garden area to another, the death of the last plant of an accession, etc.) to the record system; the labelling of material is critical in the case of plants being propagated in the garden. Mistakes made at this stage

3. The kinds of information maintained in a living plant record system

The mission statement of each garden will dictate what records are required. Some gardens need to maintain detailed plant records to support sophisticated research but others need only keep basic records for intermittent enquiries. There will be two main user groups, those within the garden, such as scientists and other employees, and a more heterogeneous group outside the garden, such as students, scientists from other institutions and visitors from schools and horticultural societies. Once the accessioning system is set up with an accession number, a plant name, date obtained, propagule type, source and location in the garden, other kinds of information can be added, but above all it must be useful.

Accession numbers
The method employed to organize plant record information is to give each accession (i.e. collection or batch of plants, which arrive at the garden) a reference number known as an accession number. The accession number is often the only unique item of information

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for a particular plant to link it to its data, and is therefore crucial in identifying the plant, its origin and history in the garden. The accession number can refer to one plant, a clump of plants, a tray of seedlings or a seed sample. An accession in botanic gardens and arboreta is defined as a group of plants that: 1. 2. 3. 4. are of the same taxon; are of the same propagule type; were received from the same source; were received at the same time.

batch number); this system is not recommended as one number will refer to several taxa, which may be difficult to monitor or organize effectively. Occasionally, an accession does consist of a mixed collection in which case it should be re-accessioned as soon as this has been recognized and the different taxa contained within the accession assigned different numbers. The accession number of a plant should be UNIQUE and should not be used again if the plants die or are given away. Similarly, the accession number should not be changed during the life of the plant. It is however, permissible and generally advisable to assign a new accession number to a new plant that has been propagated from the original batch or collection. This is particularly true for propagation using seeds. They may be the product of hybridization a new accession number will help to monitor whether hybridization has occurred. In any case seed is generally the product of genetic recombination and so the new accession number will reflect the different genetic make-up of the progeny from the parent. Individual specimens of

An accession may consist of one or more plants. For wild-collected taxa, a single accession should be regarded as one that has been collected from one site by the same collector on the same date. Subsequent collections of the same taxon from the same collection site should be regarded as a new accession. Some gardens give all the taxa in the one incoming batch (which may contain several species) the same accession number (i.e. the accession number is really a

Figure 2 Accession Report for Lesquerella sp. Missouri Botanical Garden, St Louis, U.S.A. Report form from Center for Plant Conservation Handbook 1996, Center for Plant Conservation, St Louis, U.S.A.

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trees and other long-lived plants raised from one accession (e.g. seed collection or cuttings) should be given separate accession numbers. Individual gardens use varying forms of numbers. The simplest is a running (serial) number (1,2,3,4, . . ), but this is not widely used because the numbers become unmanageable if there are a great many accessions and conveys very little information. The longer a number is, the easier it is to make a mistake in transcription etc. More common is a system incorporating the year of the accession as the first two digits, followed by a 4- or 5character running number, e.g. 983240 - the 3240th accession added during the year 1998. This system is simple to use, but in older gardens there is the problem that there is no distinction possible between 1898 and 1998. At the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, U.K. the surviving accessions from the 19th century will be reaccessioned as necessary. Gardens just initiating an accessioning system would be advised to start with a 4digit year. Institutions currently using 2-digit years should consider switching to a 4-digit year as of January 1st of any particular year. Other gardens use more complicated systems, usually involving up to 12 characters including letters and signs (hyphens, slashes) as well as numbers, e.g. 107 1992 3240 (batch number, year, serial number) or 1992 W 3240 (year, origin of material, serial number). Where the accession number includes punctuation, a garden should decide whether or not to include the punctuation in a computerized version, e.g. 107-1992 3240 (the fourth number is a hyphen). Consistency within each garden is vital. While it may be useful to incorporate some information in an accession number (e.g. date of accessioning etc.) it should be remembered that the purpose of an accession number is to be a unique identifier. Its purpose is not to communicate any additional information. Example Cochlearia officinalis seed collected in April 1998 in Dingle, Co. Kerry, Ireland is given the accession number 1998/0008, representing the eighth plant material accession added to the garden collection in 1998. When individual plants are raised from this seed they are given the numbers: 1998\0008\1 1998\0008\2 1998\0008\3 1998\0008\4 etc. Each clone resulting from this seed sample can therefore be tracked as part of the same accession number (See also figure 2).

with information on the origin or provenance of the material. While information on the origin of the plant is not necessary for monitoring the plant in the garden if this information is not recorded when the plant arrives in the garden it may be extremely difficult, if not impossible to recreate. The more information available about the origin and history of the plant the more value will be the accession for research. Information obtained from material of cultivated origin is useful for reference purposes. Plant material that is not of wild origin (i.e. of cultivated origin) is useful for many purposes. For example, it might give general information about methods of propagation and cultivation and establish experimental procedures for taking anatomical samples, examining chromosomes etc. or provide material for pharmaceutical screening. However, material which has been collected directly from the wild will have the potential to give an estimate of the variability of the taxon in the wild and is vitally important for conservation purposes. In general, botanic gardens should strive to maintain a collection of plants that are from well-documented wild sources as this will be more valuable for research, conservation and educational purposes than plant material of uncertain or cultivated origin. An exception to this is of course where a botanic garden is maintaining a special collection of cultivars or when no wild material remains, in the case of some very rare or endangered taxa. The data held about the origin of the material should include: from whom it was obtained (Collectors name, number and date or address if cultivated source); wild source or not/and if wild, from where (locality, habitat, & collection details - Figure 2). Details of the source of the material does not necessarily have to be added to the plant records, as long as they can be cross-referenced to collecting books or sheets (which are stored safely and securely). It is essential to record information at the time of accession that cannot be collected later.

Cultivation and Propagation

It is valuable to record the propagation methods used and results obtained for each plant accession of thematic or conservation interest, as well as the conditions under which it has been cultivated in the garden (Figure 3 Example of propagation record from the National Tropical Botanical Garden, Hawaii, U.S.A. and spraying cards in the chapter on Horticulture). Spraying cards should be stored centrally for reference but need not to be included in every accession record, as discussed in the Horticulture chapter.

Source
An essential part of accessioning is recording the source or donor of the accession. This should be elaborated

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Figure 3 Example of propagation records from the National Tropical Botanical Garden, Hawaii, U.S.A.

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Box 1 - What is the International Transfer Format (ITF)?

The International Transfer Format for Botanic Gardens Records (ITF) (Version 01.00) is an agreed standard prepared by BGCI (then the IUCN Botanic Gardens Conservation Secretariat) and published by the Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation, Carnegie Mellon University, U.S.A. Pittsburgh in 1987. The aim of the ITF is to assist the electronic transfer of data on living plant collections between institutions. Version 01.00 consists of 33 agreed data fields (information categories) on the name, origin, form and status of individual living plant accessions in botanic garden collections. Each field is of fixed length and a set of definitions governing the use of each field are outlined in the published manual. The ITF is available in English, French, Russian and Chinese. Compatibility with the ITF (including programmes written to export botanic garden records into an ITF file) has now been included in the major botanic garden living collection data management systems worldwide.

Version 01.00 remained unamended or updated since 1987 mainly to provide a period of stability during which time botanic gardens could begin to get to know and use the ITF. Major and regular data transfers are now occurring between botanic gardens and the international monitoring database maintained by Botanic Gardens Conservation International. A new version (2.0) of the International Transfer Format for Botanic Garden Plant Records (ITF) has also been released. ITF Version 2 has been prepared to enhance ITF, not replace it. The new ITF differs from version 01.00 as follows: it includes a much wider range of new fields that are not part of ITF (version 01.00); it allows for the interchange of variable length fields; senders can decide which fields they wish to transfer; fields with missing data can be omitted from a transfer; additional fields or standards not covered by the ITF can nevertheless be transferred using a New Field Option.

Information categories (fields) included in the ITF (Version 01.00), which might be useful in designing a plant records database. It includes the recommended field lengths (e.g. 12 = the recommended number of characters for an accession number). Accession Identifier Accession Status Accession Material Type Family Genus Name Species Epithet Infraspecific Rank Infraspecific Epithet Vernacular Names Cultivar Epithet Identification Qualifier Verification Level Verifiers Name Verification date Provenance Type Donor Country of Origin (full text) Primary Subdivision of Country of Origin Locality Primary Collectors Name Collectors Identifier Collection Date e.g. wild or cultivated source e.g. person, institution or business e.g. aff. or cf. (uncertain identification) see text in chapter on Collections Management i.e. accession number (see text) e.g. current, dead or transferred e.g. seed, cutting (propagule type) 12 1 1 22 22 40 7 40 text 40 9 1 20 8 1 20 40 100 text 20 12 8

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Performance
Information about performance in terms of growth, flowering or fruiting etc. (results of regular observations of the plant in cultivation) may be recorded (see example of record card). It is also important to register the information concerning pests and diseases during cultivation and the response to adverse environmental factors such as extreme temperatures and winds.

Such collections may either be linked directly to the living collection record system or held as separate system. If a seed collection is maintained (e.g. in a seed bank) there will be obvious advantages to linking this directly with living collections database. However, records of collections of books (in the library), timbers, artifacts etc may be conveniently stored in separate systems.

Use of the ITF

The International Transfer Format for Botanic Garden Plant Records provides a convenient guide to the kinds of information (a set of fields or information categories for a database) that could and should be recorded (Box 1). The basis and purpose of the ITF is to pass on information to other institutions by means of electronic data transfers, about individual accessions, such as where and when the plant was collected, and by whom. These fields are accession-based. This information can be elaborated from other sources which includes taxonomic information (plant family, synonyms, geographical distribution of taxon in the wild, IUCN Conservation Category (Red Data Book category), economic use of the plant and bibliographic information about the taxon or details about the place of origin (country, province or region, latitude and Figure 4 Card index designed to maintain data on living collections. This card can be adapted for use if no computer record system is available and for collecting information on plants in cultivation.

Use of material
Information may be stored on whether the accession has been used for research projects, pharmaceutical screening, DNA typification and plant breeding, or distributed to other gardens. In this regard it is extremely important to note and record whether plant material is held subject to a Material Transfer Agreement.

Other collections
Other collections maintained in the botanic garden may also need to be accessioned and included in a record system. Plant specimens (and photographs, if appropriate) should be preserved of each accession that has been used for research purposes, which can then be used to check the identification at a later date if necessary. These are known as voucher specimens and are usually preserved as herbarium sheets or spirit collections but can also include fruits, bark and bulbs etc.

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longitude). This latter information applies to the species and is applicable to all accessions of that species. The data from other sources can always be added at a later date. The ITF was designed by botanists and horticulturists who have learnt from experience what accession information is necessary when undertaking plant research and although intended to assist electronic exchange of plant information between gardens it has been used by many gardens in the design of collections databases. The main purpose of the ITF is to standardise fields for the exchange of basic information about the accession, not about the location, flowering time and health of the specimen in the garden. The latest version (2.00) includes some new fields, such as the cultivation and propagation requirements that will be helpful to a receiving garden.

In a small garden (less than about 1,000 living plant holdings) records can be kept and maintained using paper or index cards. Once the collection becomes larger than this, however, maintaining records and using them for management and query-answering purposes becomes much more tedious and difficult with index-cards. This method will always remain a cheap and convenient way of compiling and consulting records - and can always be used as the input source for a computer database.

Computerization
Computerization provides many advantages in the manipulation of the records for all purposes. On computer, data may be held in three main ways: word processing documents; spreadsheets; relational databases. If data on plant records is held in a relational database where specific fields or files of data may be linked to any other field or file of data, then sorting the information held in the system in an almost infinite variety of ways becomes possible (BG Recorder has seven link files which can be seen in Figure 5). Holding data in word processing documents and in spreadsheets greatly limits the potential sorting capacity of the computer system. There are costs in computerizing, however, particularly in making the transition from a card- or paper-based record to a computerized system. These include not only the capital costs of the equipment and software (generally relatively modest these days) but the continuing costs of staff-training, and the cost of entering the data into the computer for the first time, and checking it once it is entered. Nevertheless, the advantages generally outweigh the disadvantages by a considerable margin. It is not necessary to use Windows programmes or have a CD-Rom, as there are other options (some of which may be cheaper or more appropriate for a particular garden to use). The main object of the computer database is to collect and input the vital data in standard categories (fields), as one would in a card index. Once computerized, the information can be used not only for curation of the collection, but to provide fast access to all parts of the data, to re-sort the data and/or automatically produce reports or labels. A botanic garden can produce catalogues of plants in cultivation, seed lists and lists of plants of a taxonomic group or for each area of the garden. It can provide a link to computerized mapping systems, and as an educational and interpretative tool itself, by means of public-access terminals to the database.

4. Methods of holding records

There are three alternative/complementary methods of holding accession data: Ledger/notebook; Card index or sheets kept in a loose-leaf folder; Computer database. The essential accession information: accession number, name, date of accession, propagule type, source and location can be recorded in a ledger/notebook. However, the space for adding more information about the accession is usually very limited and if there are many taxa in the garden searching through the ledger manually for a specific plant will be slow and sorting this information is very difficult. As such, it is recommended the ledger store only the initial information known about an accession when it was received. Further notes about an accession, such as transfer history, disease and pest problems etc. can be recorded on a card. An alternative is to record each accession on a card which can be indexed and filed under the plant name and accession number or on paper forms which can be filed in ring binders or filing cabinets (Figure 4). The design of a card index depends on what it is to be used for: to accession new material (in the absence of a computerized system); to collect data from existing living collections/labels/ledgers etc. for input to an existing or projected computerized system; to collect data departmentally for updating a central database; to include taxonomic reference data for labelling etc.

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Hardware The availability of low cost personal computers (PCs) has made the development of computer-based plant record systems accessible to practically every botanic garden. Even the simplest computer database will be a significant advance on systems based on record cards or ledgers and will allow much greater ease for sorting and managing the information in the system. Software Many gardens have bought database software packages and customised them for their own use. BGCI has produced two versions of a plant records management software package (BG-RECORDER which runs in MS DOS and BG-RECORDER2- which runs in Windows). These packages are available for members of BGCI in several languages. Other software packages specifically designed for botanic gardens are commercially available, in various languages (e.g. BG-Base which is a sophisticated commercial package designed by Kerry Walter, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, U.K. and Mike ONeal, Holden Arboretum, Ohio U.S.A.). Commercially provided systems generally come provided with initial technical support and some staff training, installation assistance, availability of upgrades and compatibility with other institutions using the same system. Some have a high initial purchase cost. Computer mapping for botanic gardens is becoming much more feasible and readily available than formerly and is expected to become a standard part of many computer record systems in the future.

Figure 5 Data entry screen for BG-Recorder (Keban Roya, Indonesia).

How to set up a computer system a checklist

Before deciding to computerize your system it is wise to consider the following questions: 1. How much does the current record keeping cost (staff costs and budget)? 2. What funds have you available to purchase hardware and software? 3. What staff expertise in computers already exists in the institution? 4. What staff resources are available to add data to the database? 5. How many staff will be needed to add data? 6. What staff resources are available for ongoing maintenance of the system? 7. What training will be necessary to enable staff to use the system? It would be useful to write and agree an Institutional database development plan outlining the stages you need to implement to develop a computer records system.

Choosing which computer(s) to purchase Buy the best one you can afford. Choose a computer for which you can get good local support and maintenance. You may be able to buy a bargain machine in another country but difficulties may arise if you need spare parts or if the computer needs to be repaired. To run an efficient plant records database, you need a stand-alone personal computer (PC) with sufficient capacity to run up-to-date graphical interface programmes. If you already have an old machine and

Example from BG Recorder produced by Kebun Roya Bogor, Indonesia

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wish to upgrade it, generally dont try to save money by using old equipment with your new machine, e.g. the monitor. It may not work satisfactorily. Computer technology and top of the range specifications change almost daily. Shop around and find the best one you can afford. The more memory your computer has, and the faster it operates, the better the performance it will provide for you. Make sure that the computer you purchase includes a CD-Rom drive. A communications card may also be included so that you can send and receive e-mail communications and faxes from your machine via a connected telephone line and also access the internet. Suggestions for operating an efficient computer system have a maintenance contract with a commercial computer company so that you can obtain repairs easily and quickly; keep your computer in a relatively dust-free environment away from extremes of heat, cold and humidity; make regular copies of all the data you hold in your system (back-ups). Do these regularly, perhaps once a week, and store the back-ups securely away from computer (not in same building). Back-ups can be carried out on diskette but are slow this way. An external detachable tape drive provides an efficient and relatively low-cost alternative; devise a security system and procedure for the system indicating who may use it and when; establish very strict rules on how external diskettes or tapes may be read on the computer to avoid damaging viruses being incorporated inadvertently into the system. Buy viruschecking software, update it regularly and make sure that every diskette is checked before use. It is possible to for your system to become infected with viruses received via email or downloaded from the internet. Software needed for the computer system Try to negotiate to get some software at same time as your computer is purchased and get them installed when the computer is set up. You may need all or most of the following: word processing software; database package; virus-checking software; desktop publishing package; mapping software.

