Pi

This article is about the number . For the Greek letter, entic community: Several books devoted to it have
see Pi (letter). For other uses of pi, , and , see Pi been published, the number is celebrated on Pi Day and
(disambiguation).
record-setting calculations of the digits of often result
in news headlines. Attempts to memorize the value of
with increasing precision have led to records of over
The number is a mathematical constant, the ratio of a
circle's circumference to its diameter, commonly approx- 67,000 digits.
imated as 3.14159. It has been represented by the Greek
letter "" since the mid-18th century, though it is also
sometimes spelled out as "pi" (/pa/).

1 Fundamentals

Being an irrational number, cannot be expressed exactly as a fraction (equivalently, its decimal representation never ends and never settles into a permanent repeating pattern). Still, fractions such as 22/7 and other
rational numbers are commonly used to approximate .
The digits appear to be randomly distributed; however,
to date, no proof of this has been discovered. Also, is
a transcendental number a number that is not the root
of any non-zero polynomial having rational coecients.
This transcendence of implies that it is impossible to
solve the ancient challenge of squaring the circle with a
compass and straightedge.

1.1 Name
The symbol used by mathematicians to represent the ratio
of a circles circumference to its diameter is the lowercase
Greek letter , sometimes spelled out as pi. In English,
is pronounced as pie ( /pa/, pa).[6] In mathematical
use, the lowercase letter (or in sans-serif font) is distinguished from its capital counterpart , which denotes
a product of a sequence.
The choice of the symbol is discussed in the section
Adoption of the symbol .

Although ancient civilizations needed the value of to

be computed accurately for practical reasons, it was not
calculated to more than seven digits, using geometrical 1.2
techniques, in Chinese mathematics and to about ve in
Indian mathematics in the 5th century CE. The historically rst exact formula for , based on innite series, was
not available until a millennium later, when in the 14th
century the MadhavaLeibniz series was discovered in
Indian mathematics.[1][2] In the 20th and 21st centuries,
mathematicians and computer scientists discovered new
approaches that, when combined with increasing computational power, extended the decimal representation of
to, as of 2015, over 13.3 trillion (1013 ) digits.[3] Practically all scientic applications require no more than a few
hundred digits of , and many substantially fewer, so the
primary motivation for these computations is the human
desire to break records.[4][5] However, the extensive calculations involved have been used to test supercomputers
and high-precision multiplication algorithms.

Denition

ter
e
m

dia

Because its denition relates to the circle, is found

in many formulae in trigonometry and geometry, especially those concerning circles, ellipses or spheres. It is
also found in formulae used in other branches of science
such as cosmology, number theory, statistics, fractals, The circumference of a circle is slightly more than three times as
thermodynamics, mechanics and electromagnetism. The long as its diameter. The exact ratio is called .
ubiquity of makes it one of the most widely known
mathematical constants both inside and outside the sci- is commonly dened as the ratio of a circle's
circumference C to its diameter d:[7]
1

1 FUNDAMENTALS
numbers of absolute value one. The number is then
dened as half the magnitude of the derivative of this
homomorphism.[18]

C
d

The ratio C/d is constant, regardless of the circles size.

For example, if a circle has twice the diameter of another
circle it will also have twice the circumference, preserving
the ratio C/d. This denition of implicitly makes use of
at (Euclidean) geometry; although the notion of a circle
can be extended to any curved (non-Euclidean) geometry,
these new circles will no longer satisfy the formula =
C/d.[7]
Here, the circumference of a circle is the arc length
around the perimeter of the circle, a quantity which
can be formally dened independently of geometry using limits, a concept in calculus.[8] For example, one may
compute directly the arc length of the top half of the unit
circle given in Cartesian coordinates by x2 + y 2 = 1 , as
the integral:[9]

=
1

1.3 Properties
is an irrational number, meaning that it cannot be written as the ratio of two integers (fractions such as 22/7
are commonly used to approximate ; no common fraction (ratio of whole numbers) can be its exact value).[19]
Since is irrational, it has an innite number of digits
in its decimal representation, and it does not settle into
an innitely repeating pattern of digits. There are several
proofs that is irrational; they generally require calculus
and rely on the reductio ad absurdum technique. The degree to which can be approximated by rational numbers
(called the irrationality measure) is not precisely known;
estimates have established that the irrationality measure
is larger than the measure of e or ln(2) but smaller than
the measure of Liouville numbers.[20]

dx

.
1 x2

An integral such as this was adopted as the denition of

by Karl Weierstrass, who dened it directly as an integral
in 1841.[10]

r=

Denitions of such as these that rely on a notion of

circumference, and hence implicitly on concepts of the
integral calculus, are no longer common in the literature.
Remmert (1991) explains that this is because in many
modern treatments of calculus, dierential calculus typically precedes integral calculus in the university curriculum, so it is desirable to have a denition of that does
not rely on the latter. One such denition, due to Richard
Baltzer,[11] and popularized by Edmund Landau,[12] is
the following: is twice the smallest positive number at
which the cosine function equals 0.[7][13][14] The cosine
can be dened independently of geometry as a power series,[15] or as the solution of a dierential equation.[13]
Because is a transcendental number, squaring the circle is not

In a similar spirit, can be dened instead using properties of the complex exponential, exp(z), of a complex
variable z. Like the cosine, the complex exponential can
be dened in one of several ways. The set of complex
numbers at which exp(z) is equal to one is then an (imaginary) arithmetic progression of the form:

{. . . , 2i, 0, 2i, 4i, . . . } = {2ki|k Z}

and there is a unique positive real number with this
property.[14][16] A more abstract variation on the same
idea, making use of sophisticated mathematical concepts
of topology and algebra, is the following theorem:[17]
there is a unique continuous isomorphism from the group
R/Z of real numbers under addition modulo integers (the
circle group) onto the multiplicative group of complex

possible in a nite number of steps using the classical tools of

compass and straightedge.

More strongly, is a transcendental number, which

means that it is not the solution of any non-constant
polynomial with rational coecients, such as x5 /120
x3 /6 + x = 0.[21][22]
The transcendence of has two important consequences:
First, cannot be expressed using any nite combination
of rational numbers and square roots or n-th roots such
as 3 31 or 10. Second, since no transcendental number can be constructed with compass and straightedge,
it is not possible to "square the circle". In other words,
it is impossible to construct, using compass and straightedge alone, a square whose area is equal to the area of a
given circle.[23] Squaring a circle was one of the important geometry problems of the classical antiquity.[24] Am-

1.5

Approximate value

ateur mathematicians in modern times have sometimes 22/7, 333/106, and 355/113. These numbers are among
attempted to square the circle and sometimes claim suc- the most well-known and widely used historical approxcess despite the fact that it is impossible.[25]
imations of the constant. Each approximation generated
The digits of have no apparent pattern and have in this way is a best rational approximation; that is, each
other fraction with the same or a
passed tests for statistical randomness, including tests for is closer to than any
[29]
smaller
denominator.
Because is known to be trannormality; a number of innite length is called normal
scendental,
it
is
by
denition
not algebraic and so canwhen all possible sequences of digits (of any given length)
quadratic
irrational.
Therefore, cannot have
not
be
a
[26]
appear equally often. The conjecture that is normal
a periodic continued fraction. Although the simple con[26]
has not been proven or disproven. Since the advent of
above) also does not exhibit
computers, a large number of digits of have been avail- tinued fraction for (shown
any other obvious pattern,[30] mathematicians have disable on which to perform statistical analysis. Yasumasa
several generalized continued fractions that do,
Kanada has performed detailed statistical analyses on the covered[31]
such as:
decimal digits of and found them consistent with normality; for example, the frequency of the ten digits 0 to
9 were subjected to statistical signicance tests, and no
4
12
evidence of a pattern was found.[27] Despite the fact that =
= 3+
=
32
12
6+
1+
1+
's digits pass statistical tests for randomness, contains
52
32
6+
2+
72
some sequences of digits that may appear non-random to
52
6+
2+
92
72
6+
non-mathematicians, such as the Feynman point, which is
2+
92
..
2+
a sequence of six consecutive 9s that begins at the 762nd
6+ .
..
2+ .
decimal place of the decimal representation of .[28]

1.4

12
3+
5+

7+

1.5 Approximate value

Continued fractions

Some approximations of pi include:

Integers: 3
Fractions: Approximate fractions include (in
order of increasing accuracy) 22/7, 333/106,
355/113, 52163/16604, 103993/33102, and
245850922/78256779.[29] (List is selected terms
from A063674 and A063673.)

