UNDERSTANDING POWER

CONCEPTS BASIC COURSE

PARTS 1,2,&3
PART 4WILL BE ADDED IN REV1.

ContinuingEducationCourse
Revision0(April2013)

References

IEEE,NFPA,
SchneiderElectric
GeneralElectric
Chevron
DuPont
Phillips
AllenBradley
Siemens
PowellElectric
Fluke
SEL
ABB
Readilyavailablepowerpointsontheinternet.
ExxonMobil
ECM
Baldor
Toshiba
PostGlover

UnderstandingPowerConcepts
Thiscoursewasputtogetherusingreadilyavailablematerialfrom
theinternet,andfromolderIEEEpresentations.Itisfor
educationalpurposesonly.Theuserofthismaterialshouldconsult
alicensedprofessionalengineeronalltopicspresentedinthisbasic
electricalpowercourse.
Thismaterialhasnotbeencheckedforaccuracy.Itshouldbe
assumedtobeoutofdate.
Thismaterialisagainforeducationalpurposesonly.Noprofits
havebeenmadeinthemakingofthiscourseorinitspresentation.
Thiscourseissolelytohelpeducateourengineersandsocietyon
electricalpowertopics.

UnderstandingPowerConcepts
ThisREV0April2013coursecoversParts1,2,
and3.
Part4willbeaddedatalaterdate,REV1.

UnderstandingPowerConcepts
Part1
Introduction
Formulas(AC/DCBasics)
Standards
Codes/PersonalSafety
Grounding

UnderstandingPowerConcepts
Part2
ElectricalStudies

Onelines
SC
LF
I2T

TransferSchemes
Cabletypes
FeederDesigns

UnderstandingPowerConcepts
Part3
Motors

ACInductionMotors
MotorEfficiencyandAssessment
MotorControllers(VFDandHarmonics)
ApplicationConsiderations

Transformers
Substations
Switchgear
Panels(LightingandPower)
MCC
DC/UPSSystems

UnderstandingPowerConcepts
Part4(hasnotbeenaddedasofREV0)
ProtectiveRelaying
Bus
Feeders
Motors
Generators
Transformers

PowerSystemEngineering
Duringthelast50yearselectricalengineering
hasbecomeverydiversified.
Itisamuchbroaderscopethaneverbefore.
Inordertokeeppacewithemerging
technologiesaneedhasbeenidentifiedto
providethefundamentalknowledgeof
electricalpowerengineering.

ElectricalPowerEngineering
Manufacturing
Generators,andmotors
Transformers
Skiddedpackages(electrochlorinationunits,pump
packages,filtrationunits,processpackages)
MCC,SWGR,powerhouses

Relayprogramming
Systemstudies
IndustrialDistributionsystems(LV,MV)
Transmissiondesign(HV,EHV)

 VISUAL/MENTALCOMPREHENSIONOFTHE
COMPONENTSBASEDONPROJECTSINGLELINE
ANDSPECIFICATION.

LearningObjectives
Closethe
knowledgegap.
Realworld
examples.
Checklists.
Workproblems.
Surveythe
industry.

UnderstandingPowerConcepts
Part1
Introduction
Formulas(AC/DCBasics)
Standards
Codes/PersonalSafety
Grounding

Beforestartingaprojectyoushouldknowtheanswerstothefollowingquestions.

Whatisthenatureandmagnitudeoftheload?
Whereisthepowercomingfrom?
Howmuchwilltheelectricpowersystemscost?
Whatvoltagelevelsshouldbeselectedfortheplantprimarysystemand
secondarysystem?
Whatcircuitarrangementisbestsuited,i.e.;radial,secondaryselective,or
secondarynetwork?
Whatsizesubstationsaremosteconomical?
Secondarydistribution.
Combinedlightandpower?
Arevoltageregulatingmeansrequired?
Shortcircuitprotection?
Grounding.
Overcurrentprotection?
Isthelightningprotectionadequate?
Powerfactorcorrection?
TypesofLightsrequired.

In order to understand this...