Setting up an institutional computer network Setting up a network of linked personal computers for your institution has great advantages and should be considered. Securing outside expertise is strongly recommended in setting up a network. Contact at least three local stockists and examine their references. Some of the advantages of a computer network are: several users can access the databases at the same time (read-only access can be given to some users); electronic messages can be sent throughout the institution; duplication of information and equipment is reduced; back-ups need only be carried out at a single point. The main disadvantages and difficulties are: a network can be complex to establish and maintain; the extra cost of wiring and extra workstations (for longdistances fibre-optic cables are needed for efficiency); special networking software must be installed; a file server may be needed (a main machine to hold the bulk of shared information, e.g. databases) although it is also possible to network the individual storage drives (hard disks C drives) of linked personal computers. Staff training How do you or your staff obtain computer training? Training is generally available from a range of educational and commercial sources: universities, technical colleges and adult education facilities, national and regional workshops for botanic gardens; commercial training courses (often provided by computer companies); placements in other botanic gardens; informal (learning from plant record offices in other gardens, friends, local computer buffs and self-taught, from manuals and from the tutorials built into some software packages); some software packages offer support but need a minimum level of technical know-how; training materials and advice for some computer applications and software are available on the internet; formal networks that exist (see chapter on Networks). Compiled by Etelka Leadlay, BGCI, from contributions by James Cullen, BGCI Trustee, Stanley Smith Horticultural Trust, Cory Lodge, PO Box 365, Cambridge CB2 1HR, U.K., David Hunt, The Manse, Chapel Lane, Milborne Port, Sherborne DT9 5DJ, U.K., Bert van den Wollenberg, BGCI Regional Office, Utrecht University Botanic Garden, PO Box 80.162, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands, Diane Wyse Jackson, BGCI and Peter Wyse Jackson, BGCI.

When you buy a new computer you may get some Preinstalled software, such as suites of integrated packages (e.g. Microsoft Office). These suites usually contain packages for: a word processing package; spreadsheet (e.g.. for accounts); organizer (diary and addresses); presentation pack (for setting up slide-shows, graphics, graphs etc); some include database software, an internet browser and e-mail management software.

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8. Interpretation
1. What do you say after youve said hello?
Interpretation is simply a form of communication with the visitors to your garden. There are many things which you may need to communicate, which may well be linked to your gardens mission. Whatever they are, its important to be clear about them before you start a project: what you do and how you do it will depend a lot on why youre doing it. This section looks at these different aspects of communication. The next two sections show how interpretation differs from other communication, and explain what makes interpretation really effective. The last section gives some guidelines on common media which you might use to enhance the interpretation in your garden. as part of an elaborate system of planning for their education work, but each group included a wide variety of people. They found that the groups helped them to develop projects which they could be sure would meet the needs of their users, and that made it easier to get money to support the projects. You will probably find that users such as university students will be satisfied with technical or scientific information presented in a fairly pure form. Groups of school children will be following a set course of study, and their teachers will be able to tell you what they need to learn from their visit. The children can also tell you what interests them! The real challenge, though, comes in getting casual visitors interested in the garden and its plants. This chapter concentrates on this, though many of the principles are relevant to work with schools groups as well.

Whos coming to the garden, and what do they want?

Before you go any further, think about the different people who use the garden. For example, you might have groups of school children under 10 years old; students on degree courses; and families who visit on holidays. Each of these groups have very different needs and expectations, and you cannot expect to satisfy them all with each project. Some garden users (degree level students, for example) will need access to as much information as you can provide, and they will probably be able to use it without much input from you. But the families who visit on holidays will probably want an enjoyable day out in a beautiful place, and may know very little about botany or even what a botanic garden does. Anything you offer them must be easy to understand, and presented in a way which makes it a part of their enjoyable day. Ask your visitors The best way to find out what your garden users want is to ask them. You can do this through focus groups: you invite a small number of people, say up to 10, to a meeting and have an informal discussion with them about what they are looking for in the garden, what they already know about it, and so on. You can hold focus groups that are representative of one particular category of users; perhaps one group of teachers of under 10 year-olds, one of children they teach, one of university students, and one of families. This gives you a chance to concentrate on their particular needs. The North Carolina Arboretum, Chapel Hill, U.S.A., took a different approach. They held focus group meetings

Do they think plants are fascinating and amazing?

The main aim of interpretation in a botanic garden is usually to get people excited about plants, and to realise how important they are. The Whole World Cake activity, developed by Christian Aid and used by the Leicester Botanic Garden, U.K., interprets for school children, in a lively and interesting way how the products we use in cooking are intrinsically linked with other peoples lives in different parts of the world. At the Ethnobotanical Museum at Crdoba Botanic Garden, Spain, interactive displays engage visitors in discovering the history of plants, and how this history has been influenced by people in both the new and old worlds. Through interpretation, botanic gardens can also communicate the critical need to use plants sustainably. The importance of this message is emphasised in all major international conservation strategies, including the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), Agenda 21 and the Botanic Gardens Conservation Strategy (see chapter on Planning and Management). You, and the rest of the gardens staff, probably all have a passion for plants; if you can share some of that enthusiasm you will have gone a long way towards

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convincing your visitors that the garden and its collections are relevant and important to them. There are ways of planning communication which can help you do this, and they are covered below in the section on themes. But before you get there, think about some of the other things you may need to communicate. For a start, can your visitors find their way around easily?

If the garden is very large, think about providing trails of different lengths which people can follow, perhaps by following different colour marker posts. Give people information about how long the trail will take to walk as well as saying how far it is (Figure 1). If you sometimes organise special events in the garden, make sure that information about these is displayed at the entrance, and that they are easy to find.

Do visitors know where they are?

You know your gardens layout very well. Visitors dont. All garden users need to know what the garden has to offer when they arrive, and where they can find the things that interest them. Most gardens provide a map of the garden at the entrance, and signposts to help people find their way around once they are inside. These signposts should always include signs to the main exit points, and to the toilets and cafe if you have one. Remember that the scientific terms you use every day will mean nothing to many garden users. So if the garden includes an important collection of bromeliads, show this on the map but give people some idea of what they are. Something like this should do: Bromeliads often grow on tree branches, and many have their own water storage system. We have one of the worlds largest collections of these remarkable plants.

Welcome map at the Mount Tomah Botanic Garden, cool climate garden of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney, Australia

Figure 1 An orientation map from Durban Botanic Gardens, South Africa. It helps to include drawings of buildings and other features that people can recognize, rather than showing everything as a flat plan.

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Do they know whats happening in the garden? Gardens are not static places. They change and develop, sometimes dramatically, as new collections are introduced or display areas created. This is a real opportunity to explain to visitors what you are doing and why. Different seasons bring changes too: different features are at their best, and you can focus on different ideas. At the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, U.K., a large collection of Chinese plants was opened in 1997. This involved a lot of landscaping work, and the area was a muddy mess for several months. The garden put up temporary notices explaining what was happening, and included interesting botanical information explaining that the planting would reflect where plants are found in the wild, with mountain plants at the top of the slope, and lowland ones at the bottom.

providing something entertaining, and suited to your visitors interests, as it is about telling them facts. Those who come to the garden as part of a formal study course, or because of their work, usually need more straightforward information. This is especially true for advanced researchers, but the principles of interpretation can be very useful as you plan educational work for younger students and beginners. You can make sure that you get visitors interested in your subject by making interpretation enjoyable, easy to take in, and giving it a clear message or theme. Make it enjoyable Youll get and hold peoples attention to what you want to tell them if they are having fun while you do it. So think of things for them to do which will be unusual or amusing. If you are writing text for an exhibition or a booklet, remember how journalists find ways to get you interested in their article and think of an intriguing hook on which to hang your story. These hooks will often rely on the particular characteristics of your own language, or on references to the culture and traditions of your country. Some examples:

Do they know who runs the place?

One of your communication aims will almost certainly be to let users know who runs the garden, and what a good job you do! This might be especially important in trying to convince potential funders to give the garden money for new projects, or simply to continue its work. This is often relevant to casual visitors too: many gardens depend on public money, and your visitors have a right to know how it is being spent. Try persuading your local mayor or other important dignitaries to come on a guided tour which you know is going to be really exciting, or prepare a high quality brochure which explains the gardens work. This may be available to the public, but its real audience might be local businesses who might sponsor your next exhibition.

Fats of the land

(the title of a poster about fats derived from plants, produced by Oxford University Botanic Garden, U.K.. The fat of the land is a common expression in English meaning riches or wealth).

Conocer para conservar

(To know is to conserve) (the title of an educational trail at the Jardn Botnico Viera y Clavijo, Gran Canaria, Spain). Thinking with your nose (the title of an exhibition at the Chelsea Physic Garden, London, U.K. about the perfume industry).
Make it easy You cannot, and should not, expect people at leisure to study hard, so make it easy for them to absorb what you tell them. You can do this by: Using everyday language. Watch out especially for scientific or technical words which you use every day, but which will be confusing for your visitors. It may be important to use them, so that people become familiar with them, but explain them as they are introduced. For example: biodiversity the variety of life on earth Making it relevant to them. Its much easier to understand something or take an interest in it if you can see how it relates to you. This is where its important to know who your audience is. The more closely you can link your subject to their concerns and way of life, the more powerful your interpretation will be.

Do they know what they can do next?

Perhaps you would like your visitors to do something specific, maybe to get them more involved in environmental protection, such as join a conservation group, or change the way they use forest products. This needs a subtle approach, because you may want to persuade people to change long established patterns of behaviour. You will need to show powerful evidence that their current practices will eventually damage their interests, and convince people that they really can make a difference.

2. What makes interpretation special?

Interpretation is about encouraging your leisure time visitors to take an interest in plants, and in the work of your garden, by showing them just how fascinating plants can be. This means that it is as much about

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Keeping it short. Research in European museums shows that people spend an average of 45 seconds in front of any one exhibit. However interesting you think your subject is, remember that your visitors will not be as interested - yet! This means that you must be very clear about the main idea you want to get across, and be disciplined and concise in what you say or write. None of this means that interpretation needs to be trivial or superficial, and of course you can offer more in-depth material for those who are interested.

will only work if they have just one clear message. To help you as you work with themes rather than topics, remember that themes should: stand alone as a complete sentence; contain one main idea; be as interesting as possible; be as specific as possible; reveal what the interpretation is about. If youve written what you think is a theme, but you can still ask the question What is it about this subject that visitors will understand?, you havent finished the job yet.

3. Whats all this about themes?

Deciding on a clear theme, or something specific you want people to understand, is one of the most useful things you can do as you plan your interpretation. A theme is different from the subject or topic of your interpretation. You might plan a guided tour looking at leaf shapes and structures. This is your subject or topic. You can make it easy to approach if you choose one main idea which you want people to understand by the end of the tour, for example: plants have developed many different leaf shapes to cope with the different environments in which they grow. This would be your theme. Using a theme like this does a number of things: 1. It helps to focus your work. From the mass of facts which you could give your audience, you can concentrate only on those which support the theme; 2. It helps to structure your tour, and choose where to stop. Without a theme, the tour could become a collection of random stops with no link; 3. It helps your audience by giving them a thread to follow, rather than a series of unconnected facts. This makes it more interesting, and more memorable. Another example of a subject or topic could be medicinal plants. A possible theme might be: medicinal plants form complex chemicals that form the active ingredients of our medicines. Themes can, and sometimes should, be provocative too. Another theme on the topic of medicinal plants would be medicinal plants are of great economic importance, but the countries from which the plants originally come dont get much benefit from this. Themes make interpretation different from information. Working with them takes a bit of practice, but its well worth it. They are especially useful for single, discrete pieces of interpretation such as panels (see below) which

Fitting it all together

Your aims, your audience, and the things you want to interpret are all connected. The diagram (Figure 2) shows this, and can help you check that the decisions you make about one aspect of the task are consistent with other factors.

How the issues connect

Planning interpretation means balancing many different issues. This diagram show how they can link together. You might enter this process at any point, but you must be sure that your decisions about the issues in one box are consistent with those in the others.
Why are you doing this? Your aims may be to do with: increasing understanding managing visitors managing a site improving the economy What will you interpret?
You will need to think about: features which visitors can see the unique stories your place has to tell places to which you must control access what is already interpreted elsewhere the themes you will use

Who is it for?
You will need to think about your visitors: characteristics numbers interests and expectations length of stay

How will you do it?

choice of media location and timing of media allocation of different themes to different places interpretive objectives style

How will it be managed?

staffing skills maintenance materials buildings cash

Monitoring and evaluation

is it working? is it achieving your aims? how might we improve it?

Figure 2 Planning structure for designing interpretations (J. Carter, 1997 - see Bibliography)

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An important word of warning

If you try to interpret everything in the garden your visitors will feel overwhelmed, and the garden will be spoiled. The best interpretation gives visitors some ideas to think about, and then leaves them to explore for themselves. Plan your interpretation so that you make the best use of the spectacular or unusual aspects of your garden, then make sure that you leave other places alone. If you have done your job well, the plants will be able to speak for themselves!

4. How can you provide interpretation?

Personal interpretation
In an ideal world, every visitor would have a personal guide, who would be there when they wanted them, and not when they didnt, and who would be able to present the garden to them in just the right way to suit their interests and knowledge. Of course, this isnt possible, but you can provide a programme of activities in which someone actually talks to visitors. Many gardens find this one of the most effective media. Enthusiasm is infectious, and a knowledgeable guide who lets their enthusiasm show can do a far better job of getting visitors interested than the most elaborate exhibition. Guided activities also give you a chance to respond to individual questions. The Jardn Botnico del Instituto de Biologa (UNAM), Mexico DF, Mexico has developed a waistcoat for its guides. The waistcoat contains many pockets inside into which, before a tour, the guide packs artefacts made from plants to enrich his or her tour - shampoo, sweets, fruit, alcohol, etc. When the guide arrives at a particular plant they are able to bring out something from their waistcoat that visitors will recognise in their everyday lives and that will help bring the plant alive. Personal interpretation can include guided tours, demonstrations, and practical activities in which visitors participate. The Desert Botanical Garden, Phoenix, U.S.A., for example, has a participatory exhibit which introduces visitors to the ethnobotanical importance of desert plants. Throughout the garden visitors are invited to touch, smell, feel and eat plants. In one participatory activity, visitors can pound yucca leaves to make a paintbrush to take home (see Figure 3).

Figure 3 Ethnobotanical trail and demonstration at the Desert Botanical Garden, Arizona, U.S.A. As you plan what you will do, think about: Your visitors. Are you planning for family groups with young children, or for older people? How often do they come? If they visit the garden once a month, you need to offer a changing programme of events so that there is always something new. How long do they want to stay? Your theme (see above). A tour on which you give visitors a list of plant names and scientific facts will quickly become boring. Remember that this is one of the few media in which you control the order in which visitors receive information, so you can develop a well structured story, or an explanation of how something works. But dont make it too long or complex: one hour is probably the maximum for any one event, unless people are actively involved in doing or making something. When you are working with a new tour, get a friend or a trusted colleague to come along, and then give you their honest opinions about how its working. Good guided tours: follow an interesting route. Plan your stops to show people something and talk about it just after you have entered a

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new environment, such as a greenhouse - people are most receptive just after a change in scenery; have interesting titles which make them sound intriguing; have no more than 15 people to each guide; wait for people to catch up before the guide starts talking; involve people by giving them things to feel, smell or taste, and by asking them questions; are like a piece of theatre. Dont be afraid to be larger than life as you lead a tour - you need to be a performer to get people excited!

because the big stories are harder to deal with: both the audience and the storyteller need to work up to them. The same is true of making stories. Linking them to a route You probably wont be able to plan every stop next to a plant which has something to do with your story. Instead, look for places that have an atmosphere which suits the events in your tale. Perhaps places in the garden will suggest a story to you. If your story needs props to support it, such as a magic object which one of the characters finds, hide this at a convenient place so that you can discover it at the right moment. Good story sessions have the same qualities as good guided walks, and performing to your audience is even more important. You also need to make it clear to people that they are coming on something a little unusual. This is often an advantage, and you may find that story sessions become one of the most popular events in your calendar.