Decimal:
The rst 50 decimal digits are
3.14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510...[32
A000796
The constant is represented in this mosaic outside the Mathematics Building at the Technical University of Berlin.

Like all irrational numbers, cannot be represented as a

common fraction (also known as a simple or vulgar fraction), by the very denition of irrational. But every
irrational number, including , can be represented by an
innite series of nested fractions, called a continued fraction:

Binary: The base 2 approximation to 48 digits is

11.001001000011111101101010100010001000010110100011...
Hexadecimal: The base 16 approximation to 20
digits is 3.243F6A8885A308D31319...[33]
Sexagesimal: A base 60 approximation to ve sexagesimal digits is 3;8,29,44,0,47[34]

2 History
=3+

1
1

7+

Main article: Approximations of

See also: Chronology of computation of

15+

1+

292+

1+
1+

1
1+

A001203

..

2.1 Antiquity

Truncating the continued fraction at any point yields a ra- The best known approximations to dating to before the
tional approximation for ; the rst four of these are 3, Common Era were accurate to two decimal places; this

HISTORY

was improved upon in Chinese mathematics in particular by the mid rst millennium, to an accuracy of seven
decimal places. After this, no further progress was made
until the late medieval period.
Some Egyptologists[35] have claimed that the ancient
Egyptians used an approximation of as 22 7 from as
early as the Old Kingdom.[36] This claim has met with
skepticism.[37][38][39][40]
The earliest written approximations of are found in
Egypt and Babylon, both within one percent of the true
value. In Babylon, a clay tablet dated 19001600 BC
has a geometrical statement that, by implication, treats
as 25 8 = 3.1250.[41] In Egypt, the Rhind Papyrus, dated
around 1650 BC but copied from a document dated to
1850 BC, has a formula for the area of a circle that treats
as (16 9 )2 3.1605.[41]
Astronomical calculations in the Shatapatha Brahmana
(ca. 4th century BC) use a fractional approximation of
339
108 3.139 (an accuracy of 9104 ).[42] Other Indian
sources by about 150 BC treat as 10 3.1622[43]

2.2

Polygon approximation era

Archimedes developed the polygonal approach to approximating
.

can be estimated by computing the perimeters of circumscribed

and inscribed polygons.

The rst recorded algorithm for rigorously calculating

the value of was a geometrical approach using polygons, devised around 250 BC by the Greek mathematician Archimedes.[44] This polygonal algorithm dominated for over 1,000 years, and as a result is sometimes
referred to as Archimedes constant.[45] Archimedes
computed upper and lower bounds of by drawing a
regular hexagon inside and outside a circle, and successively doubling the number of sides until he reached a
96-sided regular polygon. By calculating the perimeters
of these polygons, he proved that 223/71 < < 22/7 (that
is 3.1408 < < 3.1429).[46] Archimedes upper bound of
22/7 may have led to a widespread popular belief that is
equal to 22/7.[47] Around 150 AD, Greek-Roman scientist Ptolemy, in his Almagest, gave a value for of 3.1416,
which he may have obtained from Archimedes or from
Apollonius of Perga.[48] Mathematicians using polygonal
algorithms reached 39 digits of in 1630, a record only
broken in 1699 when innite series were used to reach 71
digits.[49]

AD, the Wei Kingdom mathematician Liu Hui created a polygon-based iterative algorithm and used it
with a 3,072-sided polygon to obtain a value of of
3.1416.[51][52] Liu later invented a faster method of calculating and obtained a value of 3.14 with a 96-sided
polygon, by taking advantage of the fact that the dierences in area of successive polygons form a geometric series with a factor of 4.[51] The Chinese mathematician Zu
Chongzhi, around 480 AD, calculated that 355/113
(a fraction that goes by the name Mil in Chinese), using
Liu Huis algorithm applied to a 12,288-sided polygon.
With a correct value for its seven rst decimal digits, this
value of 3.141592920... remained the most accurate approximation of available for the next 800 years.[53]
The Indian astronomer Aryabhata used a value of 3.1416
in his ryabhaya (499 AD).[54] Fibonacci in c. 1220
computed 3.1418 using a polygonal method, independent
of Archimedes.[55] Italian author Dante apparently employed the value 3+2/10 3.14142.[55]

The Persian astronomer Jamshd al-Ksh produced 9

sexagesimal digits, roughly the equivalent of 16 decimal
digits, in 1424 using a polygon with 3228 sides,[56][57]
which stood as the world record for about 180 years.[58]
French mathematician Franois Vite in 1579 achieved
9 digits with a polygon of 3217 sides.[58] Flemish
mathematician Adriaan van Roomen arrived at 15 decIn ancient China, values for included 3.1547 (around 1 imal places in 1593.[58] In 1596, Dutch mathematician
AD), 10 (100 AD, approximately 3.1623), and 142/45 Ludolph van Ceulen reached 20 digits, a record he later
(3rd century, approximately 3.1556).[50] Around 265 increased to 35 digits (as a result, was called the

2.3

Innite series

Ludolphian number in Germany until the early 20th

century).[59] Dutch scientist Willebrord Snellius reached
34 digits in 1621,[60] and Austrian astronomer Christoph
Grienberger arrived at 38 digits in 1630 using 1040
sides,[61] which remains the most accurate approximation
manually achieved using polygonal algorithms.[60]

2.3

Innite series
Sn
2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0

Sn
3.140 3.143

Sn
3.1415 3.1418

Vite

8
n

Sn
3.13 3.15 3.17

Wallis

10

MadhavaGregoryLeibniz

12
14

Madhava

16

Newton

18

Nilakantha

20

10

12

10

12

10
12

14

14

14

16

16

16

18

18

18

20

20

20

Comparison of the convergence of several historical innite series for . S is the approximation after taking n terms. Each
subsequent subplot magnies the shaded area horizontally by 10
times. (click for detail)

The calculation of was revolutionized by the development of innite series techniques in the 16th and
17th centuries. An innite series is the sum of the
terms of an innite sequence.[62] Innite series allowed
mathematicians to compute with much greater precision than Archimedes and others who used geometrical techniques.[62] Although innite series were exploited
for most notably by European mathematicians such as
James Gregory and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, the approach was rst discovered in India sometime between
1400 and 1500 AD.[63] The rst written description of an
innite series that could be used to compute was laid
out in Sanskrit verse by Indian astronomer Nilakantha Somayaji in his Tantrasamgraha, around 1500 AD.[64] The
series are presented without proof, but proofs are presented in a later Indian work, Yuktibh, from around
1530 AD. Nilakantha attributes the series to an earlier Indian mathematician, Madhava of Sangamagrama,
who lived c. 1350 c. 1425.[64] Several innite series
are described, including series for sine, tangent, and cosine, which are now referred to as the Madhava series or
GregoryLeibniz series.[64] Madhava used innite series
to estimate to 11 digits around 1400, but that value was
improved on around 1430 by the Persian mathematician
Jamshd al-Ksh, using a polygonal algorithm.[65]

Isaac Newton used innite series to compute to 15 digits, later

writing I am ashamed to tell you to how many gures I carried
these computations.[66]

The second innite sequence found in Europe, by John

Wallis in 1655, was also an innite product.[67] The discovery of calculus, by English scientist Isaac Newton and
German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the
1660s, led to the development of many innite series for
approximating . Newton himself used an arcsin series to
compute a 15 digit approximation of in 1665 or 1666,
later writing I am ashamed to tell you to how many gures I carried these computations, having no other business at the time.[66]
In Europe, Madhavas formula was rediscovered by Scottish mathematician James Gregory in 1671, and by Leibniz in 1674:[68][69]

arctan z = z

z3
z5
z7
+

+
3
5
7

This formula, the GregoryLeibniz series, equals /4

when evaluated with z = 1.[69] In 1699, English mathematician Abraham Sharp used the GregoryLeibniz seThe rst innite sequence discovered in Europe was an
ries to compute to 71 digits, breaking the previous
innite product (rather than an innite sum, which are
record of 39 digits, which was set with a polygonal
more typically used in calculations) found by French
algorithm.[70] The GregoryLeibniz series is simple, but
[67]
mathematician Franois Vite in 1593:
converges very slowly (that is, approaches the answer
gradually), so it is not used in modern calculations.[71]