Outline
E&M Principles
Types of Power Plants
Power System Components

Principles
energy = the ability to do work
measured in Joules

power = rate of energy generation or use

measured in Watts = Joules / sec

current = rate of charge flow

measured in Amps

Water pipes analogy

voltage = pressure pushing current

measured in Volts

Powerhouse @ Hoover Dam

Types of Power Plants

Classification by the mechanical means used
to turn the generator...
Thermal (water steam by burning Coal, Oil, NG)
Nuclear (water steam by Uranium or Plutonium fission)
Geothermal
Hydroelectric (falling water)
Wind
Solar

Thermal Power Plant

Nuclear Power Plant

Hydroelectric Power Plant

Hoover

Itaipu

Power Plant Components

ELECTRICAL
Generators & Turbines
Transformers
Switches
Busses
Cables
Motors
Circuit Breakers
Capacitor Banks

MECHANICAL
Conveyors
Silos
Boilers
Scrubbers & Stacks
Pumps
Cooling Towers

At the front end

Conveyors
Boilers
Scrubbers and Stacks
Pumps
Cooling Towers

Generators
The whole point of the
power plant is to turn
the generators to
produce electrical
energy.

Turbines
Difficult to replace
A spare is often kept

Busses
non-insulated electrical conductors
large cross-section = low resistance
must be far from ground and other
components to avoid arcing

flirthermography.com

Switches & Switchyards

http://www.learnz.org.nz/trips06/images/big/b-switchyard.jpg

CircuitBreakerUsesBothSF6AndAirAsInsulatingGases

HighVoltageCircuitBreaker

Transformers
PURPOSE: to change the
voltage
increase = step-up
decrease = step-down

Often run hot, must be

cooled, prone to explode.
oil inside
cooling fins and fans
blast walls

Circuit Breakers
PURPOSE: stop the
flow of current if too
much flows (due to
short circuit or excess
demand)

230 kV breaker

Capacitor Banks
Purpose: to smooth out
spikes or glitches in the
line voltage. Used to correct
power factor issues, or to
mitigate harmonics in filter
designs.

Transmission Lines
and the grid

Why are High Voltages Used?

Transmission lines typically carry

voltages of 110 kV, 230 kV, or
even higher. The wires are not
insulated, so they are kept high off
the ground and well separated
from each other, to prevent arcing
(sparks) and injury or people or
animals.

Why use such high voltages?

Using very high voltages on the
transmission lines reduces the
amount of energy wasted heating
up the wires.

And why is that so? Transformers

cannot add energy, so if the
voltage is increased, the current
(in amps) must decrease. The
charges flowing through the wires
constantly collide with the atoms,
losing energy and heating the
wire. We call this resistance.
Recall that the power (energy per
time) lost to that heating is given
by the equation P=I2R. If the
current is reduced, the power used
in heating the wire is reduced.

Transformer Sub-Station
Purpose:

TTR Substations, Inc.

to reduce the very high

voltages from the
transmission lines (>100kV)
to intermediate voltages
used to serve an individual
town or section of a city
(typically 66 kV or 33 kV)

UnderstandingPowerConcepts
Part1
Introduction
Formulas(AC/DCBasics)
Standards
Codes/PersonalSafety
Grounding

Industrial

BasicElectricityforIndustry

Ohmslaw
Impedance
Power(kW)
Reactivepower(kVAR)
Apparentpower(kVA)
Powerfactor(costheta)
Efficiency
Workproblems.
Surveytheindustry.

DCVoltage

ACVoltage

ResistiveLoad

InductiveLoad

CapacitiveLoad

OhmsLaw
E:Electromotiveforceor
Voltage;Volts,V
I:ElectricCurrent;
Amperes,A
R:Resistanceofheater;
Ohms,omega
P:Power;watts
Examplesolvingresistance
spaceheaterelement
connectedtotheterminal
ofanACgeneratororother
ACsource.

http://www.chromalox.com/productca
talog/Component+Technologies/Strip+
and+Ring+Heaters/productfamily
router.aspx?f=64

Letsconsiderthreeresistive
elements.(seriescircuit)

EquivalentCircuits

EquivalentCircuit

ParallelCircuit

ParallelCircuit

ll lCi

Networksareelectrical
transmission/distributionsystems

CyclicVoltageandCurrent

SinusoidalVoltageandCurrent

CyclicVoltageandCurrent

BasicElectricalQuantities

BasicElectricalFormulas

DecimalMultiplesandSubmultiples

Currentinphasewithvoltage

ACVoltageandCurrentinaresistance

Currentlaggingvoltageby30deg.