Stories
Story-telling is a special form of guided activity. You might use a walk round the garden to tell the story of an explorer and the plants they discovered, or perhaps you could tell the story of how particular plant features evolved. Stories can develop into a small piece of theatre. The Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, U.K., often welcomes school children off the bus with the words welcome to the rainforest. During their tour, children are divided into two groups - rain forest dwellers and survivors of an aeroplane crash in the forest. They are each given a different tour of the glasshouses. The groups eventually meet up and a role play occurs whereby the rain forest people pair off with the survivors and teach them, using the knowledge they have gained on the tour, how to live in the rain forest. Because plants are so intimately connected with human life, and with myths and folklore, a botanic garden makes a good place to tell stories that are concerned with our emotional and spiritual links to the natural world. Such stories may not aim to get across a theme about the scientific or medicinal value of plants, nor about their biology or ecology. Instead, they can aim to develop a sense of wonder, awe, or affection for plants: qualities which are just as important in encouraging visitors to regard plants as important and valuable. Creating stories You can try telling traditional stories from your country, or the countries from which your plants come. If using stories appeals to you, you can try developing your own myths and legends, using your garden and its plants as an inspiration. If you try this, look at traditional stories for clues as to what makes a good tale: events being repeated, often in a cycle of three before something happens to break the pattern; stories about the essentials of life such as food and drink, love and death; little people who triumph because they use their wits rather than strength; journeys which act as powerful metaphors for our development through life. Try simple ideas at first. Some story-telling traditions begin an evening with amusing folk tales of animals and everyday life, and only get to the major myths about life and death at the end of the night. This is

Audio tours
Some gardens are now providing audio tours using hand-held machines. This can either have a linear tape or can have random access so the visitor can choose the information which interests them most. A visitor can key in a number to hear an explanation. Such a system is very effective but expensive. The New York Botanical Garden, U.S.A. has introduced an audio tour for their exhibition A World of Plants in the Enid Haupt Conservatory with recordings made by the scientists and curators of the garden.

Signs
You may use signs to help people find their way around; give them information; or to provide interpretation. For all types of sign, you should think carefully about their materials, design, size and colours. All of these should fit in to the environment of the garden. Direction signs These signs help people find what they want, and give them confidence in exploring the garden. In small gardens you may not need any direction signs. In larger spaces, make sure that at least the main exits, and the toilets and cafe if you have them, are signed from the junctions of major paths. You can also provide signs indicating major features such as glasshouses or important parts of the collection. These signs should be: designed to be in keeping with the garden; as few in number as you can - too many signs would make the garden look like a city street! regularly checked and maintained.

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Information signs Information signs tell people what is available in the garden, and identify buildings and features so that they know where they are. Plant labels, which identify a plants name, origin, and other factual data are a type of information sign, and an important one. But they are not interpretation. Many visitors will read them, but their main use is to keep track of the gardens collection and work, so they are dealt with in the chapters on Collections Management and Plant Records. Information signs which help visitors should be: placed where visitors make decisions about what to do next (usually at garden entrances, and at rest areas such as cafes); clearly designed, so that it is easy for visitors to see which bits of information are relevant to them; sited so that several visitors can look at them at one time; sited off main paths so that people dont block the paths as they read them; appropriate in style and materials for their location. Interpretation signs These are signs which actually explain the work of the garden, or tell people about the plants they can see. They must catch the visitors eye; focus their attention on the feature you want them to look at; and get across the point you want them to understand. And they must do this in less than a minute! The average time visitors spend reading any one panel is 45 seconds. So, to make the most of those 45 seconds (and remember, thats an average; many visitors will spend less) you need to:

be clear about the theme for the sign (see above). Whats the one idea you want people to take away from this sign? Write this down as a sentence and check that everything you write supports it; be concise. Aim for no more than 200 words on each sign; use a text hierarchy. The title on the sign should summarise the theme, so that even people who read nothing else will get the message. Then have just one or two paragraphs, in large type, which is what you hope most people will read. After that you can expand on your theme, in paragraphs of smaller type, for people who are really interested. This must still all be within your 200 words (Figure 4). write in a lively, personal style, as if you were talking to a friend. Use short sentences, active verbs, and explain technical terms if you have to use them; use illustrations to do the work. They can explain processes more easily than words. Dont simply provide an illustration of the feature which the sign interprets: people can see this for themselves. Materials What you use to make your signs will depend on what is available, how long you want it to last, and how much you have available to spend. The most important thing is to plan the content well: a simple piece of paper with a clear message is better than an expensive sign with a confused mass of information. You may also want to use materials that have as little environmental impact as possible, to demonstrate good environmental practice. This can be difficult: many standard sign systems use non-degradable plastics, for example, but with some imagination you will find a solution that is right for your garden.

Figure 4 Interpretive panel showing text hierarchy from Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest, France

Materials which are used in gardens include: Paper or card, laminated with clear plastic: good for temporary signs, and for experiments to try out your text before making the final thing; Rotary-engraved plastic is used in many gardens (see chapter on Equipment); Routed wood (letters and simple graphic designs carved into the surface of a piece of wood): cheap, and usually in keeping with a garden. Not suitable for complex or detailed illustrations;

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Painting on wood or metal: can include complex full colour illustrations. Materials are cheap, but signs need regular maintenance; Screen prints, either on the reverse of a clear plastic such as Perspex, or on paper embedded in a glass fibre resin: good for colour illustrations; long lasting, but expensive; Etched metal: good for small, discreet signs which contrast well with foliage. Also long lasting but expensive. It is worth experimenting with the medium that you chose for your signs. Check to see if colours fade in strong light, plastics become brittle, algal growth is difficult to control or signs are vandal-proof. There are a host of problems that must be overcome and it is well worth knowing how robust your signs are before investing too much in any one type. Materials are also discussed in the chapter on Equipment.

a subject in more depth than is possible in a single sign. BGCI worked with the British Council in China, a design company in the U.K. (Graven Images) and four Chinese botanic gardens to produce an exhibition on the environment called Our Planet Our Home and an interactive worksheet. The exhibition covers a range of environmental issues and focuses on how, as human beings, we can take responsibility for our environment. Four identical exhibitions were produced, one for each of the botanic gardens, consisting of nine free-standing columns attached at the top by wire. School children are encouraged to interact with the exhibition by hanging artefacts off the wire which they believe relate to the exhibition. Good exhibitions: are built around a main theme, with sub-themes for each section or panel within the exhibition. Write down the ideas you want people to understand from each section; allow people to explore as they wish. You cannot expect people to follow an exhibition in a particular order, you can only encourage them to do so; are concise. The pointers about how long people spend reading a sign are the same for exhibition panels; are well maintained: a scruffy exhibition looks poor, and reflects badly on the garden; visitors are also less likely to read it; are changed at intervals. Even permanent exhibitions in major gardens with high numbers of first time visitors need changing every five years or so; if you have many repeat visitors you may need to change your exhibits every few months. This keeps visitors interested, and shows that you are working hard to keep them interested. Display stands You can make flexible display systems from panels which can be clamped together in different combinations to suit your exhibition. The panel material must be rigid enough not to warp. Plywood, timber or medium-density fibreboard are good and not expensive, but they are heavy. Commercial display systems are lighter, and more portable, but expensive (e.g. aluminium frames are strong but light). Many botanic gardens may be able to get stands made.

Leaflets and publications

Leaflets and booklets can promote your garden, help visitors find their way round, interpret what they see, give them more detailed information than you can include in a sign, and provide a souvenir. Be clear what your publication needs to do. A simple free leaflet with a map of the garden may be the only item that visitors take home with them. Makes sure it carries your main message as well as information about where the toilets, cafs and other services are situated. Producing Publications Think about how you will distribute it. Will you charge for it? Know your audience and design the publication so that it is attractive enough for them to pick it up. Think about how the publication is going to be used. Will visitors want to put it in their pocket? If it includes a map, can you design it so they dont have to keep turning the t thing over to read the text and follow the map? Be clear what theme or themes the publication will explain. Write text in sections with sub-headings: this helps visitors find the bit they want, and is like using a text hierarchy on a sign. Use images to communicate as much as possible. Try out a draft version with people who do not know the garden. This is especially valuable if your leaflet contains instructions and directions. Only print enough for a year or two at most. Think about which materials are most appropriate for your garden. Many gardens use recycled paper, since this in itself carries a message about conservation. You dont need to say a lot about this in the text: simply including the recycled symbol is enough.

Mass media
Radio, television, newspapers, magazines and the internet can be very effective ways for your garden to promote its message to a wider audience than those who normally visit the garden. For examples, Li Mei, the education officer at Nanjing Botanical Garden Mem. Sun Yat-Sen, China, has a feature on the local radio each week.

Exhibitions
Exhibitions allow you to show visitors objects they wouldnt otherwise see, to offer them special exhibits such as interactives, where the point of the exhibit is revealed by the visitor doing something, and to explore

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Newspapers The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew employs a full-time Public Relations Officer who regularly sends out press releases. These describe interesting, news-worthy events and stories that happen in the garden, and projects that staff are involved in. Video Simple slide packs can be prepared to provide low-cost but effective audio-visual materials for botanic gardens, which can be shown regularly in the gardens visitor centre or loaned to schools. BGCI produced a video called Variety: the key to life, which was sent to all BGCI member gardens. Staff in gardens show this video to their visiting public or loan it out to schools, to raise awareness about the work of botanic gardens in conservation and environmental education. Internet The Adelaide Botanic Garden, Australia has a web site which profiles the botanists working at the garden. Using an on-screen form, children can post an email question to a botanist of their choice and receive a personal reply.

Bibliography
General books J. Carter (ed.), 1997 A sense of place: an interpretative planning handbook Tourism and Environment Initiative, Inverness, Scotland, U.K. Designed to help community based groups and those new to interpretation. S.H. Ham, 1992 Environmental interpretation: a practical guide for people with big ideas and small budgets North American Press. An excellent book. A thorough introduction to interpretation and full of practical advice on the main media. Particularly good on themes. F. Tilden, 1957 Interpreting our heritage University of North Carolina Press. The first book to define interpretation, and well worth reading, though it does not give practical advice on media. J. Veverka, 1994 Interpretive master planning Falcon Press. J. Willison, (ed.), 1994 Environmental Education in Botanic Gardens: guidelines for developing individual strategies BGCI, U.K. Writing interpretation M. Cutts, 1995 The plain English guide Oxford University Press. J. Heintzman, 1988 A guide for nature writers University of Wisconsin. Publications J. Zehr, M. Gross and R. Zimmerman, 1992 Creating environmental publications: a guide to writing and designing for interpreters and environmental educators University of Wisconsin. Outdoor panels S. Trapp, M. Gross and R. Zimmerman, 1992 Signs, trails and wayside exhibits: connecting people and places University of Wisconsin. Author: James Carter, c/o Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Queen Margaret College, Clerwood Terrace, Edinburgh EH12 8TS, U.K.

5. Is it working?
You will spend a lot of time, and perhaps a lot of money, on your interpretation. So it makes sense to check that its doing what you wanted it to do. Test it out If youre working with signs and exhibitions, the best time to test it out is before you produce the final version. However you make your signs, test out the first draft of text and illustrations on your audience. Make up a rough version of the sign, show it to a few people, and check whether they really do understand what you want them to understand. Exhibition planners call this front-end evaluation. It need not be elaborate or take long, and it can really help to make your signs and exhibitions effective. After its done Its also a good idea to check what effect your interpretation is having after it is finished. You can do this by watching how people use any equipment you provide; holding focus groups; or by doing a questionnaire survey. What you find out will help you design something even better next time.

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9. Training botanic garden staff

How training can help achieve the aims of the organization
Successful organizations have a clear picture of what they are trying to achieve. They have a sense of mission. Written down in the form of a mission statement. This becomes the guiding principle for all of the policies and procedures undertaken by the organization (see Planning and management chapter). A clear sense of mission should drive the business or operation needs of any organization whether it is in the for-profit or the not-for-profit sector, in this case to run the botanic garden effectively. In order to achieve their aims, botanic gardens usually include some or all of the following: management and planning, fund raising and public relations, horticulture and conservation, plant records, research, and education. In each of these areas, people need training; first in the policies and procedures of the garden (induction courses, safety) and secondly to learn new skills to meet the needs of the job and/or the changing needs of the garden. In order to allocate resources for the present and prepare for future challenges and changes, each botanic garden requires a business plan which has been prepared for at least a three to five-year period but will probably need to be revisited every year (see chapter on planning and management). The business plan will be the basis for determining the gardens corporate training needs. Relevant further education for staff such as assisted study leave which leads to qualifications (Certificate, Diploma, Degree), internships or exchanges will be of future value to the organisation. Training in skills such as computer technology, public speaking, pesticide use, fund raising, micropropagation of plants can significantly help increase the ability of the workforce to achieve the aims of the garden. Training can help individuals as part of a team to do their jobs safely, efficiently and confidently. Safety is an important aspect in botanic gardens where machinery and poisonous chemicals are used. Training is vital to prevent loss of staff time and low morale caused by accidents and to increase productivity. Botanic gardens have an important role using their skills in training in the community. Botanic gardens provide courses on many subjects which can lead to qualifications or capacity building in the community. Training modules developed for internal use or outreach programmes can also be used for external and internal capacity building. For further information please refer to Environmental Education in Botanic Gardens: guidelines for developing individual strategies (see Bibliography below).

Importance of human resources

The workforce is a vital resource in any organisation, and particularly in a botanic garden which is a very complex organisation and labour intensive. Staff costs are one of the major components of the annual budget of a botanic garden and it is important that the staff are effective. At the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, U.K. 44% expenditure was on staff costs (1996-7) and at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney, Australia 58% of expenses were employee related (1995-6). Very little work in a botanic garden is mechanised. Each job can be highly specialised and depends on the skill and commitment of the staff. This means that training, development and correct placing of staff in the organisation is of prime importance. Without a system of on-going training, people once they have been employed may become disillusioned and under-perform or even leave the organisation. Training needs to be embedded within the culture of an organisation and investment in people is vital for the long-term success of any garden. In developing a training culture the garden should recognize certain qualities in the staff of botanic gardens. The principles adopted by The Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens (RTBG), Australia offer a good example: our staff are not here simply to clock on and clock off in order to receive their pay packet; staff desire and respond to challenge; the intelligence of staff is, and always will be, under-utilised; staff are committed to the goals of the organisation; given the additional skills and knowledge the staff will be more valuable to the organisation and enhance our ability to fulfil our mission; giving staff additional skills and knowledge will not only increase their ability to be more flexible, but will also increase their desire to be so. All staff of an institution should be active in training programmes; both receiving and delivering training.

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1. How to decide what to do

Often training needs are obvious because of change in the organisation (if a new piece of equipment is bought, someone needs to learn how to use it) or a new employee has not learnt specific skill in previous jobs (such as plant record keeping) but a more objective approach will ensure that the staff and their deployment are more effective (training needs analysis).

Understanding the training needs of the organisation is the first step on the path to effective training. A training needs analysis will (see Figure 1): identify the skills needed; identify the gaps which can be met by training; recommend ways of meeting the training needs. Figure 1 The Training Cycle

Do we have a Mission statement? How successful has the training been? Has it provided the skills needed to implement the business plan? MISSION

BUSINESS PLAN

What are the aims of the organisation? What does it do to achieve the aims?

Do we have the skills to implement the business plan?

EVALUATING THE TRAINING

IDENTIFY THE SKILLS NEEDED

PLANNING THE TRAINING IDENTIFY THE GAPS WHICH CAN BE MET BY TRAINING

Which skills can be provided or improved by training?

What are the priorities? When is the best time to undertake the training? Cost?