= 22
A060294
2

2+ 2
2

2+ 2

2+

In 1706 John Machin used the GregoryLeibniz series to

produce an algorithm that converged much faster:[72]

HISTORY

2.4 Irrationality and transcendence

1
1
= 4 arctan arctan
4
5
239
Machin reached 100 digits of with this formula.[73]
Other mathematicians created variants, now known as
Machin-like formulae, that were used to set several successive records for calculating digits of .[73] Machin-like
formulae remained the best-known method for calculating well into the age of computers, and were used to set
records for 250 years, culminating in a 620-digit approximation in 1946 by Daniel Ferguson the best approximation achieved without the aid of a calculating device.[74]

See also: Proof that is irrational and Proof that is

transcendental
Not all mathematical advances relating to were aimed
at increasing the accuracy of approximations. When Euler solved the Basel problem in 1735, nding the exact
value of the sum of the reciprocal squares, he established
a connection between and the prime numbers that later
contributed to the development and study of the Riemann
zeta function:[80]

A record was set by the calculating prodigy Zacharias

Dase, who in 1844 employed a Machin-like formula to 2
1
1
1
1
calculate 200 decimals of in his head at the behest of 6 = 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 +
German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss.[75] British
mathematician William Shanks famously took 15 years Swiss scientist Johann Heinrich Lambert in 1761 proved
to calculate to 707 digits, but made a mistake in the that is irrational, meaning it is[19]not equal to the quo528th digit, rendering all subsequent digits incorrect.[75] tient of any two whole numbers. Lamberts proof exploited a continued-fraction representation of the tangent
function.[81] French mathematician Adrien-Marie Legen2.3.1 Rate of convergence
dre proved in 1794 that 2 is also irrational. In 1882, German mathematician Ferdinand von Lindemann proved
Some innite series for converge faster than others. that is transcendental, conrming a conjecture made
Given the choice of two innite series for , math- by both Legendre and Euler.[82]
ematicians will generally use the one that converges
more rapidly because faster convergence reduces the
amount of computation needed to calculate to any given 2.5 Adoption of the symbol
accuracy.[76] A simple innite series for is the Gregory
Leibniz series:[77]
4 4 4 4 4
4
4
+ +
+

1 3 5 7 9 11 13
As individual terms of this innite series are added to the
sum, the total gradually gets closer to , and with a sufcient number of terms can get as close to as desired.
It converges quite slowly, though after 500,000 terms,
it produces only ve correct decimal digits of .[78]
=

An innite series for (published by Nilakantha in

the 15th century) that converges more rapidly than the
GregoryLeibniz series is:[79]
4
4
4
4

+
2 3 4 4 5 6 6 7 8 8 9 10
The following table compares the convergence rates of
these two series:
= 3+

After ve terms, the sum of the GregoryLeibniz series

is within 0.2 of the correct value of , whereas the sum of
Nilakanthas series is within 0.002 of the correct value of
. Nilakanthas series converges faster and is more useful
for computing digits of . Series that converge even faster
include Machins series and Chudnovskys series, the latter producing 14 correct decimal digits per term.[76]

Leonhard Euler popularized the use of the Greek letter in works

he published in 1736 and 1748.

The earliest known use of the Greek letter to represent the ratio of a circles circumference to its diameter

3.1

Computer era and iterative algorithms

was by Welsh mathematician William Jones in his 1706

work Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos; or, a New Introduction to the Mathematics.[83] The Greek letter rst appears there in the phrase 1/2 Periphery ()" in the discussion of a circle with radius one. Jones may have chosen because it was the rst letter in the Greek spelling of
the word periphery.[84] However, he writes that his equations for are from the ready pen of the truly ingenious
Mr. John Machin, leading to speculation that Machin
may have employed the Greek letter before Jones.[85] It
had indeed been used earlier for geometric concepts.[85]
William Oughtred used and , the Greek letter equivalents of p and d, to express ratios of periphery and diameter in the 1647 and later editions of Clavis Mathematicae.
After Jones introduced the Greek letter in 1706, it was
not adopted by other mathematicians until Euler started
using it, beginning with his 1736 work Mechanica. Before then, mathematicians sometimes used letters such
as c or p instead.[85] Because Euler corresponded heavily with other mathematicians in Europe, the use of the
Greek letter spread rapidly.[85] In 1748, Euler used in
his widely read work Introductio in analysin innitorum
(he wrote: for the sake of brevity we will write this number as ; thus is equal to half the circumference of a cir- John von Neumann was part of the team that rst used a digital
cle of radius 1) and the practice was universally adopted computer, ENIAC, to compute .
thereafter in the Western world.[85]

The record, always relying on an arctan series, was broken

repeatedly (7,480 digits in 1957; 10,000 digits in 1958;
100,000 digits in 1961) until 1 million digits were reached
Computer era and iterative algorithms in 1973.[88]

Modern quest for more digits

3.1

The GaussLegendre iterative algorithm:

Initialize

a0 =1

b0 = 12

t0 = 14

p0 =1

Iterate

n
an+1 = an +b
2

bn+1 = an bn

tn+1 =tn pn (an an+1 )2

pn+1 =2pn

Then an estimate for is given by

(an +bn )2
4tn

Two additional developments around 1980 once again

accelerated the ability to compute . First, the discovery of new iterative algorithms for computing ,
which were much faster than the innite series; and second, the invention of fast multiplication algorithms that
could multiply large numbers very rapidly.[89] Such algorithms are particularly important in modern computations, because most of the computers time is devoted to
multiplication.[90] They include the Karatsuba algorithm,
ToomCook multiplication, and Fourier transform-based
methods.[91]
The iterative algorithms were independently published in
19751976 by American physicist Eugene Salamin and
Australian scientist Richard Brent.[92] These avoid reliance on innite series. An iterative algorithm repeats a
specic calculation, each iteration using the outputs from
prior steps as its inputs, and produces a result in each step
that converges to the desired value. The approach was
actually invented over 160 years earlier by Carl Friedrich
Gauss, in what is now termed the arithmeticgeometric
mean method (AGM method) or GaussLegendre algorithm.[92] As modied by Salamin and Brent, it is also
referred to as the BrentSalamin algorithm.

The development of computers in the mid-20th century

again revolutionized the hunt for digits of . American
mathematicians John Wrench and Levi Smith reached
1,120 digits in 1949 using a desk calculator.[86] Using
an inverse tangent (arctan) innite series, a team led by
George Reitwiesner and John von Neumann that same
year achieved 2,037 digits with a calculation that took The iterative algorithms were widely used after 1980
70 hours of computer time on the ENIAC computer.[87] because they are faster than innite series algorithms:

3 MODERN QUEST FOR MORE DIGITS

whereas innite series typically increase the number of

correct digits additively in successive terms, iterative algorithms generally multiply the number of correct digits
at each step. For example, the Brent-Salamin algorithm
doubles the number of digits in each iteration. In 1984,
the Canadian brothers John and Peter Borwein produced
an iterative algorithm that quadruples the number of digits in each step; and in 1987, one that increases the number of digits ve times in each step.[93] Iterative methods
were used by Japanese mathematician Yasumasa Kanada
to set several records for computing between 1995 and
2002.[94] This rapid convergence comes at a price: the
iterative algorithms require signicantly more memory
than innite series.[94]

Number of decimal digits

3.2

Motivations for computing

10

14

10

12

10

10

10

10

10

Record approximations of pi

100
1
2000
BCE

250
BCE

480

1400

1450

1500

1550

1600

1650

1700

1750

1800

1850

1900

1950

2000

Srinivasa Ramanujan, working in isolation in India, produced

many innovative series for computing .

Year

As mathematicians discovered new algorithms, and computers

became available, the number of known decimal digits of increased dramatically. Note that the vertical scale is logarithmic.