ACVoltageandcurrentinaninductive

InductiveEquipmentUsedinIndustry

Transformers
Solenoids
VariableTransformers
Relays
Fluorescentlight
ballasts
Motors

ACVoltageandCurrentinacapacitive

CapacitorEquipmentUsedinIndustry

Impedanceofanaccircuit

ll lR L C i

ImpedanceFormulaParallel

Impedanceformulaseriesconnected
elements

ImpedanceFormulaParallel
ConnectedElements

PowerinACcircuitsandsystems(inductive)

PowerinACcircuitsandsystems
(capacitive)

Typicalusersofpowerandtheir
characteristics.

PowerFactororloadandsupply

Powerand
PowerFactor
inan
induction
load

Power
Capacitor
connectedto
Motor

PowerCapacitor
connectedto
Motor

PowerCapacitorconnectedtoMotor

Generationofthreephasevoltage

Linevoltagesandlinetoneutral

Voltagesgeneratedbya3phase440
voltACgenerator.

Linecurrentsinabalanced3phase

DeltaandWyeconnectedloads

Currentand
voltageina
wye
connection

http://www.chromalox.com/productca
talog/Component+Technologies/Strip+
and+Ring+Heaters/productfamily
router.aspx?f=64

Threeresistorsareconnectedinawye
acrossa440V3phaseline.Ifthey
dissipatedatotalof6000W,or6kW,
calculate:
1)
2)

Calculatethe
linecurrent.
Calculatethe
resistor
values.

A4kV3phaselinecarriesaline
currentof90A.Thepowerfactoris
0.85lagging,andtheloadis
connectedindelta.
Calculate:
1) Theimpedanceof
theload,perphase.
2) Thereactivepower,
perphase.

Phasesequence

Doestheequipmentusedtotransmitthepowertotheload
havealargeimpactonthepowerfactor?
Typicalequipmentwouldbecablesandtransformers

Thesecomponentsdonotdictatepowerfactor,
butonlyhaveasmalleffectonitundernormal
steadystateconditions.
Underfaultconditionstheireffectisverylarge.

Themostcommonlyusedelectricaldiagrams,
schedules,anddrawingsare:

onelinediagrams.
elementarythreelinediagrams.
schematicwiringdiagrams.
circuitbreakerschedules.
motorcontrolcenterschedules.
lightingpanelboardschedules.
loadingschedules.
conduitschedules.
wiringschedules.
switchgearlayoutdrawings.
motorcontrolcenter(MCC)layoutdrawings.
riserconduit/stubupdiagrams.
circuitwiringlayoutdiagrams.

PowerSystemsStudy
Theonelinediagramismostcommonlyusedintheperformanceof
powersystemsstudies.Thefollowinginformationshouldbe
provided,asaminimum,ontheonelinediagram,regardlessofthe
typeofpowersystemstudybeingperformed.

buscurrentandvoltageratings
shortcircuitcurrentavailable(optional)
voltageandcurrentratiosofinstrumenttransformers
protectivedevice(circuitbreakers,fuses)ratings
functionsofrelaysindicatedbydevicenumbers
ratings,type,andimpedanceofmotorsandtransformers
connections(i.e.deltaorwye)oftransformers
number,length,size,andtypeofconductorsandconduit

Thefinalapplicationofthedrawing(shortcircuitstudy,coordination
study,construction,etc.)willdeterminetheexactinformationonthe
onelinediagram.Forexample,impedanceofamotorisrequiredfor
ashortcircuitstudybutnotforacoordinationstudy.Relayand
adjustablesettingsofcircuitbreakersarerequiredforacoordination
studybutarenotrequiredforashortcircuitstudy.

Mainequipmentused:

Mainequipmentused:

MotorControlCentersMCC

Mainequipmentused:

Mainequipmentused:

Mainequipmentused:

Mainequipmentused:

Mainequipmentused:

TypicalLowVoltageSwitchgear

Mainequipmentused:

Mainequipmentused:

GeneralCausesoffailureofelectrical
equipment.