RECOMMEND WAYS OF MEETING THE TRAINING NEEDS

Is formal or informal training needed? Is expertise available internally or do we need to look externally?

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2. Identify the skills needed

There are two ways of identifying the skills needed: A. by looking at the needs of the organisation (the business plan) and B. by analysing the needs of the workforce (individual and team performance).

garden is to grow and develop, or simply to keep up with a changing world then people within the garden need to be able to respond to and cope with new situations. Management needs to consider what changes are planned or may be imposed externally, which will place new demands on the individual and look at the implications for themselves and their staff of: targets for the next or coming years e.g. designed and development of new area of the garden; changes in technology - introduction of new methods, machines or new technology e.g. for example the switch from a card-index record system for plant records to a computerized system such as BG-Recorder has many training implications; changes in legislation or in market requirements e.g. the wider ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity is having significant effects on botanic garden practices (see Codes of conduct in chapter on Collections policy). changes in the structure of the team and in the job roles of individuals. changes or a reduction in funding which would necessitate generation of more income.

A. The needs of the organisation

The business plan will determine the corporate training needs of the organisation. The plan will establish the present and future skills which are needed by the organisation. A skills audit (see below) can then be carried out to determine whether the garden has staff with the necessary qualifications or expertise to carry out the business plan. It might indicate that the garden does not have staff with the necessary qualifications or expertise. This could lead to employing suitably qualified staff or if this is not possible provide further education or training for a present member of staff. A challenge faced by organizations and their managers is also to prepare people for future changes. If a botanic

Instructions:
enter the names of the team members; develop a list of activities performed by team members (e.g. for horticulture it may include seed germination, potting-up, grafting, labelling etc.) and enter these into the matrix; assess who does what and rate individuals performance e.g. * = does the job, but poorly; ** = Performance could be improved; *** = performance totally satisfactory; x = does not do the job; identify how many people should do the job (the Need column); identify the Gap as the difference between the Total and the Need; gaps can point to training. This approach allows an insight into training needs both in terms of the tasks and the quality to which these tasks are delivered. Example based on some horticultural tasks: Activity/Name 1 Compost preparation 2 Seed cleaning/sowing 3 Potting-on 4 Labelling 5 Pruning 6 Grafting 7 Workbench cleanliness 8 Knife maintenance 1 Clifford *** *** *** x *** *** *** *** 2 Ahmed *** x *** x x x *** ** 3 Merav ** ** *** x ** x * ** 4 Anusha ** * *** x * x * ** 5 John x x *** *** * x ** * Total 4 3 5 1 4 1 5 5 Need 5 3 5 3 3 2 5 5 Gap 1 0+ 0 2 0+ 1 0+ 0+

0+ Although technically no gap general improvement needed which could be provided by training. Clifford possess most skills to high level and could act as mentor to others needing help and encouragement.

Figure 2 Skills Matrix

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Each department or manager needs to decide what their department should do in order to achieve their objectives over a certain time (1-5 years). This work can be broken down into activities and the skills necessary to do them (job or task analysis - see chapter on Collections Management). The second step is to identify the skills presently available in the organisation to undertake the tasks (skills audit-see below). The final step is to match the skills to the tasks and identify the gaps (see Figure 2). One solution for filling the gaps is training. Skills Audit A quick and effective way of identifying possible training needs at the operational level is to conduct a skills audit. This can be done conveniently by completing a skills matrix (see Figure 2). The skills matrix is a good means of identifying potential weaknesses in the skills available in the workforce. For example the skills audit may show that only two people have a particular skill in for instance: propagation. This may be fine for most of the year, but become problematic if most propagating is done at one particular time of the year. The situation may be more extreme when a vital skill is possessed by only one person, for example compiling a database. When that person becomes ill, the activity stops. The lack of skills in a botanic garden can also be dangerous. For example, if the only skilled chain saw operator is ill or on holiday and a tree in the garden is in a dangerous condition, then either the public can be put at risk if the defect is not rectified or another worker may be put at risk using machinery that he/she has not been trained to use. A skills audit can highlight where performance gaps may occur and open a dialogue to develop a training strategy. Useful questions for all involved could include: How do you see the current situation? What do you think needs to be done/changed? What type of training, if any, do you think is needed? How would that training help improve the situation? Is there anyone else you think we should talk to?

practices (examples of written procedures are in the chapters on Equipment -spraying, tractor use, arboriculture, Plant Records - accessioning). This may indicate a performance gap between the required standard and that achieved. Possible reasons for such a performance gap include poor resources, lack of motivation, lack of ability or lack of skill. One solution for the latter might be training. A training need implies a lack of competence in someone i.e. a lack of knowledge or skills in someone who has the ability to acquire that knowledge or skill. Competence comes through learning, and learning comes either through experience or training. Interviewing the job holders One way to identify the need for skills in individuals is to interview the job holders as part of a performance appraisal or annual staff evaluation process. This allows the identification of aspects of their work which may need improvement due to lack of training. Preparation of performance plans and the need for regular discussion is discussed briefly in the chapter on Planning and management. Team performance The management can also look at how the work force performs as a whole and ask: is the group pulling together well? do people value each other? does the team have a clear sense of direction and agreed work standards? Questions such as these will identify lack of skills in the group which might not be uncovered by merely examining the performance of each individual.

3. Identify the gaps which can be met by training

This process will identify the skills and expertise which are necessary to implement the business plan of the organisation and which can be provided or improved by staff training. Alternatives to training can only be provided by employing suitably qualified staff, either temporary, permanent or as consultants. These options have very different resource demands.

B. The needs of the workforce

The second way of identifying the skills needed is by analysing the performance of the individual and the group as a whole in completing activities. Job monitoring or assessment Tasks can be monitored to check that they are carried out satisfactorily in terms of quality, time taken and safety (job monitoring or assessment). This can be done informally by working with the individual or team or the execution of the activity can be compared with written policies or procedures. Written policies or procedures will highlight the need for good safety

4. Recommend ways of meeting the training needs

The above analysis will identify the training needs of the organisation from the need for skills and expertise. The final process in the training needs analysis process

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is to translate the ideas and recommendations into a precise action plan which documents: what will be done (the action); is formal or informal training needed? who will do the teaching; is expertise available internally or does the garden need to look externally? by when will the training be completed? how much will the training cost? A training program usually entails a mixture of on-thejob training, short courses (arranged on or off-site) and training by another organisation (local, national, regional or international). Training options for record keeping are discussed in the chapter on Plant Records.

skills and experience are passed on is a particularly important aspect of a managers job. Who is going to take over the role of the experienced, but nearretirement horticulturist who answers all the enquiries that come into the garden from the public? It is also important to keep staff current with new methods in their area of expertise. Mentoring can also help to develop good team spirit. When staff share experiences within the organisation it helps to develop organisational pride and a respect for each others special interests and knowledge. Short courses Mentoring is a time-intensive activity. Where a certain suite of skills are needed by several people or on a regular basis, it may be economical to put on short courses, either taught by internal staff or by specialists brought in for this purpose. Where the course is needed by only a few people, staff can attend courses outside the garden. The following training courses are often organized in botanic gardens: the use of tractors (see Equipment chapter), chain saws use, brush cutter use, first-aid, security training, public speaking, workplace training, workplace communication, staff selection, interviewee skills, skills auditing, enterprise bargaining, team building, clear writing, time management, sexual harassment in the workplace, computer use, desktop publishing and workplace safety, Foremans course and Supervisors course. These specialist courses are more likely to be taught by outside consultants unless the skills to teach them are within the garden. Volunteer Guides trained at the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, U.K., complete a 12 week course of lectures, tours and practical sessions. The course involves a commitment of one full day a week during this period, plus time for background reading and additional research. They receive the basic information necessary to give a good introductory tour of the gardens. The course covers the history and work of the gardens. General introductory lectures on subjects like botany, the economic value of plants and the rainforest are mixed with tours of specific areas in the gardens such as the Princess of Wales Conservatory, the Palm House and the Grass Garden. Most sessions are given by members of staff with outside consultants for sessions on guiding techniques. Care has been taken to ensure that the volume of information provided does not become overwhelming. Each trainee guide is assessed on completion of the training course. They prepare a onehour tour for a small group of non-specialist visitors to Kew. The group is accompanied by a member of staff who produces a written report, which is discussed with the volunteer. If a tour is felt to be unsatisfactory then the trainee is offered another opportunity to complete their assessment. Training is regarded as an ongoing process throughout the volunteers time in the gardens.

Internal training
Induction courses are essential for all new employees. It is an opportunity for them to appreciate the extent and main objectives of the business. The course should include detailed information on the policies and procedures in the particular area where the person is to work e.g. record keeping, pest control. Much internal training is organized as on-the-job training, and can be organized on a one-to-one basis using experienced staff as mentors. This makes the assumption that the skills are already exist in the garden. On-the-job training is a high priority for any botanic garden where there is a lack of qualified and trained personnel. Mentoring Mentoring is long-term, one-to-one training and can be particularly appropriate in botanic gardens. On-the-job training consists of teaching specific skills and also guiding staff on the overall objectives of the garden by giving advice and support. It is based on: telling the trainee why he/she is being taught a particular skill; showing him/her how to do it; giving and receiving feedback about the learning or training process. Since this form of training involves close contact with the trainee, the mentor should take some time to get to know the trainees current knowledge, skills, likes and dislikes. Mentoring is more than just teaching someone how to do something, it also involves improving and refining skills over a long period of time such that the trainee, or apprentice, gains in knowledge and skills base. Many horticultural operations and other botanic garden skills are best taught in this way, so long as there are experienced staff in the garden. Where experienced staff are getting older it is vital to recognize the importance of planning for their succession. Maintaining a good age structure and ensuring that

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Monthly training sessions are provided plus a comprehensive library for additional reading. A Volunteer Guide Manual gives general information about the gardens as well as explaining the staffing structure. A monthly newsletter combined with a quarterly general meeting ensures that all volunteers are kept in touch with developments in the gardens. The intensive training programme ensures that guides are enthusiastic and loyal. They have an accurate basic understanding of the work of Kew, are committed to the programme and have developed a team spirit. Brookside Gardens, Maryland, U.S.A. has developed staff education programmes which are run in the winter and are open to staff of neighbouring institutions using in-house and outside speakers. Typically, they consist of 15-20 hours with additional study hours and a final exam or project to measure the level of comprehension. Courses reflect the needs of the garden and cover botany, first aid, pruning (theory and practice), identification of evergreens, perennials, landscape construction, greenhouses and conservatories. The participants evaluate the programmes and suggest new topics. The garden has found that the benefits of running the programmes outweigh the loss of staff time spent at classes and the time spent designing, teaching and evaluating the programme. The gardens also runs an eight-week comprehensive training programme to prepare staff members for the Maryland Pesticide Applicators Exam and to update current licencees with the latest information. Apart from more skilled and knowledgeable employees handling pesticides, this programme has resulted in the development of a written pesticide policy with procedures in selection, spraying, storage and disposal as well as a decline in the use of pesticides. If a garden decides to run its own courses it will need to design suitable learning experiences for participants; an approach is outlined in Box 1.

Box 1 Designing learning activities

If a garden decides to run its own courses it will need to design suitable learning experiences for participants. This is an essential element of course design. Giving participants information through presentations and providing handouts to accompany lectures is important, but getting participants to do things in an interactive forum is far more effective. When designing such learning activities staff need to ask themselves three Extremely important questions of each completed activity (the 3 Es test): is it Effective - will it work? does it illustrate the point? is it Enjoyable - does it get a positive response from participants or do they see it as tedious? is it Efficient - time is always a limitation so it is important that as well as being effective and enjoyable the exercise is time-efficient. Could a shorter activity achieve the same results? Activities are better time-tabled in the afternoon to follow theory sessions held during the morning programme of a course timetable. This flow diagram below summarises an approach to designing learning activities which can be applied to many of the situations encountered in botanic gardens: Decide what needs to be learned?

5
Decide what you want participants to do on the course

5
Design an exercise that makes them do what you want them to do

5
Decide whether it passes the three Es test: is the exercise effective, enjoyable and efficient

External training
Seminars and conferences Seminars and conference attendance is aimed at ensuring relevance within the staffs field of interest, to maintain network contacts and gain new ideas. Internship programmes and staff exchange programmes Not all training needs are skills based and can be met by short courses. Internship programmes and staff exchange programmes often have long-term benefits for the employee, the employees garden and the collaborating garden. This is where networks (see chapter on Networks and support) and organizations like BGCI are particularly important. Many botanic gardens have internship schemes and provide opportunities for staff placements with their garden; the American Association of Botanical Gardens and

5
Assess whether the exercise contributes to a balanced programme

5
Pilot test the exercise on colleagues

5
Revise and refine the exercise as necessary in the light of the pilot

5
Run the exercise during the course and get participants to evaluate it

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Arboreta (AABGA) produces a directory of internship opportunities (AABGA Horticulture Internship Directory). Staff Exchange Programmes can bring further benefits to both organizations. An example is the Grtnertausch, an exchange programme of technical and horticultural staff between four botanic gardens: the Institut fr Allgemeine Botanik und Botanischer Garten, Hamburg, Germany, the Jerusalem and University Botanical Garden, Israel, the Botanical Garden of the Komarov Institute, St Peterburg, Russia, and Jardn Botnico Mrida, Venezuela. It has become a means to communicate technical and professional experience to the exchange staff and generates a shared responsibility for the survival of rare and threatened plants through the international network of botanic gardens. National and International Training Programmes The Australian Network for Plant Conservation arranged a short course on Plant Conservation Techniques. The course covers fundamental principles in plant conservation, understanding rarity and threatening processes, biological strategies, plant management techniques, conservation strategies, herbaria, record keeping, botanic gardens, arboreta and private collections, research institutions and species recovery plans and legislation, The Asociacin Latinoamericana y del Caribe de Jardines Botnicos (Association of Latin American and Caribbean Botanical Gardens) has run courses at its meetings on CITES, education, maintenance of collections and botanic illustration. A number of international training programmes have been developed to provide training opportunities for botanic garden staff (Box 2 and 3). Higher Degrees Many staff within botanic gardens will have or be studying for higher degrees. It may be appropriate to arrange flexible working times or hours to fit in with individual needs. A good example is the Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens (RTBG), Australia Assisted Study Leave Programme: This is a programme that is applicable to all State Service employees (public servants). It allows staff to undertake further education on a part time basis which results in accreditation qualifications (Certificate, Associate Diploma, Degree etc.). Any course of study can be undertaken as long as it has a relevance to the organisation or is seen to be of future value to the organisation. Staff have undertaken Associate Diplomas and Advanced Certificates in Horticulture, Bachelor of Science Degrees, Park Management Certificates, Occupational Health and Safety Certificates and Arboriculture Certificates. This programme applies across the entire staff from horticulturist to director. An extension of the scheme mentioned above, can lead to an exchange of students studying for higher degrees such as a programme for graduate students between

Box 2 Outline of an International Diploma course in Botanic Garden Management

The Management of Living Collections Accessions and Plant Records Biological Control Collecting Techniques Curation Policy History, Development and Role of Botanic Gardens Horticultural Techniques Micropropagation Nursery Management Role of International Conventions, particularly CITES and CBD Executive Management Developing Management Skills Strategic Planning and Master Plans Fund Raising Networking Education and Visitor Services Education Friends Organisations Interpretation Marketing Plant Biology Biodiversity and Conservation Case Studies Ecology Research Role of the Herbarium Research Project An individually tailored project relevant to your home institution Computer training Presentation techniques

Course Objectives: The main objectives of the course are to provide participants with the opportunity to: develop the skills and understanding to become a more effective manager of living plant collections within their own botanic garden; explore the key issues facing botanic gardens today with an emphasis on plant conservation; establish and develop communication channels with staff at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, BGCI and other institutions visited; interact and share experience with colleagues from botanic gardens around the world. This is the course outline for the International Diploma course in Botanic Garden Management at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K. held in association with BGCI.