For most numerical calculations involving , a handful

of digits provide sucient precision. According to Jrg
Arndt and Christoph Haenel, thirty-nine digits are sucient to perform most cosmological calculations, because
that is the accuracy necessary to calculate the circumference of the observable universe with a precision of one
atom.[95] Despite this, people have worked strenuously to
compute to thousands and millions of digits.[96] This
eort may be partly ascribed to the human compulsion
to break records, and such achievements with often
make headlines around the world.[97][98] They also have
practical benets, such as testing supercomputers, testing
numerical analysis algorithms (including high-precision
multiplication algorithms); and within pure mathematics
itself, providing data for evaluating the randomness of the
digits of .[99]

published dozens of innovative new formulae for , remarkable for their elegance, mathematical depth, and
rapid convergence.[100] One of his formulae, based on
modular equations, is

1
2 2 (4k)!(1103 + 26390k)
=
.

9801
k!4 (3964k )
k=0

This series converges much more rapidly than most arctan series, including Machins formula.[101] Bill Gosper
was the rst to use it for advances in the calculation of ,
setting a record of 17 million digits in 1985.[102] Ramanujans formulae anticipated the modern algorithms developed by the Borwein brothers and the Chudnovsky brothers.[103] The Chudnovsky formula developed in 1987 is

1
12
(6k)!(13591409 + 545140134k)
=
.

(3k)!(k!)3 (640320)3k
6403203/2 k=0

It produces about 14 digits of per term,[104] and has

been used for several record-setting calculations, in3.3 Rapidly convergent series
cluding the rst to surpass 1 billion (109 ) digits in 1989
12
) digits
Modern calculators do not use iterative algorithms by the Chudnovsky brothers, 2.7 trillion (2.710
13
Fabrice
Bellard
in
2009,
and
10
trillion
(10
)
digits
in
by
exclusively. New innite series were discovered in
[105][106]
For
2011
by
Alexander
Yee
and
Shigeru
Kondo.
the 1980s and 1990s that are as fast as iterative algorithms, yet are simpler and less memory intensive.[94] similar formulas, see also the RamanujanSato series.
The fast iterative algorithms were anticipated in 1914, In 2006, Canadian mathematician Simon Ploue used the
when the Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan PSLQ integer relation algorithm[107] to generate several

9
new formulas for , conforming to the following template:

4 Use
Main article: List of formulae involving

(
)

a
b
c
1
+
+
,
=
nk q n 1 q 2n 1 q 4n 1
n=1

Because is closely related to the circle, it is found in

many formulae from the elds of geometry and trigonometry, particularly those concerning circles, spheres, or elwhere q is e (Gelfonds constant), k is an odd num- lipses. Formulae from other branches of science also
ber, and a, b, c are certain rational numbers that Ploue include in some of their important formulae, including sciences such as statistics, fractals, thermodynamics,
computed.[108]
mechanics, cosmology, number theory, and electromagnetism.
k

3.4

Spigot algorithms

Two algorithms were discovered in 1995 that opened up

new avenues of research into . They are called spigot algorithms because, like water dripping from a spigot, they
produce single digits of that are not reused after they
are calculated.[109][110] This is in contrast to innite series
or iterative algorithms, which retain and use all intermediate digits until the nal result is produced.[109]

4.1 Geometry and trigonometry

American mathematicians Stan Wagon and Stanley

Rabinowitz produced a simple spigot algorithm in
1995.[110][111][112] Its speed is comparable to arctan algorithms, but not as fast as iterative algorithms.[111]

Area = r 2

Another spigot algorithm, the BBP digit extraction algorithm, was discovered in 1995 by Simon Ploue:[113][114]

Circle Area =
r 2

(
)

4
2
1
1
1

16k 8k + 1 8k + 4 8k + 5 8k + 6

k=0

This formula, unlike others before it, can produce any individual hexadecimal digit of without calculating all the
preceding digits.[113] Individual binary digits may be extracted from individual hexadecimal digits, and octal digits can be extracted from one or two hexadecimal digits.
Variations of the algorithm have been discovered, but no
digit extraction algorithm has yet been found that rapidly
produces decimal digits.[115] An important application of
digit extraction algorithms is to validate new claims of
record computations: After a new record is claimed,
the decimal result is converted to hexadecimal, and then a
digit extraction algorithm is used to calculate several random hexadecimal digits near the end; if they match, this
provides a measure of condence that the entire computation is correct.[106]
Between 1998 and 2000, the distributed computing
project PiHex used Bellards formula (a modication of
the BBP algorithm) to compute the quadrillionth (1015 th)
bit of , which turned out to be 0.[116] In September
2010, a Yahoo! employee used the companys Hadoop
application on one thousand computers over a 23-day period to compute 256 bits of at the two-quadrillionth
(21015 th) bit, which also happens to be zero.[117]

The area of the circle equals times the shaded area.

appears in formulae for areas and volumes of geometrical shapes based on circles, such as ellipses, spheres,
cones, and tori. Below are some of the more common
formulae that involve .[118]
The circumference of a circle with radius r is 2r.
The area of a circle with radius r is r2 .
The volume of a sphere with radius r is 4/3r3 .
The surface area of a sphere with radius r is 4r2 .
The formulae above are special cases of the surface area
Sn(r) and volume Vn(r) of an n-dimensional sphere.
Sn (r) =

n n/2 n1
r
( n
2 +1)

Vn (r) =

n/2
rn
( n
2 +1)

appears in denite integrals that describe circumference, area, or volume of shapes generated by circles. For

10

USE

example, an integral that species half the area of a circle of .[122] Buons needle is one such technique: If a neeof radius one is given by:[119]
dle of length is dropped n times on a surface on which
parallel lines are drawn t units apart, and if x of those
times it comes to rest crossing a line (x > 0), then one
1
may approximate based on the counts:[123]

1 x2 dx = .
2
1
2n
In that integral the function 1-x2 represents the top

xt
half of a circle (the square root is a consequence of the
Pythagorean theorem), and the integral 1
1 computes the area between that half of a circle and Another Monte Carlo method for computing is to draw
a circle inscribed in a square, and randomly place dots in
the x axis.
the square. The ratio of dots inside the circle to the total
number of dots will approximately equal /4.[124]
Monte Carlo methods for approximating are very slow
compared to other methods, and are never used to approximate when speed or accuracy are desired.[125]

4.2 Complex numbers and analysis

Sine and cosine functions repeat with period 2.

The trigonometric functions rely on angles, and mathematicians generally use radians as units of measurement.
plays an important role in angles measured in radians,
which are dened so that a complete circle spans an angle
of 2 radians.[120] The angle measure of 180 is equal to
radians, and 1 = /180 radians.[120]
Common trigonometric functions have periods that are
multiples of ; for example, sine and cosine have period 2,[121] so for any angle and any integer k, sin =
sin ( + 2k) and cos = cos ( + 2k) . [121]
4.1.1

Monte Carlo methods

t
a

Buons needle. Needles a and b are dropped randomly.

The association between imaginary powers of the number e and

points on the unit circle centered at the origin in the complex plane
given by Eulers formula.

Any complex number, say z, can be expressed using a

pair of real numbers. In the polar coordinate system, one
number (radius or r) is used to represent z's distance from
the origin of the complex plane and the other (angle or )
to represent a counter-clockwise rotation from the positive real line as follows:[126]

Random dots are placed on the quadrant of a square with

a circle inscribed in it.
z = r (cos + i sin ),
Monte Carlo methods, based on random trials, can be
used to approximate .
where i is the imaginary unit satisfying i2 = 1. The frequent appearance of in complex analysis can be related
Monte Carlo methods, which evaluate the results of mul- to the behavior of the exponential function of a complex
tiple random trials, can be used to create approximations variable, described by Eulers formula:[127]

4.3

Number theory and Riemann zeta function

11
the number of iterations until divergence multiplied by
the square root of tends to .[132][133]

ei = cos + i sin ,
where the constant e is the base of the natural logarithm.
This formula establishes a correspondence between imaginary powers of e and points on the unit circle centered at
the origin of the complex plane. Setting = in Eulers
formula results in Eulers identity, celebrated by mathematicians because it contains the ve most important
mathematical constants:[127][128]

The gamma function extends the concept of factorial

(normally dened only for non-negative integers) to all
complex numbers, except the negative real integers.
When the gamma function is evaluated at half-integers,

the result contains

; for example (1/2) = and

(5/2) = 3 4 .[134] The gamma function can be used

to create
a simple
( )n approximation to n! for large n:
n! 2n ne which is known as Stirlings approximation.[135]

ei + 1 = 0.

4.3 Number theory and Riemann zeta

function
There are n dierent complex numbers z satisfying z =
n

1, and these are called the "n-th roots of unity".[129] They

The Riemann zeta function (s) is used in many areas of
are given by this formula:
mathematics. When evaluated at s = 2 it can be written
as
e2ik/n

(k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1).

Cauchys integral formula governs complex analytic

functions and establishes an important relationship between integration and dierentiation, including the fact
that the values of a complex function within a closed
boundary are entirely determined by the values on the
boundary:[130][131]

(2) =

1
1
1
+ 2 + 2 +
2
1
2
3

Finding a simple solution for this innite series was a famous problem in mathematics called the Basel problem.
Leonhard Euler solved it in 1735 when he showed it was
equal to 2 /6.[80] Eulers result leads to the number theory
result that the probability of two random numbers being
relatively prime (that is, having no shared factors) is equal
I
1
f (z)
to 6/2 .[136][137] This probability is based on the observaf (z0 ) =
dz
2i z z0
tion that the probability that any number is divisible by a
prime p is 1/p (for example, every 7th integer is divisible
An occurrence of in the Mandelbrot set fractal was disby 7.) Hence the probability that two numbers are both
divisible by this prime is 1/p2 , and the probability that at
least one of them is not is 1-1/p2 . For distinct primes,
these divisibility events are mutually independent; so the
probability that two numbers are relatively prime is given
by a product over all primes:[138]
)
(

1
1 2 =
p
p

1
1 p2

)1
=

1+

1
22

1
1
6
=
= 2
1
(2)

+ 32 +

This probability can be used in conjunction with a random

number generator to approximate using a Monte Carlo
approach.[139]
can be computed from the Mandelbrot set, by counting the number of iterations required before point (0.75, ) diverges.

4.4 Probability and statistics

covered by American David Boll in 1991.[132] He examined the behavior of the Mandelbrot set near the neck
at (0.75, 0). If points with coordinates (0.75, ) are
considered, as tends to zero, the number of iterations
until divergence for the point multiplied by converges
to . The point (0.25, ) at the cusp of the large valley
on the right side of the Mandelbrot set behaves similarly:

The elds of probability and statistics frequently use the

normal distribution as a simple model for complex phenomena; for example, scientists generally assume that the
observational error in most experiments follows a normal distribution.[140] is found in the Gaussian function
(which is the probability density function of the normal
distribution) with mean and standard deviation :[141]

12

2.5

OUTSIDE MATHEMATICS

(x) and momentum (p) cannot both be arbitrarily small

at the same time (where h is Plancks constant):[143]

Area=sqrt(pi)
e^(-x^2)

1.5

x p

h
.
4

In the domain of cosmology, appears in Einsteins

eld equation, a fundamental formula which forms the
basis of the general theory of relativity and describes
the fundamental interaction of gravitation as a result of
spacetime being curved by matter and energy:[144]

0.5

-0.5

-2

-1

A graph of the Gaussian function

2
(x) = ex . The colored region between the function and the

x-axis has area .

Rik

gik R
8G
+ gik = 4 Tik ,
2
c

where Rik is the Ricci curvature tensor, R is the scalar

curvature, gik is the metric tensor, is the cosmological
constant, G is Newtons gravitational constant, c is the
speed of light in vacuum, and Tik is the stressenergy
tensor.

Coulombs law, from the discipline of electromagnetism,

describes the electric eld between two electric charges
(q1 and q2 ) separated by distance r (with 0 representing
[145]
The area under the graph of the normal distribution curve the vacuum permittivity of free space):
[141]
is given by the Gaussian integral:
f (x) =

2
2
1
e(x) /(2 )
2

ex dx =
2

while the related integral for the Cauchy distribution is

1
dx = .
x2 + 1

Outside mathematics

F =

|q1 q2 |
.
40 r2

The fact that is approximately equal to 3 plays a role in

the relatively long lifetime of orthopositronium. The inverse lifetime to lowest order in the ne structure constant
is[146]
2 9
1
=2
m6 ,

9
where m is the mass of the electron.

is present in some structural engineering formulae, such

as the buckling formula derived by Euler, which gives
the maximum axial load F that a long, slender column
Although not a physical constant, appears routinely in of length L, modulus of elasticity E, and area moment of
equations describing fundamental principles of the uni- inertia I can carry without buckling:[147]
verse, often because of 's relationship to the circle and
to spherical coordinate systems. A simple formula from
2 EI
the eld of classical mechanics gives the approximate peF =
.
riod T of a simple pendulum of length L, swinging with
L2
a small amplitude (g is the earths gravitational acceleraThe eld of uid dynamics contains in Stokes law,
tion):[142]
which approximates the frictional force F exerted on
small, spherical objects of radius R, moving with velocity

v in a uid with dynamic viscosity :[148]

L
.
T 2
g
F = 6 R v.
One of the key formulae of quantum mechanics is
Heisenbergs uncertainty principle, which shows that the The Fourier transform, dened below, is a mathematical
uncertainty in the measurement of a particles position operation that expresses time as a function of frequency,

5.1

Describing physical phenomena

5.3

In popular culture

13

known as its frequency spectrum. It has many applica- 5.3

tions in physics and engineering, particularly in signal
processing.[149]

f() =

In popular culture

f (x) e2ix dx

Under ideal conditions (uniform gentle slope on an

homogeneously erodible substrate), the sinuosity of a
meandering river approaches . The sinuosity is the ratio
between the actual length and the straight-line distance
from source to mouth. Faster currents along the outside
edges of a rivers bends cause more erosion than along the
inside edges, thus pushing the bends even farther out, and
increasing the overall loopiness of the river. However,
that loopiness eventually causes the river to double back
on itself in places and short-circuit, creating an ox-bow
lake in the process. The balance between these two opposing factors leads to an average ratio of between the
actual length and the direct distance between source and
mouth.[150][151]

5.2

Memorizing digits

Main article: Piphilology

Many persons have memorized large numbers of digits of
, a practice called piphilology.[152] One common technique is to memorize a story or poem in which the word
lengths represent the digits of : The rst word has three
letters, the second word has one, the third has four, the
fourth has one, the fth has ve, and so on. An early example of a memorization aid, originally devised by English scientist James Jeans, is How I want a drink, alcoholic of course, after the heavy lectures involving quantum mechanics.[152] When a poem is used, it is sometimes referred to as a piem. Poems for memorizing
have been composed in several languages in addition to
English.[152]

A pi pie. The circular shape of pie makes it a frequent subject of

pi puns.

Perhaps because of the simplicity of its denition and

its ubiquitous presence in formulae, has been represented in popular culture more than other mathematical
constructs.[158]
In the 2008 Open University and BBC documentary coproduction, The Story of Maths, aired in October 2008
on BBC Four, British mathematician Marcus du Sautoy
shows a visualization of the - historically rst exact formula for calculating when visiting India and exploring its contributions to trigonometry.[159]

In the Palais de la Dcouverte (a science museum in

Paris) there is a circular room known as the pi room. On
its wall are inscribed 707 digits of . The digits are large
wooden characters attached to the dome-like ceiling. The
digits were based on an 1853 calculation by English mathematician William Shanks, which included an error beThe error was detected in 1946
The record for memorizing digits of , certied by ginning at the 528th digit.
and corrected in 1949.[160]
Guinness World Records, is 70,000 digits, recited in India by Rajveer Meena in 9 hours and 27 minutes on 21 In Carl Sagan's novel Contact it is suggested that the creMarch 2015.[153] In 2006, Akira Haraguchi, a retired ator of the universe buried a message deep within the digJapanese engineer, claimed to have recited 100,000 dec- its of .[161] The digits of have also been incorporated
imal places, but the claim was not veried by Guinness into the lyrics of the song Pi from the album Aerial by
World Records.[154] Record-setting memorizers typ- Kate Bush,[162] and a song by Hard 'n Phirm.[163]
ically do not rely on poems, but instead use methods Many schools in the United States observe Pi Day on
such as remembering number patterns and the method 14 March (written 3/14 in the US style).[164] and its
of loci.[155]
digital representation are often used by self-described
A few authors have used the digits of to establish
a new form of constrained writing, where the word
lengths are required to represent the digits of . The
Cadaeic Cadenza contains the rst 3835 digits of in this
manner,[156] and the full-length book Not a Wake contains
10,000 words, each representing one digit of .[157]

math geeks" for inside jokes among mathematically and

technologically minded groups. Several college cheers
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology include
3.14159.[165] Pi Day in 2015 was particularly signicant because the date and time 3/14/15 9:26:53 reected
many more digits of pi.[166]

14

7 NOTES

During the 2011 auction for Nortel's portfolio of valuable

technology patents, Google made a series of unusually
specic bids based on mathematical and scientic constants, including .[167]

[1] George E. Andrews, Richard Askey, Ranjan Roy (1999).