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Box 3 International training opportunities for botanic gardens

Several botanic gardens, or networks of botanic gardens run training courses, examples of which are: The Higher Education and Training Programme at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew includes five separate training courses which have been developed in response to specific and continued requests for training from collaborators all over the world. Courses are run in Botanic Garden Management, Botanic Garden Education (joint course with BGCI), Plant Conservation Techniques, Cultivation and Conservation of Threatened Plant Species, and Herbarium Techniques. In an attempt to reach a wider audience there has been a strong move towards regionalisation of this programme. In collaboration with the National Museums of Kenya, RBG, Kew has started a three-year programme of Plant Conservation Techniques courses for East Africa, funded by the Darwin Initiative. Herbarium Techniques courses have been run in Russia, Malaysia and Brazil and the Herbarium Handbook (Bridson & Foreman, 1998) has been translated into Russian and Chinese. Other regional courses are planned in collaborations with in-country partners. BGCI runs training courses worldwide with in-country partners. For example, BGCI has run a Botanic Garden Management course in Siberia, Russia, training workshops on the Management of Biodiversity Information Systems in Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan, Indonesia and Ireland and Biodiversity Conservation Training courses in Uganda and Russia. BGCI has organized workshops on Environmental Education in many countries e.g. Russia, India, China, Colombia, Poland, Italy and South Africa. The organisation is keen to support courses in other parts of the world in collaboration with other partners. The Southern African Botanical Diversity Network (SABONET) runs herbarium and specimen database training courses and related activities to build the capacity and skills of botanists in ten southern African countries.

Peter Wyse Jackson Secretary General, BGCI Descanso House 199 Kew Road, Richmond Surrey, TW9 3BW, U.K. Tel: +44 (0)181 332 5953 Fax: +44 (0)181 332 5956 Email: bgci@rbgkew.org.uk

Christopher Willis SABONET Co-ordinator c/o National Botanical Institute Private Bag X101 Pretoria 0001, South Africa Tel: +27 12 804 3200 Fax: +27 12 804 3211 Email: ckw@nbipre.nbi.ac.za

Colin Clubbe Co-ordinator of Graduate Studies Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3AB, U.K. Tel: +44 (0)181 332 5637 Fax: +44 (0)181 332 5640 Email: C.Clubbe@rbgkew.org.uk

the Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden, California, U.S.A. and gardens in Mexico. A member of the staff of the Jardim Botnico do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil studied for a Ph.D. at the University of St Andrews, Scotland, U.K. in collaboration with the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, U.K. on the taxonomy and cultivation of bromeliads from the Atlantic forest of Brazil. This work will help conserve these plants in their native habitat and in cultivation. A member of staff from the National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya is doing a PhD. at London University and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K. on Seed Conservation of Endangered East African Species.

training. The Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens (RTBG), Australia currently allocates 2% of their total salary bill for training. A figure of 5% of turnover is a reasonable aim. Unfortunately, there is no set programme of training in some gardens. Funds are allocated where there is the greatest need or staff are at risk if not trained e.g. use of machinery or poisonous chemicals.

5. Planning the training

Training needs to be staggered so that the organisation is not left understaffed. The time of training courses is important during the horticultural year. For instance, propagation courses need to be held during the active growing season. Adequate planning time for training also needs to be built in so that people are able to complete the pre-course reading and the preliminary research for work on the course such as talks or projects.

Cost of training
It is very hard to be precise about how much of a gardens budget should be spent on training. This will vary from garden to garden and from country to country, even possibly from year to year. In Australia, federal legislation called the Training Guarantee Act, sets 1% of salary budget as a minimum spending on

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BGCI Computer Training Course at the M.M. Grishko Central Botanical Garden, Kiev, Ukraine

6. Evaluating the Training

There is a saying among pilots that a landing is not complete until you have walked away from the aircraft. After the very demanding job of landing an aircraft it would be easy for the pilot to relax, during the relatively simple process of taxiing to a parking place, and make a mistake. Analogous situations exist in the training field. It is equally easy to breathe a sigh of relief once the agreed training has been delivered and the person is back in their job. It is tempting for the trainers to simply file away the papers and look towards the next job. For the manager it is also too easy to allow the trainee just to get on with their job. In neither case has the trainee walked away from the aircraft. It is important for trainers to evaluate their training, preferably with the active cooperation of the trainees. It is equally important for the line manager to discuss with the trainee the training received and how far it met the goals set out for the training programme. Questions that might arise at the end of a training programme include: did the training accomplish its objectives? has the training affected job performance? is there any connection between the investment in training and an improvement in organisational performance? For these reasons it is important that any training undertaken is evaluated. For some types of training programme, e.g. attendance at a course, it may be appropriate to ask the participant to write up a report which can be circulated to relevant people within the garden. It may also be appropriate to explore how

some of the benefits of the training programme can be cascaded to others within the botanic garden by a series of talks or demonstrations.

Summary
The establishment of a training and development policy and action plan for any botanic garden both supports the needs of the organisation and the career development of it staff. It is an important component of the Gardens strategic development plan and time and resources need to be devoted to it. This investment in time and resources will have the long-term payoff of a skilled and motivated workforce contributing to a more successful Garden.

Bibliography
D. Bridson and L. Foreman (eds) 1998, The Herbarium Handbook 3rd ed. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. U.K. J. Willison (ed.), 1994, Environmental Education in Botanic Gardens: guidelines for developing individual strategies (BGCI, U.K).

Author: Colin Clubbe, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AB, U.K.

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10. Networks and support

Introduction
Worldwide there may be as many as 2,000 institutions that describe themselves as botanic gardens. In the last few decades the links between botanic gardens in all parts of the globe have been considerably strengthened. Today cooperation between different botanic gardens, nationally, regionally and internationally is a significant characteristic of the botanic garden community. Local support groups such as Friends groups and volunteers provide a way in which a botanic garden can strengthen its roots in the local community, provide a link with many community groups and ensure that its activities are as relevant as possible to the needs of those the garden serves. Such groups are also an increasingly important means for raising funds and providing other resources to support a garden and its programmes. In this chapter the role, value and operation of networks involving botanic gardens is described, under two main sections: 1. Networks of institutions, and 2. Support groups for the individual institution. Guidance is also given on setting up and operating such networks. Networks play an extremely valuable role in developing and strengthening botanic gardens in most parts of the world. Almost weekly, BGCI receives information on plans for or news on the actual establishment of a new botanic garden somewhere in the world. Few of these gardens are being created without major inputs and advice from other longer-established botanic gardens. The vital need for botanic gardens to be involved in conserving biodiversity makes it essential for more botanic gardens to be created, particularly in developing and tropical countries which are often the richest in plant diversity. Networking can be one of the greatest tools and resources available to us to help in their creation and in building new capacity for conservation, science and education. The objectives of Botanic Gardens Conservation International are outlined in Box 1 as an example.

1. Networks of institutions
The effectiveness and success of activities undertaken by any individual institution can often be enhanced with the support of resources obtained through networking with other organizations, institutions and colleagues. There have been important links between botanic gardens throughout their history. For example, many tropical gardens were established by or with the assistance of European gardens and in some cases these cooperative links were maintained. An international seed exchange scheme has operated between botanic gardens; as many as 1,000 botanic gardens have issued lists of seeds available for exchange (Index Seminum). A sizeable proportion of collections in botanic gardens has been derived from plant material originally obtained by seed exchange. Posters for recent BGCI Congresses

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Box 1 Botanic Gardens Conservation International - a global network for botanic gardens
In 1987 the IUCN Botanic Gardens Conservation Secretariat was established as a new network organization to promote the role of botanic gardens in conservation. In 1990 it became independent as Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) and by 1998 it had grown to include almost 500 institutional members, mainly botanic gardens, in 106 countries. The BGCI Head Office is based in London, at Kew and is registered as a charitable organization in the U.K. As a charity it receives certain tax benefits, particularly in regard to those that donors may receive when providing funding for the organization. The BGCI charity in the U.K. is headed by a Board of Trustees which has overall responsibility for the administration, policy, staffing and financial affairs of the organization. Independent but closely linked BGCI non-profit bodies are also registered in Russia and the U.S.A. BGCI was established with five principal objectives to: promote the implementation of the Botanic Gardens Conservation Strategy; monitor and coordinate ex situ collections of conservation-worthy plants; develop a programme for liaison and training; arrange a Botanic Gardens Conservation Congress every three years; and help gardens greatly improve their education and training programmes. Since then the objectives of BGCI have broadened to include much greater involvement in assisting in the development of policies, practices and procedures for botanic gardens in many areas, including, but not confined to, conservation and environmental education. BGCI has also become a networking centre both for its members and for the wide range of botanic garden networks throughout the world. It has also assigned high priority to supporting the development and strengthening of such networks and to creating new botanic gardens or strengthening individual institutions where they are most needed. BGCIs work in capacity building has been undertaken in a number of ways by: Many regional or national botanic garden networks provide such services for their members, often with priorities and programmes that are very similar to those of BGCI. BGCI maintains regional offices or divisions to support the botanic gardens and national botanic garden networks of a number of countries:

Canary Islands, Spain

Contact: BGCI-Canarias, c/o Juan Manuel Lopez Ramirez, Jardn Botnico Canario Viera y Clavijo, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain.

China
Contact: BGCI-China, c/o Professor He Shan-An, Director & Professor, Nanjing Botanical Garden Mem. Sun Yat-sen, Institute of Botany, Jiangsu Province, P.O. Box 1436, Nanjing, China.

Colombia
Contact: BGCI-Colombia, c/o Alberto Gmez Meja, Presidente, Red Nacional de Jardines Botnicos de Colombia, Calle 72 No. 10-07 of. 104, Santaf de Bogot, Colombia.

Indonesia
Contact: BGCI-Indonesia, c/o Indonesian Network for Plant Conservation, Kebun Raya Bogor, PO Box 309, Bogor 16003, Indonesia.

Netherlands
Contact: BGCI-Netherlands, Dr Bert van den Wollenberg, Head Dutch Regional Office of BGCI, Utrecht University Botanic Garden, PO Box 80.162, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands.

Russia
Contact: Dr Igor Smirnov, Chairman, BGCI Moscow Division, Botanic Gardens Conservation International, c/o The Moscow Main Botanic Garden, Russian Academy of Sciences, 4 Botanicheskaya Street, Moscow 127276, Russia.

implementing cooperative model and demonstration projects with

partner botanic gardens in many countries; organizing and providing training opportunities in such fields as botanic garden management, plant conservation, environmental education and information technology and management; providing one to one technical advisory services for individual botanic gardens; developing technical materials and policy documents relevant to botanic gardens in such fields as in situ and ex situ conservation, education, information management, CITES and CBD and this Technical Manual for Botanic Gardens; organizing a regular International Congress on Education in Botanic Gardens; publishing regular magazines containing articles on recent developments and innovations in science, conservation and education relevant to botanic gardens. BGCI Offices are currently being developed in Canada and the United States:

Canada
Contact: Dr David Galbraith, Co-ordinator, Canadian Botanical Conservation Network, Botanical Conservation Office, Royal Botanical Gardens, PO Box 399, Hamilton, Ontario L8N 3H8, Canada

U.S.A.
Contact: Botanic Gardens Conservation International (U.S.) Inc., c/o BGCI, Descanso House, 199 Kew Road, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3BWE, U.K..

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Box 2 Objectives of some national networks

The objectives of the Australian Network for Plant Conservation, established in 1991, are: the establishment of a multi-site, national, endangered species collection; locate and consolidate information concerning integrated conservation activities in Australia; assist in the coordination of plant conservation projects to avoid duplication; provide information and advice to members; organize workshops and training courses; and produce a regular newsletter. The objectives of the U.S. Center for Plant Conservation, established in 1984, are: develop a national network of cooperating gardens; link the efforts of these gardens to the management and protection of land and habitat; maintain the National Collection of Endangered Plants; maintain a national database of rare plants, including those in cultivation; help raise public awareness of native plant endangerment and conservation; advance the application of conservation biology to plant protection efforts. The objectives of the Canadian Botanical Conservation Network, established in 1994, are: to aid organizations in Canada that are concerned with the conservation of plant life, such as botanical gardens, arboreta, universities, government agencies and others to realise their potential to contribute to the conservation of biological diversity; to facilitate the exchange of information among the professional community engaged in botanical conservation, thereby increasing the effectiveness of efforts being made to protect and conserve natural and cultivated botanical heritage; to develop educational materials and seek to raise public awareness of the value of plants and the need for their conservation, thereby contributing to public understanding of the role of plant conservation to the future of a sustainable society; to lead cooperative research and practical projects that engage the capabilities, ideas and objectives of participating organizations and contribute to the implementation of Canadas Biodiversity Strategy and the international Botanic Gardens Conservation Strategy; and through communication, education and practical projects in plant conservation, promote the conservation of endangered or rare plants, plants that constitute important cultural, historic or economic genetic resources, and the ecosystems and habitats that sustain them.

Over 200 delegates from 43 countries attended the 3rd International Congress on Education in Botanic Gardens held at Brooklyn Botanic Garden, U.S.A. in 1996.

Purpose of networks
The main purposes for networks involving botanic gardens are to: provide a forum for policy development; create, organize and implement projects involving several institutional partners; raise funds centrally or cooperatively from a variety of donors to support members and the secretariat of the organization; prepare, circulate and disseminate guidelines, manuals and other technical materials to guide members policies, procedures and practices; prepare Codes of Conduct on such matters as CITES, CBD, collecting and commercialization; act as central clearing houses for linkages between member botanic gardens, as well as with other relevant non-garden institutions, organizations and individuals; organize events, meetings and training opportunities; disseminate information about the priorities, concerns and activities of the network or its individual members to others, including other networks and the general public. Some of the most effective networks build strengths in a particular area, rather than trying to encompass too wide a range of activities and concerns for which they may not have the resources. Some examples of the objectives of well-established national networks involving botanic gardens are provided in Box 2.

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Box 3 The world of botanic garden networks major botanic garden network organizations operating worldwide
The two global botanic garden network organizations are: Botanic Gardens Conservation International (Box 1); and The International Association of Botanic Gardens (Box 4)

Europe
The BGCI/IABG European Botanic Garden Consortium (European Union) Societ Botanica Italiana - Gruppo Orti Botanici (Botanic Garden Working Group of the Italian Botanical Society) The Consulting Committee of Botanic Gardens in the Czech Republic and Slovakia Nederlandse Vereniging van Botanische Tuinen (Dutch Botanic Gardens Association Stichting Nederlandse Plantentuinen (Dutch National Plant Collections Foundation) The Polish Botanic Garden Association Botanic Garden Education Network, U.K. Jardin Botaniques de France et des Pays Francophones PlantNet - The Plant Collections Network of Britain and Ireland Association des responsables techniques des jardins botaniques, Switzerland (Swiss Association) Vereniging Botanische Tuinen en Arboreta Association des Jardins Botaniques et Arboreta de Belgique (Belgian Botanic Garden Association) Asociacin Ibero-Macaronsica de Jardines Botnicos (Association of Iberian-Macaronesian Botanic Gardens) Verband Botanischer Grten e. V. (German Botanic Garden Association) Arbeitsgemeinschaft Osterreichischer Botanischer Grten (Austrian Working Group of Botanic Gardens

Africa
National Botanical Institute of South Africa (system of eight National Botanic Gardens)

Asia and Australasia

The Asian Division of the International Association of Botanic Gardens Indonesian Network for Plant Conservation Australian Network for Plant Conservation The Chinese Association of Botanic Garden Botanic Garden Association, Japan Korean Association of Botanic Gardens (South Korea)

Latin America and the Caribbean

Jardines Botnicos Argentinos (Association of Botanic Gardens of Argentina) Rede Brazileira de Jardines Botnicos (Brazilian Botanic Garden Network) Red Nacional de Jardines Botnicos de Colombia (Network of Colombian Botanic Gardens) Asociacin Latinoamericana y del Caribe de Jardines Botnicos (Association of Latin American and Caribbean Botanic Gardens) Jardines Botnicos Nacional de Cuba (Association of Cuban Botanic Gardens) Asociacin Mexicana de Jardines Botnicos (Mexican Association of Botanic Gardens) A network of Caribbean island botanic gardens has also been developed recently, initiated by BGCI.

North America
American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta Canadian Botanical Conservation Network Center for Plant Conservation Hawaii Association of Botanical Gardens

Former Soviet Union

The Council of Botanic Gardens of Russia The Council of Botanic Gardens of Ukraine The Baltic Botanic Garden Association The Council of Botanic Gardens of Belarus The Council of Botanic Gardens of Kazakhstan

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Broader networks involving botanic gardens

A recent trend amongst newly created networks involving botanic gardens is for the establishment of more broadly based network organizations, involving institutions and individuals from sectors other than just botanic gardens. Some examples established to promote plant conservation are: The Georgia Plant Conservation Alliance (Georgia, U.S.A.); The Australian Network for Plant Conservation; The Indonesian Network for Plant Conservation; The Southern African Botanical Diversity Network (SABONET).

Box 4 The International Association of Botanic Gardens

International Association of Botanic Gardens (IABG). The IABG was formed in 1954 and is a worldwide organisation being affiliated to the International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS) as a commission of the International Association of Botanical and Mycological Societies (IABMS). The aims of IABG are to: promote international cooperation between botanic gardens, arboreta and similar institutes maintaining scientific collections of living plants; promote the study of taxonomy of plants to benefit the world community; promote documentation and exchange of information, living plants and specimens between botanic gardens and similar institutes; promote the conservation of plants through cultivation and other means within botanic gardens and similar institutes; promote the introduction to cultivation of appropriate plants of benefit to the community; promote habitat conservation by cooperation between IABG and other relevant bodies; promote horticulture as an art and science. The aims of IABG are pursued by means of publications, committee work, holding meetings and symposia and contact through regionally autonomous groups having representation on the IABG Council. All botanic gardens, arboreta or other institutes and their staff are eligible for membership of IABG through the various regional groups in Europe, Ibero-Macaronesia, Latin America, AustralasiaOceania, E. Asia, with AABGA providing a corresponding service to institutions in north America. The Constitution of IABG was revised and ratified in Frankfurt in 1987. Contact: Prof. J.E. Hernndez Bermejo, Secretary General, IABG and Director, Jardn Botnico de Crdoba, Apdo 3048. 14071 Crdoba, Spain. Tel: +34 (9)57 200 355; Fax: +34 (9)57 295 333; E-mail: jardinbotcord@cod.servicom.es

These networks can involve botanic gardens, universities, interested amateurs and professionals, research institutes, horticultural societies, landmanaging agencies including national park authorities and other bodies. Such organizations are valuable in promoting the implementation of a range of plant conservation strategies including in situ management of plant resources and protected areas, habitat recreation and restoration, maintenance of cultivated collections and their use for species recovery, plant population management, reintroduction and reinforcement and public education. In regions where there are few botanic gardens such broadly-based networks may be the only option if local cooperation is to be encouraged and implemented.

Existing botanic garden networks

During the last decade many new botanic garden network organizations have been established and now there are few parts of the world or few major countries without some form of national or regional coordination body for their botanic gardens. A list of the major botanic garden network organizations is given in Box 3. Many of the networks listed in Box 3 admit both institutions and individuals as members. Others are restricted to institutional membership only. Some charge an annual subscription and provide a series of benefits for membership, such as: regular newsletters and/or a journal; access to membership lists and information on the addresses, plant collections and work of other members; programmes of meetings, workshops, conferences and training seminars; technical advice and some library services; leadership in the development of policies for members. Other network organizations act less formally to provide a forum for regular meetings and liaison between institutions for the development of policy, shared projects and coordination of the implementation of national priorities.

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An example of such a liaison group is the BGCI/IABG European Botanic Gardens Consortium. This body includes representatives of the major botanic garden national networks in the European Union and other representatives from European botanic gardens to help develop policy and shared action for European botanic gardens. The Consortium meets twice a year and organized the 1st European Botanic Gardens Conference, eurogard97, in Edinburgh in 1997.

Other international networks and how they can help

Some other international networks that are relevant to botanic gardens are: The Species Survival Commission (SSC) of IUCN-The World Conservation Union The SSC is made up of a range of individual experts worldwide linked into Specialist Groups to consider policies and undertake action for species conservation. Membership of the Specialist Groups is by invitation. Specialist Groups are organized by taxon (e.g. the Orchid, Cacti and Succulents, Palm and Pteridophyte Specialist Groups), region (e.g. the China Plant, Arabian Plant and Mediterranean Islands Specialist Groups), theme (e.g. Medicinal Plant Specialist Group) and discipline (e.g. Reintroduction and Conservation Breeding Specialist Groups). Individual Specialist Groups have developed and published Action Plans for the conservation of the plants and animals of concern to them. Botanic gardens may develop individual conservation programmes towards the implementation of specific parts of such Action Plans. The Species Survival Commission also offers an extensive network of several thousand specialists whose advice and assistance can be sought to support particular programmes and projects. Contact: Chairman, Species Survival Commission of IUCN-The World Conservation Union, IUCN Headquarters, Rue Mauverney 28, CH 1196 Gland, Switzerland. People and Plants Initiative The People and Plants Initiative is an informal network coordinated jointly by WWF-The World Wide Fund for Nature, UNESCO and the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew. It includes an extensive network of individuals and institutions involved in ethnobotanical studies worldwide. It has undertaken a range of projects in several regions of the world to conserve plants and knowledge on the use of plants by local communities. The People and Plants Initiative has also published a range of publications offering practical guidance to those undertaking ethnobotanical studies. Contact: Dr Alan Hamilton, Plants Conservation Officer, WWF-UK, Panda House, Weyside Park, Cattershall Lane, Godalming, Surrey GU7 1XR, U.K.

The plant genetic resources conservation sector The plant genetic resources sector includes a wide range of individuals and organizations focussed on the conservation of plant genetic resources of actual or potential economic importance. Close network coordination and leadership in this sector is given by the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). IPGRI publications include international and regional newsletters, technical manuals on such subjects as genebank management, seed storage techniques and the characterisation of important crop plants and their relatives. Contact: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), Via delle Sette Chiese 142, 00145 Rome, Italy.

How to develop a network of botanic gardens

If a national or regional botanic garden network does not already exist, it may be valuable to consider establishing such a group. It could be set up as a formal network organization, with a membership, constitution, set of rules and regulations, a clearly defined programme of activities and perhaps even with a paid staff secretariat. An alternative, and sometimes useful first stage is to create a loosely constituted committee which performs the function of a network organization and may be developed in later years as an association or other formal network organization. The stages in the formation of such a network might be to consider: Why is a new network needed? What functions will it perform and what will be its scope? What sectors will it include - will it be just for botanic gardens or perhaps other public gardens or non-garden institutions and organizations should be involved? The decision about which sectors to include will generally be based on its objectives. These should be worked out at an early stage. Who will do the work? Is there a team of people who can share the load in developing the network? To what, if any, existing bodies will it be linked - e.g.. to a national botanical society, Academy of Sciences, BGCI regional office or other national, regional or international networks? What networks already operate in this field? Are there political sensitivities that must be handled carefully in the launch of the network? Are there strategic alliances that should be forged with other networks during the initial startup phase? How will the network be organized, i.e.. as a registered charity, a limited company, independent foundation or trust, some other form of non-governmental organization, or as a section or sub-department of a national, regional or local government or some other governmental body? What funds will be needed to get it established and how can such funds be raised? What special skills and resources would be useful in the development of the network - e.g.. the services of a lawyer,

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accountant, an address and perhaps an office in which to base its operations? Has a strategic plan been developed for the network? It will be important to devise a strategy for the launch of the network organization and its on-going operations. Such a strategy should focus on how to get all those relevant to its objectives involved and in agreement with the course of action chosen. It may be useful to: create a provisional steering group for the project and hold a meeting of this committee to discuss the questions outlined above; prepare a proposal to publicize the initiative or to raise funds to assist in its launch; mail information on the proposal to a wide range of individuals and organizations who may wish to become involved and invite their comments, suggestions and participation organize a general meeting or conference of those who may be involved in the network to decide on its formation and objectives. At such a meeting, the organization could be formally constituted and a steering committee elected. Once the organization has been created, a priority task for this committee will be to consider its longer-term strategy, focussed on defining objectives, measurable targets and specific actions. It is often relatively easy to generate enthusiasm to launch a new network initiative. It is a much harder to ensure that the organization builds steadily and sustainably once the initial euphoria has worn off. Start-up funds may have been used up and those who have launched the ship may feel that their task is complete. This is when a strategic plan for the organization is most important, so that development can be guided by clear objectives, a timetable for their achievement and a realistic budget including the resources needed and those likely to be available.

ecological studies, seed banking, cryostorage of tissues, micropropagation, landscape design, project management, institutional skills, training, public education, taxonomy, conservation biology and many other disciplines. Such networking may provide excellent opportunities to develop collaborative integrated projects involving two or several institutions. Collaborative projects involving several partners are generally greatly favoured by funding agencies. Indeed, many donors require evidence of collaborative partners involved in a project before they will give their support.

2. Support groups for the individual institution

In recent years, botanic gardens in most parts of the world have considered the need to create support groups such as: friends group (membership organisation); volunteers. These organisations provide a link with the local community and are an increasingly important means of raising funds and providing other resources to support a garden and its programmes. The creation of a Friends Group or volunteer programme for a garden need not be a difficult task. Many of the steps described above in the creation of a new network organization are equally applicable to the establishment of these groups. Additionally, Friends groups and volunteer staff teams can be formed and administered in much the same way.

Friends group - membership organisation

The simplest organisation is one in which the members pay an annual membership subscription in return for specific benefits, such as free admission, a newsletter or special events. Membership subscriptions provide a source of income for the garden, although a proportion will be required to service membership needs (e.g. the cost of printing newsletters, postage, free entry, additional staff to administer the group and the cost of holding special events). Apart from providing an income for the garden a membership organization provides a personal link with the public. The garden can identify a group of people who are interested in the work of the garden and who then become strong advocates for the garden. The goodwill in the community towards the garden is of vital importance.

How can a network organization benefit a botanic garden?

If a botanic garden network already exists, it should be approached for information about its membership and activities. Through its membership and address list, individuals and organisations can contact and develop links to others working in similar fields. Joint or cooperative projects can be developed through these links. Such cooperation can help to avoid duplication, and encourage sharing resources or sourcing of plant material. Also, other individuals and organizations can contribute skills and resources to projects such as molecular studies and laboratory techniques, computer systems,

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Leaflet produced by the Friends of the Indonesian Botanic Gardens

also provide a mechanism for comments about the garden and its activities without the staff feeling criticised. In Britain, for example, more than 25 botanic gardens have Friends groups. Almost all were formed in the 1980s and 1990s when government and parent institutional support fell and botanic gardens were forced to seek resources by developing new and innovative strategies. Membership of these groups ranges from a few hundred members in the smaller gardens to over 20,000 members of the Friends of Kew (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K.). Some Friends groups are set up specifically as pressure groups to save a garden under threat from closure or reduction. In such cases the Friends work closely with the remaining garden staff and need to be given clear direction so that the garden remains in control of the situation. Sometimes (e.g. Sheffield Botanic Garden, U.K.) the Friends are the major group trying the save the garden or to persuade the owners that it is important and needs to be restored. These situations can be tricky to handle for all concerned, but can be very successful. Some botanic gardens, such as the Jerusalem and University Botanic Garden, Israel, the Robert and Catherine Wilson Botanic Garden, Las Cruces, Costa Rica and the Narayana Gurukula Botanical Sanctuary, Kerala, South India have overseas support organizations which help raise funds to support the garden at a distance. The establishment of such a group is worth considering if there is a sizeable non-national constituency of potential supporters can be identified, as well as some energetic and enthusiastic supporters willing to manage such an organization. How can a Friends group support the garden? subscription income; public relations and publicity - friends can be extremely active in spreading the word amongst the local community and the general public about the good work and importance of the, and in helping to recruit new and influential supporters for the garden; fund-raising events - most Friends groups organize special fund-raising events to support programmes and projects in the garden; donations and legacies - members may also donate to annual or special appeals or make provision for support to the garden in their wills. Legacies can be an extremely effective way of funding the establishment and development of an endowment fund which support the institution each year from interest received on a capital sum invested; source of new board members and volunteers. Legal status of Friendsgroups In some countries, Friends subscriptions are liable to be taxed by the state (e.g. the imposition of Value Added Tax or Purchase Tax in some countries). This can become

If the membership is given more opportunity to become involved in the organisation, it can provide further support by helping in the garden (e.g. helping in the shop or visitor desk) and fund-raising. Friends may be set up and run by a member of staff within the garden. In this way the garden has more control over the group and its activities. Or Friends may be organized separately through a group of elected officers or committees. However, the importance of developing and maintaining a good relationship between the management and staff of a botanic garden and the Friends organization cannot be overstated. There is a fine line between helpful assistance and interference. If the Friends group has a semi-autonomous governance and if the relationship goes wrong, the group can become a pressure group opposing and fighting decisions made by the management of the garden. The management of the garden must provide strong leadership and the group must be fully aware of the gardens aims and their role in helping to achieve them. Friends may have an obvious public face in the garden, particularly if they run a shop or activities. To act as effective ambassadors for the garden, they need to be kept informed and up to date on the aims and development of the garden. As Friends are members of the public, with a particular interest in the garden, they are often able to take a detached view of the activities of the garden for interpretation to the public. However, public relations work carried out by Friends should be planned in conjunction with the garden. Friends can

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a bureaucratic burden for the administration of the garden, especially if it is a small institution. In other countries donations made to a garden are tax deductible for the donors, but must not include the value of services or other benefits received in return. Before a subscription and membership benefits system is established, it is advisable to seek professional advice on any potential tax liabilities and problems. In the U.K. the charitable status of Friends groups determines what the group is allowed to receive in terms of benefits.

managing and administering retail operations; providing accommodation for trainees, visitors and interns or for delegates during conferences held by the garden; undertaking visitor surveys; general maintenance and handyman tasks; computer assistance and data inputting; assistance in managing plant records; publicity and public relations; drafting press releases etc.; library and herbarium management.

Volunteers - a potential asset for a botanic garden

Botanic gardens and other organizations have developed volunteer programmes to support the work of their institutions. A poll in 1992 in the U.S.A. indicated that 51% of the adult population volunteers in some form or another. In the U.S.A. in particular, volunteers are the basis of many botanic garden educational programmes, giving their time as tour guides, interns, docents (recognized teachers who are not members of the salaried staff), youth leaders, instructors and volunteer teachers. In other countries where adults have little free time, the notion of volunteering has either not yet developed, is still is in its infancy or, for various cultural reasons, is unlikely to develop significantly. Nevertheless, the development of a team of volunteers is worth considering for almost any institution, especially as environmental awareness grows and more people wish to make a positive contribution to conserving biodiversity and sustaining their natural environment. What roles can volunteers play? Volunteers can perform any number of functions in the garden (see Box 5). Their potential roles are limited only by the skills and experience of the volunteers. The Trustees who sit on the boards of so many botanic gardens around the world are volunteers themselves. Some important and valuable roles for volunteers include: accountancy and financial management; providing legal expertise and services; administration; office assistance; fund-raising; marketing; editing the gardens publications; guiding and organizing tours; honorary research and science associates; arranging and managing social events; providing technical training for staff, other volunteers and visitors; gardening and assistance in the nursery; teaching and other involvement in education programmes;

Childrens programme at Bogota Botanic Garden, Colombia run with help from young soldiers from the Colombian Army

Box 5 Case Study - Fairchild Tropical Garden, Miami, U.S.A.

At the Fairchild Tropical Garden in Miami, volunteers play important roles in many aspects of the garden: working in the herbarium, library, nursery, the rare plant greenhouse, or plant records office; serving as tour guides; assisting in grounds maintenance, seed collecting, in the shop, as archivists and garden historians, with plant sales and special events and in fund-raising. After the garden was devastated by Hurricane Andrew in 1992, hundreds of volunteers came forward to help clear-up and repair the garden. In 1980 volunteers donated 10,000 hours of their time to the garden; the total has grown to 35,000 hours each year, involving 235 people in day-to-day activities and 1,200 with special events.