Special Functions. Cambridge University Press. p. 58.
ISBN 0-521-78988-5.
[2] Gupta, R. C. (1992). On the remainder term in the
MadhavaLeibnizs series. Ganita Bharati 14 (1-4): 68
71.
[3] http://www.numberworld.org/y-cruncher/
[4] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 17
[5] David Bailey; Jonathan Borwein; Peter Borwein; Simon
Ploue (1997), The Quest for Pi, The Mathematical Intelligencer 19 (1): 5056
[6] pi. Dictionary.reference.com. 2 March 1993. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
[7] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 8

Some formulas using the 2 denition of .

[8] Tom Apostol (1967), Calculus, volume 1 (2nd ed.), Wiley. Page 102: From a logical point of view, this is unsatisfactory at the present stage because we have not yet
discussed the concept of arc length. Arc length is introduced on page 529.

In 1958 Albert Eagle proposed replacing by = /2

to simplify formulas.[168] However, no other authors are
known to use in this way. Some people use a different value, = 6.283185... = 2,[169] arguing that [9] Reinhold Remmert (1991), What is ?", Numbers,
Springer, p. 129
, as the number of radians in one turn or as the ratio of a circles circumference to its radius rather than [10] Reinhold Remmert (1991), What is ?", Numbers,
its diameter, is more natural than and simplies many
Springer, p. 129.
precise integral that Weierstrass
The
dx
used was = 1+x
formulas.[170][171] Celebrations of this number, because it
2.
approximately equals 6.28, by making 28 June Tau Day
[11] Richard Baltzer (1870), Die Elemente der Mathematik,
and eating twice the pie,[172] have been reported in the
Hirzel, p. 195
media. However this use of has not made its way into
[12] Edmund Landau (1934), Einfhrung in die Dierentialmainstream mathematics.[173]
rechnung und Integralrechnung, Noordo, p. 193

In 1897, an amateur American mathematician attempted

to persuade the Indiana legislature to pass the Indiana Pi [13] Rudin, Walter (1976). Principles of Mathematical Analysis. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-054235-X., p 183.
Bill, which described a method to square the circle and
contained text that implied various incorrect values for ,
[14] Reinhold Remmert (1991), What is ?", Numbers,
including 3.2. The bill is notorious as an attempt to estabSpringer, p. 129
lish a value of scientic constant by legislative at. The
bill was passed by the Indiana House of Representatives, [15] Rudin, Walter (1986). Real and complex analysis.
McGraw-Hill., p 2.
but rejected by the Senate.[174]

See also
Chronology of computation of

[17] Nicolas Bourbaki (1981), Topologie generale, Springer,

VIII.2

Proof that is irrational

[18] Nicolas Bourbaki (1979), Fonctions d'une variable relle,

Springer, II.3.

Proof that is transcendental

[19] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 5

Mathematical constants and functions

[20] Salikhov, V. (2008).

On the Irrationality Measure of pi.
Russian Mathematical Survey 53
(3):
570572.
Bibcode:2008RuMaS..63..570S.
doi:10.1070/RM2008v063n03ABEH004543.

Approximations of

[16] Lars Ahlfors (1966), Complex analysis, McGraw-Hill, p.

46

Notes

Footnotes

[21] Mayer, Steve. The Transcendence of ". Archived from

the original on 2000-09-29. Retrieved 4 November 2007.
[22] The polynomial shown is the rst few terms of the Taylor
series expansion of the sine function.

15

[23] Posamentier & Lehmann 2004, p. 25

[24] Eymard & Lafon 1999, p. 129
[25] Beckmann 1989, p. 37
Schlager, Neil; Lauer, Josh (2001). Science and Its Times:
Understanding the Social Signicance of Scientic Discovery. Gale Group. ISBN 0-7876-3933-8., p 185.
[26] Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 2223
Preuss, Paul (23 July 2001). Are The Digits of Pi Random? Lab Researcher May Hold The Key. Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory. Retrieved 10 November
2007.
[27] Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 22, 2830
[28] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 3
[29] Eymard & Lafon 1999, p. 78

[40] Egyptologist: Rossi, Corinna, Architecture and Mathematics in Ancient Egypt, Cambridge University Press, 2004,
pp 6070, 200, ISBN 9780521829540.
Skeptics: Shermer, Michael, The Skeptic Encyclopedia
of Pseudoscience, ABC-CLIO, 2002, pp 407408, ISBN
9781576076538.
See also Fagan, Garrett G., Archaeological Fantasies:
How Pseudoarchaeology Misrepresents The Past and Misleads the Public, Routledge, 2006, ISBN 9780415305938.
For a list of explanations for the shape that do not involve , see Roger Herz-Fischler (2000). The Shape of the
Great Pyramid. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 67
77, 165166. ISBN 9780889203242. Retrieved 201306-05.
[41] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 167
[42] Chaitanya, Krishna. A prole of Indian culture. Indian
Book Company (1975). p.133.

[30] "Sloanes A001203 : Continued fraction for Pi", The OnLine Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. Retrieved 12 April 2012.

[43] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 169

[31] Lange, L. J. (May 1999). An Elegant Continued Fraction for ". The American Mathematical Monthly 106 (5):
456458. doi:10.2307/2589152. JSTOR 2589152.

[45] Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 175, 205

[44] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 170

[32] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 240

[46] The Computation of Pi by Archimedes: The Computation of Pi by Archimedes File Exchange MATLAB
Central. Mathworks.com. Retrieved 2013-03-12.

[33] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 242

[47] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 171

[34] Kennedy, E. S., Abu-r-Raihan al-Biruni, 9731048, Journal for the History of Astronomy 9: 65,
Bibcode:1978JHA.....9...65K. Ptolemy used a threesexagesimal-digit approximation, and Jamshd al-Ksh
expanded this to nine digits; see Aaboe, Asger (1964),
Episodes from the Early History of Mathematics, New
Mathematical Library 13, New York: Random House, p.
125.

[48] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 176

Boyer & Merzbach 1991, p. 168

[35] Petrie, W.M.F. Wisdom of the Egyptians (1940)

[36] Based on the Great Pyramid of Giza, supposedly built so
that the circle whose radius is equal to the height of the
pyramid has a circumference equal to the perimeter of the
base (it is 1760 cubits around and 280 cubits in height).
Verner, Miroslav. The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture,
and Science of Egypts Great Monuments. Grove Press.
2001 (1997). ISBN 0-8021-3935-3
[37] Rossi, Corinna Architecture and Mathematics in Ancient
Egypt, Cambridge University Press. 2007. ISBN 978-0521-69053-9.
[38] Legon, J. A. R. On Pyramid Dimensions and Proportions
(1991) Discussions in Egyptology (20) 25-34
[39] We can conclude that although the ancient Egyptians
could not precisely dene the value of , in practice they
used it. Verner, M. (2003). The Pyramids: Their Archaeology and History., p. 70.
Petrie (1940). Wisdom of the Egyptians., p. 30.
See also Legon, J. A. R. (1991). On Pyramid Dimensions
and Proportions. Discussions in Egyptology 20: 2534..
See also Petrie, W. M. F. (1925).
Surveys of
the Great Pyramids. Nature 116 (2930): 942942.
Bibcode:1925Natur.116..942P. doi:10.1038/116942a0.