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Developing a volunteer programme A volunteer programme needs to be developed and managed in the same way as the salaried work force. This will include the following considerations: the legal situation with regard to recruiting volunteers (e.g. insurance); discussion and agreement with the gardens paid staff for the recruitment of volunteers; paid staff may be unhappy about the recruitment of volunteers, particularly if volunteers seem to be replacing paid staff or altering the work practices and responsibilities of the current staff; integration of volunteers into the workforce so that they work side by side with existing staff; written job descriptions - these will not only clarify the tasks to be performed for the volunteer but also clarify their role for the volunteer programme manager and other staff; sufficient space and adequate staff facilities to accommodate the volunteers; volunteers may require desk or bench space or access to computers, telephones and other facilities and will certainly need toilet facilities and a place to gather socially or make a drink; resources available to recruit and manage volunteers; it is important to give one or more members of staff clear responsibility for managing the volunteer programme in the garden; recruitment - advertise in the local press as well as in the gardens own publications, advertise in publications produced by community groups, trade journals, expatriate network organizations (especially if there is no tradition of volunteering in the country), contact specialist volunteerplacement agencies; spread the word informally through the staff; rely on those who volunteer directly to the garden, hold special volunteer recruitment events. management - this should be approached in a similar way to that of paid employees. Volunteer programme staff should also be closely involved in recruitment of volunteers and in matching volunteers skills with the required tasks. Some gardens have a written contract outlining what their duties and responsibilities will be, the rules under which they will operate and to whom they report. Such a contract should also consider the working hours of the volunteer and procedures for volunteers to inform the garden if they cannot attend. The garden should ensure that volunteers are informed of any changes or activities at the garden which may affect their roles and duties and when they will be required, even if such changes are only occasional. The work programmes for volunteers should be agreed with the salaried staff and the work requirements communicated to the volunteers. training of volunteers should be carried out in a professional and well-planned way; health and safety - volunteers should be made aware of procedures (e.g. fire drills and machinery operating procedures); reviews and feedback from the volunteers should be regular to make sure that the programme is effective and the volunteers are enjoying the work and do not have any problems.

Benefits to the volunteer

It is very important to thank volunteers for their work. Friends and volunteers are often busy people under pressure who may choose to give their time to voluntary activities in the garden or meetings; the difference between them and the garden staff is that the staff are paid, but the volunteers are not. Volunteers need to know that their work is appreciated. Volunteers might also be offered: a discount in the shop or during plant sales; free or reduced admission to the garden for their families or for special events; special functions such as annual parties, receptions or barbecue held in the gardens; regular copies of the gardens newsletter; priority opportunities to book onto tours being organized by the garden; reimbursement of their travel costs or other expenses; rewards, awards or recognition for years of service.

Conclusion
Botanic garden do not exist in isolation. Botanic gardens need to be part of a bigger structure represented by other botanic gardens nationally and internationally, other institutions such as universitites and horticultural societies and in the community by Friends and volunteers. The links that are formed by being part of this bigger structure contribute in two ways; they provide practical assistance and they help the garden find an effective role in plant conservation. Author: Peter Wyse Jackson, BGCI, U.K.

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11. Funding the botanic garden

Introduction
Most botanic gardens receive their main funding from a single source such as a government, university department or a charitable trust. However the fact that historically this money has been provided is no guarantee that the situation will always continue as before. We live in a changing world and the operation, role and purpose of the botanic garden is no more fixed than that of any modern organisation. In order to attract and retain funds from any source the botanic garden must be clear about why it exists and what it is trying to do. It must be able to show to itself and to the outside world that it is striving to achieve useful and valuable aims. However clear their purpose, many gardens find that there is a shortfall between the amount of money they receive from their parent body or institution, and the amount they need to survive and flourish. It may well be that in order to fulfill their stated purpose and so continue to receive secure funding they need to raise additional resources, including extra money. Some gardens are required to raise a certain percentage of their income themselves. It may be that the garden wants to develop programmes and policies above and beyond their primary aims. It may be that the garden wants or needs a degree of independence so that if the primary source of funding is reduced or lost the garden will be able to survive. Whatever the reason many gardens are now looking to generate an increasing proportion of their income themselves. This chapter looks at sources of funding for botanic gardens and explores activities and strategies designed to enhance self-generated income. As well as on-going funding, the chapter looks at fund-raising for special projects and gives details about how to prepare funding applications. targets for the amount of money they can hope to raise from other sources. They also need to plan ways to best use help and support given in kind. A fund-raising strategy must be part of the overall strategic plan of the garden, especially if the financial plan indicates a gap between the present income and the expenditure. Each garden needs to: 1. develop a long-term (strategic) plan (3 to 5 years) which will include: maintenance of existing gardens (including staff costs, buildings, research etc ); promotion and marketing; proposed capital projects; educational and research projects. 2. Develop a budget for this plan; 3. Develop a fund-raising plan to accomplish goals. (For more on strategic planning see chapter on Planning and management).

2. Sources of funding
There are four main sources of funding for the botanic garden. Any garden may receive money from one or all of these sources: A. The parent body or institution, often a governmental authority or university source, but also a trust fund or major endowment; B. Charitable donations individual, commercial organizations or foundations. This includes annual fund-raising campaigns, legacies, deferred giving, capital gifts and endowment, in-kind donations and volunteering; C. Earned income, including profits from shops and restaurants, gate and programme fees, cottage industries, and competitive grants; D. Project funding grants from individuals, foundations, and commercial organizations, government, international agencies etc. It is useful to categorise sources of funds by the uses to which they will eventually be put, so that it is clear whether each activity is self-supporting (see cost centres in Planning and management chapter). Operating funds cover on-going expenses for the year, typically staff costs and routine maintenance. Capital or project funds cover specific items and may be spread

1. Fund-raising strategies
Botanic gardens need to plan carefully if their fundraising efforts are to be successful. They need to decide what they hope to achieve in the short, medium and long term and then look at ways they will be able to finance these aims. They need to look at the amount of funding that is guaranteed from the parent body, make projections for the amount of revenue they can hope to generate from entrance charges, shops etc., and to set

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over a number of years. A garden may also be fortunate and have endowments: capital sums which are invested, producing an ongoing annual income which may be used either for operating or project purposes.

B. Donations
Charitable donations whether from individuals, commercial organizations or foundations and trusts are an important source of funding for botanic gardens. Donations in kind, the contribution of materials, products and services, can also be a growth area. It is especially popular with corporations who find it easier to contribute their product or service when cash contributions are difficult to make. The drawback is that it is sometimes even more time consuming to arrange for such support than asking for money. Though charitable contribution is an area of complex relationships with people who have a multitude of interests, it is nonetheless fertile ground for botanic gardens. The objectives for this area are: to interest potential donors in the garden and its activities resulting in a donation; to increase the number and size of donations; to look more closely at increasing in-kind donations; to maintain a high level of professionally-oriented volunteers. Income from individuals The development of a broad base of individuals who support the botanic garden provides an extremely valuable way to raise considerable regular income (see the creation of Friends groups in the chapter on Networks and Support). Many individuals will give an annual or regular donation to their favourite good causes. Some will also make provision to support such causes through legacies in their wills. Perhaps the best possibility for increasing charitable gifts for botanic gardens in some countries is to seek such legacies. Giles Coode-Adams (pers. comm.) of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K. indicates that legacy programmes will be the largest source of income (beyond government support) at Kew in the future. A legacy allows the donor to gain a sense of immortality or to help support a cause dear to their heart. The difference between annual, capital and endowment campaigns and a legacy is that a legacy programme allows a donation to be either restricted or unrestricted, made directly in the present or deferred to the future. However, there must be a legacy campaign by a botanic garden if it is to maximise income from such sources. People do not have the opportunity to donate if they are not aware that the garden exists or that it is interested in receiving legacies. Individual donors are also more likely to give funds for general purposes, to support the broad activities of the garden rather than only giving funds tied to specific projects. It is valuable for a garden to seek to develop a group of people associated with and supporting the aims and objectives of the garden who have influence in local or national society and/or wealth and position. Such a group may include people from business, industry,

A. The parent body

Important parts of any fund-raising strategy are the measures planned to guarantee security of future income from the gardens major funding body. It is always dangerous to take this for granted and to concentrate only on how funds will be raised from other less direct sources. For example The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K. receives between 75 and 80% of its annual income directly from the U.K. government. The parent body or institution is often vital to the future of a garden. There should be three objectives for support from the parent body: maintenance of present base funding; expansion of the base; reassessment of the relationship between the parent body and the garden. Maintaining ones present level of funding from the parent body means constantly proving the value of the garden to that institution. Maintaining present funding from a trust or endowment means competent professional management to maintain a high level of earnings and continual long-term market growth. Increasing funding from a government or university means opening new areas of interest to the parent body or institution. This may mean developing new research areas that relate to university or government priorities. Constant communication with the home institution is essential so that trends and funding priorities are well known and understood. The garden may also be able to help the parent body create priorities beneficial to the garden. All new undertakings, however, must support and strengthen the gardens strategic objectives. Excessive reporting to satisfy safety, environmental, liability, and employment regulations could add significant cost and probably add little of value to the gardens mission. Further problems come when the home institution demands more return for its investment. It will insist on efficiency savings that could cut the quality of the gardens programmes. Therefore it is important to explore new and better relationships with the parent body. Collaboration within the parent body, with sister institutions and with organizations outside the world of botanic gardens can be useful sources of funding and inspiration (see chapter on Networks and Support).

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Research can take the form of: contacting the company to ask whether they have a charitable giving committee and the name of the contact person in charge; requesting a copy of their environmental policy or sponsorship guidelines (if any); reviewing the range of products they produce to see if there are any that might be linked with the project you have in mind (e.g. paper for publications, prizes for raffles etc, items that could be sold, advertising opportunities, etc); studying company annual reports to see if and how much they give to charity each year and to gain ideas of the sorts of projects they support; Check the names of the Chairman, Chief Executive or other senior management staff to see if you or one of your Board knows them personally. A personal contact (at any level) in the company is one of the best ways of building a relationship with that company. Remember, sponsorship from companies related to specific products is often harder to obtain than more general donations to a good cause. Sponsorship policy used to advertise a product is often determined by ideas suggested by the companys marketing department or by a separate advertising company and so if this form of support is sought it may sometimes be more worthwhile to approach the advertising agency used by the company and not the company itself. Sponsorship support and charitable donations tend to come from different parts of the company. Mass mailings to companies with a general appeal for support will generally yield a disappointing result. Appeals made without any previous links with the companies concerned generally give a successful result in less that 1% of approaches. Nevertheless such approaches can sometimes be worthwhile. Even a refusal can give valuable information. At least you know the name of the appropriate person in the company should you wish to apply to them again. The refusal letter will sometimes suggest areas that they do support - e.g. community based projects, educational work, projects that support disabled or poor people etc. This may be useful information if you have proposed or existing projects that fit in with their areas or interest. In a first letter it may be more useful to ask for information on the support they give to good causes, rather than asking for support at too early a stage before you have attracted their interest. Once you have established a good personal contact, try to arrange to meet that person to discuss your project in as much details as you can before you submit your formal application. Invite them to visit your Garden or to meet the people involved in your proposed project. Visit their offices, if you can, and get to know what other projects they are currently supporting. You generally get only one chance to ask for support. Make sure that the odds are as low as possible against a

Donations box at the Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden, California, U.S.A. entertainment or politics. They will often require special nurturing and individual attention, especially from the director, so that they use their influence or wealth to help the Garden. Some will be appropriate to invite to become members of the Board of Management of the garden or of associated foundations. Some gardens may consider the development of a corporate membership scheme through which other organizations, bodies and companies can support the Garden. Benefits derived from such support need not be limited to cash support only. In-kind donations can be an extremely valuable source of resources, such as air tickets, staff secondments, services, discounted prices, donation of products such as drinks, foods, items for sale, prizes, etc. Fund-raising from commercial organizations Many commercial concerns give very substantial support to botanic gardens. Even in developing countries with less well-developed commercial sectors, support can often be obtained for botanic gardens from multinational companies operating locally. A first step in raising funds from this sector is to compile a list of major commercial companies in your region and undertake research to see if they donate to good causes.

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refusal before you finally apply. Try to find out what level of support they give. If you are not sure how much to ask for, give them a number of options from which they can select the amount they wish to give, either supporting a full proposed programme or else some elements of what is proposed. Once you have obtained support from that company, maintain your links with them, even if some years pass before you can ask them again to renew their support. A company that has already given you support is much more likely to give again that one which has had no connection with the garden. Funding-raising from foundations Check whether there are national lists of charitable foundations/organizations. Some countries have directories of charitable giving outlining the names and addresses of charitable foundations, the areas of interest of each and the levels of support given. Ask other similar organizations who they have received funding from. Look to see who has sponsored/supported similar work elsewhere (e.g. credits and logos on publications). Acknowledging support Giving due acknowledgement to donors is an essential part of successful fund-raising. Not only should support given be expended fully in accordance with the conditions under which the support was given but also the work completed should be seen to have been completed in as public a manner possible. Make sure you send your donors regular reports on the work you are undertaking. Keep the reports concise - if you need to report the detail of the project give that in appendices. Illustrations (photographs, graphs etc) are always appreciated. Copies of press cuttings mentioning the donors name are very valuable to send with reports. Copies of publications or other unpublished reports bearing the donors logo and name are essential to provide regularly. If required, send detailed financial breakdowns of project expenditure. Copies of the annual financial statement from the institution are also useful and appreciated, particularly if it includes an acknowledgement to the donor. Different donors require different levels of financial responsibility and reporting. Be scrupulous in recording expenditures and income, even if you are not required to do so. Donors generally wish to see their name (and logo) acknowledged whenever appropriate. Leaving it out is a much greater crime than putting it in, even if it is barely deserved!

Acknowledgement of donors: Sponsorship of interpretative label at Bukit Timah Reserve, Singapore; Donor bricks at Chicago Botanic Garden, U.S.A.; Sponsors of the Living Desert Reserve, California, U.S.A. Fund-raising databases Setting up a computer database can be a very effective way of managing fund-raising information. Data recorded might include: names and addresses of actual and potential donors; contact names and numbers; dates of applications made; outcome of any applications made and amount donated; miscellaneous notes that can be used to support future applications; membership of any Friends group or similar support organization.

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Building a database of donors can make it quick and easy to organize annual appeals for support for the Garden or for special projects so that personalized letters and addressed envelopes can be prepared directly from the database for mass mailings. The database can also be used for the management of membership subscriptions for a Friends Group from which invoices, reminders and receipts are generated. It is worth ensuring that the database has the capacity to store miscellaneous notes that may help future funding applications or appeals, e.g. whether a donor attended a particular function, that the Chairman of the company is a keen gardener, that the donor is someone one to whom Christmas or New Year greeting cards are sent, etc. Make sure that someone is given responsibility for maintaining the database up to date to ensure that important changes can be recorded (e.g. deaths, address and personnel changes).

Sales marketing might tie programmes and a variety of earned income areas together. Promotions such as, a purchase of $15 in the gift shop entitles you to a 10% discount at the restaurant. Having a class just before or after lunch can encourage patronage of the restaurant and again there could be a discount linking the two activities. Earned income areas are high front-end investments in equipment and merchandise and labour is very expensive. At the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, UK, a trading company fully owned by the Friends of the Garden, operates the shops and profits are dedicated to the garden. Trading companies, if run as a for-profit business and if kept innovative and competitive, could generate a considerable amount of money. Features that may bring in visitors and encourage them to spend more in a botanic garden include: good interpretation for collections; unusual and beautiful displays especially within the greenhouses; diverse special or seasonal attractions, such as model home gardens, play areas, exhibitions, an aquarium, ethnobotanical displays and demonstrations. These might appeal to different categories of visitors, e.g. children, families, elderly people, school groups etc.; a good and well-stocked shop; special events - concerts, recitals, lectures, courses, car boot sales, auctions - these can often generate income through special fees. Some botanic gardens generate income through running special courses on topics such as gardening and horticulture for adults and children, natural history studies, botany, art, photography, basket-making, brewing beer, dyeing and cookery; a chance to buy plants. Dont be afraid to experiment and if necessary make radical changes or innovations. Do poll your visitors to find out what they expect, like and appreciate, as well as to find out what they consider you are doing wrong! Consider having a special events officer. Reckon on hiring or using botanic garden facilities for other purposes, which will generate income, such as lettings for weddings, parties, receptions and conferences, photographic shoots. Arrange events for periods when visitor numbers may be lower. Develop the income of the garden from tourism by making sure that information and brochures are available in local hotels, travel agencies and tourist offices. Seek to have the garden included in tour itineraries by discussing the garden with tour organizers and perhaps by providing special incentives (admission charge discounts, easier access, free tour guides, etc). Make sure that toilet/washroom facilities are adequate, convenient, clean and well maintained. A private rest area for bus drivers is also appreciated and may encourage more to choose the garden as a destination.

C. Earned income
Earned income areas such as gate and parking fees, special events, class fees, room and grounds rental, cottage industries (the gardens own jams and jellies, honey, etc.), plant and book sales, concerts and the like all require their own brand of expertise in management and marketing. In most cases, other than gate fees, earned income areas are costly to operate, labour intensive and produce small amounts of income above expense although taken together they can provide substantial income. In many cases they act as services to the visitor as well. At the Minnesota Landscape Arboretum, Chanhassen, U.S.A. earned income will generate nearly one-third of the yearly-operating budget (about $1,000,000) though nearly one-half will be from gate fees. There are three major objectives for earned income areas: to bring people to the garden so they can generate income (though off-site sales programs can also be effective); to induce the visitor to spend money once in the garden; to establish a mutually beneficial relationship between the garden and the visitor that is based on an exchange of a product for cash. Marketing to bring people to the botanic garden is essential. It might mean marketing the entire institution, horticulture or conservation in general. Again, the competition for a persons time and money is increasing, even for childrens time. Botanic gardens must be relevant (in tune with the times) and highly effective. Mass media, especially television and computerized link-ups directly to home and office (Internet, cable TV, e-mail) are undoubtedly the most critical areas in which to concentrate ones effort.

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D. Project funding
Many more donors are willing to give funds to support projects that have a clear beginning and end, rather than to support on-going general operational costs. The following text outlines how to prepare a funding application in support of a special project within the botanic garden.

necessary or desirable); Who in your institution will prepare the application? Is this part of their job and have they adequate time to do this work on a regular basis? International funding sources A wide range of potential funding sources for botanic gardens are available internationally. These include: National foundations and other organizations that give international support; National governmental developmental and aid agencies; International governmental organizations and agencies, such as agencies of the United Nations, the World Bank and the Commission of the European Union; International non-governmental agencies, such as the WorldWide Fund for Nature - WWF. How do you go about obtaining funds from such sources? Ask for advice and assistance from collaborators, colleagues and other institutions that may have received such support in the past; Find contact addresses (the internet is extremely useful in this regard) and write for general details about their activities and interests; Study any reports you receive very well indeed and investigate any specific programmes they have for providing support; Request to be included on their mailing list to receive information in the future and through these mailings gradually gain an understanding on how the agenda or organization operates; If you can make personal contacts within the international organization, call them or write to them and ask for their guidance and advice. Nurture such personal contacts so that they get to know you well, understand the importance of your work and trust your ability and honesty. Understand that few agencies will give support in response to general appeals for support. The vast majority of funding given is for specific projects that fall within the parameters of their pre-determined funding programmes. Consider developing joint or collaborative projects with other organizations. Recognize that your collaborators will also need to obtain financial support through a joint project and so make sure and agree at an early stage on what are each partners expectations and requirements. A joint project may be more attractive to some donors that if you apply on your own. Information on national sources of support for botanic gardens may sometimes be obtained from that countrys embassy or official representatives. Such support may include academic exchange programmes, development aid, disaster relief, support for community projects, etc. Most major countries also have a representative and office of the European Union through which details of support programmes may be obtained. Information on European Union programmes is published regularly through the Official Journal of the European Community. This is available through most major libraries.

Advertising for sponsorship at Bok Tower Gardens, Florida, U.S.A. This scheme is operated by the Center for Plant Conservation (CPC), based at Missouri Botanical Garden, St Louis, U.S.A., who organize a national programme for the conservation of native plants through botanic gardens In some cases potential donors provide a special application form that must be completed when seeking their support. In other cases, the potential donors may give a little guidance (such as outlines of areas of interest, how to prepare an application, guidelines on projects funded etc.). Follow all such guidelines scrupulously. There is little point in submitting an application to a donor if the application falls outside their sphere of interest or if the application does not follow their standard application requirements. Finding a donor: Who is likely to fund the project? While considering to whom a project application should be made consider the following: Have you adequate contacts with that donor? Do you know what are the priorities of the donor? Do you know what level of funding they might provide? Will they provide funds for general support or must it be only for projects? Will the donor give funds to your institution (e.g. some will only fund governmental organizations); Do they accept applications in various languages (Most international agencies must receive applications in English? Is there a standard application form that must be filled in? Will a donor fund 100% or a project costs and if not what is the maximum they will cover. If they will only part fund a project can institutional costs (in-kind) be taken into account? Does the donor like to receive a short exploratory letter or short project concept (1-2 pages) before they will receive a full application? Does the donor require you to have other partners for the application (e.g. for many European Union applications a partner institution in a European Union country is often

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The Global Environment Facility - The international Convention on Biological Diversity includes a financial mechanism to assist the implementation of the Convention in developing countries that have signed and ratified that Convention. Rather than establish a new independent fund for this purpose, the Conference of the Parties of the Convention has adopted the Global Environment Facility (GEF) as its interim financial mechanism. The GEF was established in 1991 and is run by the World Bank, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Its resources have included several billion US dollars pledged by donor countries, which is available mainly to the governments of developing countries to support environmental projects. In the future, botanic gardens may be able to obtain support for their conservation activities from this source, by developing close links with their national governmental environmental agencies and by playing an increasing role in the implementation of National Biodiversity Conservation Strategies. Information on the GEF support programmes is available from national UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) and UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) offices. Funds from international sources are rarely easy or quick to obtain. Be persistent in seeking funds and if you get a refusal, try to find out why you have been turned down and seek to correct this in subsequent applications. Do not ask for funds too early in your approaches to a particular agency. Get to know more about what they support and wait until you are quite confident about achieving success before you ask for support for a specific project or activity. Developing a project In developing a special project for which you are seeking funds, it is worth considering the following questions. The answers will help you to create a better project and will help you prepare a good application. What do you hope to do or achieve with the project? Why is your garden suited to this work? What are you asking for (costs etc.)? Why do you deserve the funding? How does your garden and this project relate to national, local political structures and priorities? Have you a good track record in this field? If so, say what it is. Remember that it may be possible to package a particular aspect of the general and on-going work of the Garden as a special project to help obtain special funds for work you would otherwise have to undertake and pay for in any case. Consider the following points in the preparation of the project plan:

the background to the project and its institutional context broad objectives; specific objectives; inputs required and outputs to be derived from the work;

Questions you need to ask yourself are: what special resources will you need in order to achieve the specific objectives? what results do you expect, both visible results and effects or changes made to the local environment or to attitudes? what quantitative or qualitative measures can you use to determine whether the objectives have been achieved? how will you determine that the project has been a success (or failure!)? what can go wrong? Are you prepared for such problems? what external influences and conditions are essential to being able to ensure that the project is a success? what will be the project implementation and administration plan and timetable? how will finance be managed and expended? what reports will be necessary and how will such reports be generated? Preparing a funding application Prepare a summary sheet of (no more than 1 page) and include: project name (keep it short, say not more than 10 words); name of organization/individual and project leader; why the project is important and worthwhile; objectives; work programme; outputs; timetable; monitoring & evaluation; funding amount requested.

The summary sheet may be submitted in advance of the full application if requested. Some agencies wish to receive such a summary and may then invited you to submit a full application. What to include in the full application: 1. DETAILS OF THE APPLICANT 1.1 Name of organization applying; 1.2 Address for correspondence; 1.3 Person who may be contacted about the application, and their position in organization; 1.4 Telephone, fax and e-mail numbers; 1.5 Nature of the organization (e.g. is it an academic institution, an NGO, a commercial company, a charitable trust, etc?); 1.6 Describe briefly the aims, activities and structure of your organization; 1.7 Provide brief details of the relevant past experience and achievements of the person to be responsible for the activities for which funding is sought. (This can be achieved by attaching one or more curriculum vitae as

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appendices). 1.8 Benefits to the sponsor. Describe how the sponsor/donor will be acknowledged for the support given and publicity planned. 2. PROJECT DETAILS It is important that funding applicants set out precisely their objectives and the activities of their proposal. Be as explicit as possible. 2.1 Give brief details of the main objective(s) of the project; 2.2 Who will be involved? 2.3 Give the proposed timetable for the achievement of the objectives; 2.4 How has the need for the work been identified? 2.5 Set out the proposed programme of work for which grant is sought. What will be the programmes aim and measurable objectives including the estimated timing of their achievements. What qualitative performance measures are proposed and what will be the programmes outputs. List the PROJECT OUTPUTS and KEY MILESTONES (highlights). 2.6 Give the proposed starting date and duration of the project. 3. MONITORING AND EVALUATION 3.1 Describe how progress on the project will be monitored and evaluated in terms of achieving its aims and objectives, both during the lifetime of the project and at its conclusion. How would you ensure that it achieves value for money? What arrangements will be made for disseminating results? 3.2 Describe how reports will be sent to the sponsor/donor to inform them of progress with the project. (Interim yearly or half-yearly reports are usual, as well as a full project report on completion). 4. INCOME 4.1 What financial support from public sources (Government Department or Agency) does the organisation as a whole receive at present, and from which organisations? Attaching a copy of the organizations most recent financial statement can be useful. 4.2 If applicable, state other sources of income and amounts to be put towards the costs of the project (including any income from private sponsorship, trusts, fees or trading activity). Indicate donations in kind, e.g. accommodation. Indicate any income or donations, which are confirmed. Cost out the contribution that will be given to the project by your organization/institution in, e.g. staff time, library services, management and administration costs, use of equipment, etc.; 4.3 Briefly describe the arrangements envisaged for meeting the costs of continuing your project beyond any period of funding, if appropriate. A clear exit strategy should often be provided.

5. EXPENDITURE Expenditure headings might include the following: Staff costs; Rents, rates, heating, lighting, cleaning; Postage, telephone and stationery; Travel and subsistence; Printing; Conferences, seminars, workshops and meetings; Capital items; Computer equipment & supplies; Other (specify); Contingencies (About 5% of the total to cover unexpected costs) Administrative or management overhead (usually 5% - 15%) TOTAL It will often be useful to provide details of a bank account to which funds can be transferred. Give the bank address, account number, account name and bank sort code.

Summary
The parent body is the most important source of funding for most gardens. In order to be sure that funding is maintained the garden must ensure that it delivers to the parent body what it expects from its investment in the garden. Charitable donations are a second and vital source of funding. Competition for charitable giving is increasing botanic gardens need to maintain a high profile if they are to continue to receive money from individuals, commercial organizationsand trusts. Donations in kind are an important source of funding. Volunteers and friends associations can be vital to the sucess of a garden. Earned income is another critical component of most gardens. Most efforts to earn funds depend on people being at the garden. This means two things, first the gardens must be attractive and interesting so that people want to come, secondly the garden must remember that the weather and other external factors will disrupt the income flow (sometimes dramatically). Clever marketing and the formation of outside trading companies may be critical to sucess. In order to obtain funding for special projects the garden must plan and prepare well thought out funding applications. They must also research who should be approached for what. Special projects must fit in with and enhance the overall aims of the garden.

Bibliography
Peter Olin, 1995, Funding Botanic Gardens and Arboreta in the 21st Century BGCNews 2(5): 46-49. Author: Peter Wyse Jackson, BGCI, U.K

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Bibliography
J. Akeroyd, N. McGough, and P. Wyse Jackson, (eds) 1994 A CITES Manual for Botanic Gardens BGCI, U.K. (Available also in Spanish and Italian). J. Akeroyd, and P. Wyse Jackson, 1995 A Handbook for Botanic Gardens on the Reintroduction of Plants to the Wild BGCI, U.K. BGCS, IUCN and WWF, 1989 The Botanic Gardens Conservation Strategy IUCN-BGCS, U.K. and Gland (Available also in Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Chinese, Russian and Bahasa Indonesia). D. Bramwell, O. Hamann, V. Heywood, H. Synge (eds), 1987 Botanic Gardens and the World Conservation Strategy Academic Press, London. C.A. Heywood, V.H. Heywood and P.S. Wyse Jackson, 1990 International Directory of Botanical Gardens 5th ed. Koeltz Scientific Books on behalf of WWF, BGCS and IABG. V.H. Heywood and R.T. Watson (eds), 1995 Global Biodiversity Assessment Cambridge University Press, U.K., New York and Melbourne. V.H. Heywood and P.S. Wyse Jackson (eds), 1991 Tropical Botanic Gardens: their role in conservation and development Academic Press, London. C. Hobson (ed), 1996 Botanic Gardens in a Changing World: Proceedings of the Third International Botanic Gardens Conservation Congress BGCI, U.K. J.D. Rodrigo Prez and N. Gonzlez Henrquez (eds), 1996 Cultivating Green Awareness: Proceeding of the 2nd Congress on Education in Botanic Gardens Jardn Botnico Canario Viera y Clavijo, Spain. D.H. Touchell, K.W. Dixon, A.S. George and R.T. Wills (eds), 1997 Conservation into the 21st Century: Proceedings of the 4th International Botanic Gardens Conservation Congress Kings Park and Botanic Gardens, Australia. J. Willison (eds), 1994. Botanic Gardens Environmental Education: guidelines for the development of individual strategies BGCI, U.K.

Addresses
IUCN World Headquarters Rue Mauverney 28 CH-1196 Gland Switzerland Tel: +41 22 999 0001 Fax: +41 22 999 0002 E-mail: mail@hq.iucn.org Internet: http://www.iucn.org Convention on Biological Diversity Secretariat World Trade Center 413 St Jacques Street, Office 630 Montral, Quebec, H2Y 1N9 Canada Tel: +1 514 228 2220 Fax: +1 514 228 6588 E-mail: secretariat@biodiv.org Internet: http://www.biodiv.org CITES Secretariat 15 chemin des Anmones CH-1219 Chtelaine - Genve Switzerland Tel: +41 22 979 9139/40 Fax: +41 22 797 3417 E-mail: cites@unep.org Internet: http://www.wcmc.org.uk/CITES International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) Via delle Sette 142 00145 Rome Italy Tel: +39 0651 892 Fax: +39 6575 0309 E-mail: ipgri@cgnet.com Internet: http://cgiar.org/ipgri GEF Secretariat 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 U.S.A. Tel: +1 202-473-0508 Fax: +1 202-522-3240/3245 Internet: http://www.gefweb.org United Nations Development Program GEF/Executive Coordinator New York 304 East 45th Street 10th Floor, NY 10017 U.S.A. Tel: +1 212-906-5044 Fax: +1 212-906-6998 Internet: http://www.undp.org/gef United Nations Environment Program GEF Unit/UNEP Post Office Box 30552 Nairobi, Kenya Tel: +1 254 2 621 234 Fax: +1 254 2 520 825 Internet: http://www.unep.org/gef WWF International Avenue du Mont-Blanc CH-1196, Gland Switzerland Tel: +41 22 364 9111 Internet: http://www.panda.org The European Commission 200 Rue de la Loi B-1049 Brussels Fax: +32 2 296 95 60 Internet: http: //europ.eu.int/eu/comm/index.htm UNESCO 7, place de Fontenoy 75352 Paris 07 SP France Tel: +33 1 45 68 10 00 Fax: +33 1 45 67 16 90 The World Bank Global Environment Coordination Division Environment Department 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 U.S.A. Tel: +1 202 473 4051 Fax: +1 202 477 0565 E-mail: environment@worldbank.org Internet: http://www.worldbank.org/env/en vmain.htm World Resources Institute 1709 New York Aveune, NW Washington, DC 20006 U.S.A. Tel: +1 202 638 6300 Fax; +1 202 638 0036 Internet: http://www.wri.org

J. Willison and P. Wyse Jackson (eds), 1992 A Natural environment for Learning: Proceedings of the 1st Congress on Education in Botanic Gardens BGCI, U.K. D. Wyse Jackson (ed), 1998 The International Transfer Format for Botanic Garden Plant Records Version 2 BGCI, U.K. P.S. Wyse Jackson, and J.R. Akeroyd 1994, Guidelines to be followed in the design of plant conservation or recovery plans Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, Nature and environment, No. 68. Council of Europe Press, Strasbourg.

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Botanic Gardens Conservation International Descanso House, 199 Kew Road, Richmond Surrey TW9 3BW, U.K. Tel: +44 (0) 181 332 5953/5954/5955 Fax: +44 (0) 181 332 5956 E-mail: bgci@rbgkew.org.uk Internet: http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/BGCI