[49] Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 1516, 175, 184186, 205.
Grienberger achieved 39 digits in 1630; Sharp 71 digits in
1699.
[50] Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 176177
[51] Boyer & Merzbach 1991, p. 202
[52] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 177
[53] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 178
[54] Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 179
[55] Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 180
[56] Azarian, Mohammad K. (2010). al-Risla al-muhtyya:
A Summary. Missouri Journal of Mathematical Sciences
22 (2): 6485.
[57] O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F. (1999).
Ghiyath al-Din Jamshid Masud al-Kashi. MacTutor
History of Mathematics archive. Retrieved August 11,
2012.
[58] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 182
[59] Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 182183
[60] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 183
[61] Grienbergerus, Christophorus (1630). Elementa Trigonometrica (PDF) (in Latin). Archived from the original
(PDF) on 2014-02-01. His evaluation was 3.14159 26535
89793 23846 26433 83279 50288 4196 < < 3.14159
26535 89793 23846 26433 83279 50288 4199.

16

7 NOTES

[62] Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 185191

[88] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 197

[63] Roy 1990, pp. 101102

Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 185186

[89] Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 1517

[90] Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 131

[64] Roy 1990, pp. 101102

[65] Joseph 1991, p. 264
[66] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 188. Newton quoted by Arndt.
[67] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 187
[68] Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 188189
[69] Eymard & Lafon 1999, pp. 5354
[70] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 189
[71] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 156
[72] Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 192193
[73] Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 7274
[74] Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 192196, 205
[75] Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 194196
[76] Borwein, J. M.; Borwein, P. B. (1988).
Ramanujan and Pi.
Scientic American 256
(2):
112117.
Bibcode:1988SciAm.258b.112B.
doi:10.1038/scienticamerican0288-112.
Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 1517, 7072, 104, 156,
192197, 201202
[77] Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 6972

[91] Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 132, 140

[92] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 87
[93] Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 111 (5 times); pp. 113114 (4
times).
See Borwein & Borwein 1987 for details of algorithms.
[94] Bailey, David H. (16 May 2003). Some Background
on Kanadas Recent Pi Calculation (PDF). Retrieved 12
April 2012.
[95] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 17. 39 digits of are sucient to calculate the volume of the universe to the nearest
atom.
Accounting for additional digits needed to compensate for
computational round-o errors, Arndt concludes that a
few hundred digits would suce for any scientic application.
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18

[153] Most Pi Places Memorized, Guinness World Records.

7 NOTES

[169] Sequence

A019692,

[154] Otake, Tomoko (17 December 2006). How can anyone [170] Abbott, Stephen (April 2012).
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to replace with tau. Telegraph India. 2011-06-30.
A Wake: A dream embodying (pi)'s digits fully for 10000
decimals. Vinculum Press. ISBN 978-0963009715.
[174] Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 211212
[158] For instance, Pickover calls the most famous mathePosamentier & Lehmann 2004, pp. 3637
matical constant of all time, and Peterson writes, Of all
Hallerberg, Arthur (May 1977). Indianas squared
known mathematical constants, however, pi continues to
circle.
Mathematics Magazine 50 (3): 136140.
attract the most attention, citing the Givenchy perfume,
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Pi (lm), and Pi Day as examples. See Pickover, Cliord
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9780471118572; Peterson, Ivars (2002), Mathematical References
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Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 50
[161] Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 14. This part of the story was
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[162] Gill, Andy (4 November 2005). Review of Aerial.
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obsessive-compulsive mathematician fascinated by 'Pi'
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vast chunks of the number in question, several dozen digits long)
[163] Board, Josh (1 December 2010). PARTY CRASHER:
Laughing With Hard 'N Phirm. SanDiego.com. There
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4. Retrieved 2013-06-05. English translation by

Catriona and David Lischka.
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the AGM: a Study in Analytic Number Theory and
Computational Complexity. Wiley. ISBN 978-0471-31515-5.
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[164] Pi Day activities.

[165] MIT cheers. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
[166] Happy Pi Day! Watch these stunning videos of kids
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2015-03-14.
[167] Googles strange bids for Nortel patents. FinancialPost.com. Reuters. 2011-07-05. Retrieved 16 August
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[168] Eagle, Albert (1958). The Elliptic Functions as They
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Bronshten, Ilia; Semendiaev, K. A. (1971). A

Guide Book to Mathematics. H. Deutsch. ISBN 9783-871-44095-3.
Eymard, Pierre; Lafon, Jean Pierre (1999). The
Number Pi. American Mathematical Society. ISBN
978-0-8218-3246-2., English translation by Stephen
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Joseph, George Gheverghese (1991). The Crest
of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-69113526-7. Retrieved 2013-06-05.

19
Posamentier, Alfred S.; Lehmann, Ingmar (2004).
Pi: A Biography of the Worlds Most Mysterious
Number. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-59102200-8.
Reitwiesner, George (1950). An ENIAC Determination of pi and e to 2000 Decimal Places. Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation 4 (29):
1115. doi:10.2307/2002695.
Roy, Ranjan (1990). The Discovery of the Series Formula for pi by Leibniz, Gregory, and Nilakantha. Mathematics Magazine 63 (5): 291306.
doi:10.2307/2690896.
Schepler, H. C. (1950). The Chronology of
Pi. Mathematics Magazine (Mathematical Association of America) 23 (3): 165170 (Jan/Feb),
216228 (Mar/Apr), and 279283 (May/Jun).
doi:10.2307/3029284.. issue 3 Jan/Feb, issue 4
Mar/Apr, issue 5 May/Jun

Further reading
Blatner, David (1999). The Joy of Pi. Walker &
Company. ISBN 978-0-8027-7562-7.
Borwein, Jonathan; Borwein, Peter (1984). The
Arithmetic-Geometric Mean and Fast Computation
of Elementary Functions. SIAM Review 26: 351
365. doi:10.1137/1026073.
Borwein, Jonathan; Borwein, Peter; Bailey, David
H. (1989). Ramanujan, Modular Equations, and
Approximations to Pi or How to Compute One Billion Digits of Pi. The American Mathematical
Monthly 96: 201219. doi:10.2307/2325206.
Chudnovsky, David V. and Chudnovsky, Gregory
V., Approximations and Complex Multiplication
According to Ramanujan, in Ramanujan Revisited
(G.E. Andrews et al. Eds), Academic Press, 1988,
pp 375396, 468472

Heath, T. L., The Works of Archimedes, Cambridge,

1897; reprinted in The Works of Archimedes with
The Method of Archimedes, Dover, 1953, pp 9198
Huygens, Christiaan, De Circuli Magnitudine Inventa, Christiani Hugenii Opera Varia I, Leiden
1724, pp 384388
Lay-Yong, Lam; Tian-Se, Ang (1986). Circle Measurements in Ancient China. Historia
Mathematica 13: 325340. doi:10.1016/03150860(86)90055-8.
Lindemann, Ferdinand (1882). Ueber die Zahl
pi.
Mathematische Annalen 20: 213225.
doi:10.1007/bf01446522.
Matar, K. Mukunda; Rajagonal, C. (1944). On the
Hindu Quadrature of the Circle (Appendix by K.
Balagangadharan)". Journal of the Bombay Branch
of the Royal Asiatic Society 20: 7782.
Niven, Ivan, A Simple Proof that pi Is Irrational,
Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, 53:7
(July 1947), 507
Ramanujan, Srinivasa, Modular Equations and
Approximations to ", Quarterly Journal of Pure
and Applied Mathematics, XLV, 1914, 350372.
Reprinted in G.H. Hardy, P.V. Seshu Aiyar, and B.
M. Wilson (eds), Srinivasa Ramanujan: Collected
Papers, 1927 (reprinted 2000), pp 2329
Shanks, William, Contributions to Mathematics
Comprising Chiey of the Rectication of the Circle
to 607 Places of Decimals, 1853, pp. ixvi, 10
Shanks, Daniel; Wrench, John William (1962).
Calculation of pi to 100,000 Decimals.
Mathematics of Computation 16:
7699.
doi:10.1090/s0025-5718-1962-0136051-9.
Tropfke, Johannes, Geschichte Der ElementarMathematik in Systematischer Darstellung (The history of elementary mathematics), BiblioBazaar,
2009 (reprint), ISBN 978-1-113-08573-3

Cox, David A., The Arithmetic-Geometric Mean

of Gauss, L' Ensignement Mathematique, 30(1984)
275330

Viete, Francois, Variorum de Rebus Mathematicis

Reponsorum Liber VII. F. Viete, Opera Mathematica
(reprint), Georg Olms Verlag, 1970, pp 398401,
436446

Delahaye, Jean-Paul, Le Fascinant Nombre Pi,

Paris: Bibliothque Pour la Science (1997) ISBN
2902918259

Wagon, Stan, Is Pi Normal?", The Mathematical

Intelligencer, 7:3(1985) 6567

Engels, Hermann (1977). Quadrature of the Circle

in Ancient Egypt. Historia Mathematica 4: 137
140. doi:10.1016/0315-0860(77)90104-5.
Euler, Leonhard, On the Use of the Discovered
Fractions to Sum Innite Series, in Introduction to
Analysis of the Innite. Book I, translated from the
Latin by J. D. Blanton, Springer-Verlag, 1964, pp
137153

Wallis, John, Arithmetica Innitorum, sive Nova

Methodus Inquirendi in Curvilineorum Quadratum,
aliaque diciliora Matheseos Problemata, Oxford
16556. Reprinted in vol. 1 (pp 357478) of Opera
Mathematica, Oxford 1693
Zebrowski, Ernest, A History of the Circle: Mathematical Reasoning and the Physical Universe, Rutgers University Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0-81352898-4

20

External links
Digits of Pi at DMOZ
Pi at Wolfram Mathworld
Representations of Pi at Wolfram Alpha
Pi Search Engine: 2 billion searchable digits of ,
2, and e
Eaves, Laurence (2009). " Pi. Sixty Symbols.
Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.
Grime, Dr. James (2014). Pi is Beautiful Numberphile. Numberphile. Brady Haran.
Demonstration by Lambert (1761) of irrationality of
, online and analyzed BibNum (PDF).

EXTERNAL LINKS

21

10
10.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Rayizcoolio, Utrechtse, Citation bot 1, Tkuvho, Theory2reality, Jaymie94, ChrisJBenson, Kiefer.Wolfowitz, PrincessofLlyr, Jonesey95,
Grscomet7, DAVilla, Allthingstoallpeople, 1to0to-1, , Foobarnix, Spiro Liacos, Electricmaster, Designate, FoxBot, Delorme, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, DixonDBot, Jocme, Lotje, Red Denim, Eciencyjacky154, Aoidh, Leopoldwilson, Pilot850, Brian the Editor,
N4m3, Suusion of Yellow, Skullpatrol, Tbhotch, RjwilmsiBot, Jowa fan, Balph Eubank, Mandolinface, Afteread, DarkLightA, Dfs72,
Matsgranvik, Chip McShoulder, EmausBot, John of Reading, Surlydu50, Timtempleton, Jurvetson2, Fly by Night, ZxxZxxZ, TeleComNasSprVen, Slawekb, Cegalegolog99, Werieth, Miricium, AvicBot, Misty MH, Knight1993, The Nut, Alpha Quadrant, Fixblor, Fred
Gandt, LordSuryaofShropshire, SPARTAN T-82, Bamyers99, H3llBot, Quondum, D.Lazard, Ahann, Brandmeister, Vanished user jtji34toksdcknqrjn54yoimascj, Stephenj642, Maschen, Chris857, Pyrospark, ChuispastonBot, Albert Nestar, Teapeat, Llightex, Mjbmrbot,
Liuthar, L1ght5h0w, Rememberway, Zytigon, JimsMaher, Bulldog73, Nohwave, Frietjes, Delusion23, Muon, Braincricket, Boobietime,
Joel B. Lewis, Bradrangers, Lord Nordeck, Danim, Nobletripe, MerlIwBot, Be..anyone, Helpful Pixie Bot, Sceptic1954, Zibart, Ignacitum,
Bibcode Bot, 2001:db8, Doorknob747, Picklebobdogog, BG19bot, Max Longint, Consorveyapaaj2048394, Northamerica1000, Leonxlin,
PhnomPencil, Portlandium, Ke5skw, Pitzik4, Joseph Lindenberg, Piisawesome, Snake of Intelligent Ignorance, Ebbillings, Max Ijzersteen,
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ArrakisFrance, Kiewbra, Bismarck rules the sea, Hyuganatsu, JordanKyser22, Shwangtianyuan, CrunchySkies, SD5bot, JYBot, Dexbot,
Joy if, Br'er Rabbit, Mogism, RazrRekr201, Numbermaniac, Czech is Cyrillized, Zstk, Chrisrox50267899, Pokajanje, Jochen Burghardt,
Kevin12xd, Vahid alpha, Leijurv, JustAMuggle, Junvfr, Faizan, Epicgenius, Djkauman, Light Peak, Magnolia677, JPaestpreornJeolhlna,
Pdecalculus, Escspeed, XndrK, Mathmensch, Ram Zaltsman, Johndric Valdez, Hotchotmin, Meteor sandwich yum, Themessengerofknowledge, ARUNEEK, Wyattbergeron1, HectorCabreraJr, Mahusha, 22merlin, Monkbot, GinAndChronically, Owais Khursheed, Qwertyxp2000, Gamemaster eleven, Awesome5860, Samuelrowland, NCCL2310, Whikie, Loraof, Orduin, SoSivr, Dandtiks69, Helloholabonjournihaonamastegutentag, KasparBot and Anonymous: 1081

10.2

Images

File:Archimedes_pi.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Archimedes_pi.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0

Contributors: Own work Original artist: Leszek Krupinski (disputed, see File talk:Archimedes pi.svg)
File:Buffon_needle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Buffon_needle.svg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors:
Buon_needle.gif Original artist: Buon_needle.gif: Claudio Rocchini
File:Circle_Area.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Circle_Area.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Comparison_pi_infinite_series.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Comparison_pi_infinite_
series.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cmglee
File:Domenico-Fetti_Archimedes_1620.jpg Source:
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Archimedes_1620.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://archimedes2.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/archimedes_templates/popup.htm
Original artist: Domenico Fetti
File:E\char"005E\relax{}(-x\char"005E\relax{}2).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/E%5E%28-x%
5E2%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Autopilot
File:Euler{}s_formula.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Euler%27s_formula.svg License: CC-BYSA-3.0 Contributors: Drawn by en User:Gunther, modied by others. Original artist: Originally created by gunther using xg, recreated in
Inkscape by Wereon, italics xed by lasindi.
File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
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GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/art/portrait.html Original artist: Sir Godfrey Kneller
File:JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif
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File:Leonhard_Euler.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Leonhard_Euler.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors:
2. Kunstmuseum Basel
Original artist: Jakob Emanuel Handmann
File:Mandel_zoom_00_mandelbrot_set.jpg Source:
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mandelbrot_set.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Matheon2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Matheon2.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Own work (own photo) Original artist: Holger Motzkau
File:Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_
mathematics_blue-p.svg License: GPL Contributors: Derivative work from Image:Nuvola apps edu mathematics.png and Image:Nuvola
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Contributors: Own work Original artist: Watchduck (a.k.a. Tilman Piesk)
File:Pi_30K.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Pi_30K.gif License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: This mathematical image was created with Mathematica Original artist: CaitlinJo
File:Pi_eq_C_over_d.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Pi_eq_C_over_d.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kjoonlee, based on previous work by w:User:Papeschr

24

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Pi_pie2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Pi_pie2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:

Pi_pie2.jpg Original artist: GJ
File:Record_pi_approximations.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Record_pi_approximations.svg
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nageh
File:Sine_cosine_one_period.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Sine_cosine_one_period.svg License:
CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Geek3
File:Squaring_the_circle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Squaring_the_circle.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Pd-self image by Plynn9 Original artist: Original PNG by Plynn9; SVG by Alexei Kouprianov
File:Srinivasa_Ramanujan_-_OPC_-_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Srinivasa_Ramanujan_
-_OPC_-_1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: link Original artist: Unknown
File:Tau_uses.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Tau_uses.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work
Original artist: Helloholabonjournihaonamastegutentag

10.3

Content license

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