CostofPower

UnderstandingPowerConcepts
Part1
Introduction
Formulas(AC/DCBasics)
Standards
Codes/PersonalSafety
Grounding

ElectricalCodes

NFPA70(NationalElectricalCode)
NESC(TheNationalElectricalSafetyCode)
OSHA(OccupationalSafetyandHealthAct)
APIRP14F
APIRP500

NationalElectricalCode
TheNationalElectricalCode(NEC)establishesthe
minimumrequirementsnecessarytoprovide
practicalsafeguardingofpersonsandpropertyfrom
hazardsarisingfromtheuseofelectricity.
Itshouldnotbeconsideredadesignguidesinceit
doesnotconsiderefficiency,convenience,or
expandabilityforfutureserviceinitsrequirements.

NationalElectricalSafetyCode
TheNationalElectricalSafetyCode(NESC)coversbasic
provisionsforsafeguardingpeoplefromhazardsarising
fromtheinstallation,operation,ormaintenanceof
1)conductorsandequipmentinelectricsupplystations,
2)overheadandundergroundelectricsupplyand
communicationlines.
Italsoincludesworkrulesfortheconstruction,
maintenance,andoperationofelectricsupplyand
communicationlinesandequipment.

NationalElectricalSafetyCode
ThedocumentispublishedbytheAmericanNational
StandardsInstitute(ANSI)whichrequiresit's
standardstobereviewedand/orrevisedonatleasta
5yearcycle.
However,theNESCcloselyfollowsNECrequirements
andthereforeisupdatedonathreeyearcycleto
matchthatoftheNEC.

230V10HP
motor50AMPS
240V1kW
heater
1000W/240V=
4.17AMPS
54.17AMPS

1%voltagedropor480V*.01=
4.8V;so480V4.8V=475V

20A*1.25=25A
5A*1.00=5A
Sothetotalampsshouldbe25+5=30A

MotorFLA=240A

#4/075degCcolumn230A*0.80(six
conductors)*.82(43degC)=
230*.8*.82=150.88Aor(B)151A

OSHA1910SubpartS
TheOccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration(OSHA)has
overallresponsibilityforthesafetyandhealthofindustrialworkersin
theUnitedStates.
However,theirauthoritymaysometimesbedelegatedtoanother
agencysuchastheUnitedStatesCoastGuardasexplainedabovein
Section1.3.
Regardlessofwhethertheydelegatetheauthority,theirregulations
arestillapplicabletoindustriesoperatingeitheronshoreoroffshore
intheUnitedStates.
Forelectricalsystems,theapplicableregulationsarecontainedin
1910subpartS.Inaddition,variousstateagenciesmayalsoexercise
jurisdictionoversomefacilities,andwherethisisdone,theNational
ElectricalCodeistypicallytheenforcingdocument.

APIRPl4F
"TheAPIRecommendedPracticeforDesignand
InstallationofElectricalSystemsforOffshore
ProductionPlatforms"isreferredtoasAPIRP14F.
Thedocumentrecommendsminimumrequirements,
andguidelinesforthedesignandinstallationof
electricalsystemsonfixedproductionplatforms
locatedoffshore,
andisintendedtobringtogetherinoneplaceabrief
descriptionofbasicdesirableelectricalpracticesfor
offshoreelectricalsystems.

APIRP500
TheAPIdocumenttitled"RecommendedPracticefor
ClassificationofLocationsforElectricalInstallationsatPetroleum
Facilities"isreferredtoasAPIRP500.
Thatdocumentappliestotheclassificationoflocationsforboth
temporarilyandpermanentlyinstalledelectricalequipment.
Thesuitabilityoflocationsfortheplacementofnonelectrical
equipmentisnotcovered.
Inaddition,therecommendationsdonotaddresspossible
catastrophicconditionssuchasawellblowoutoraprocessvessel
rupturesincesuchextremeconditionsrequireemergency
measuresatthetimeofoccurrence.

N.E.C.Article500CodeSections

Article500HazardousLocations
Article501ClassILocations
Article502ClassIILocations
Article503ClassIIILocations
Article504IntrinsicallySafeSystems
Article505Class1,Zone0,1,and2Locations
Article510HazardousLocationSpecific
Article511CommercialGarages
Article513AircraftHangars
Article514GasolineServiceStations
Article515BulkStoragePlants
Article516PaintSprayApplication

ClassLocations
N.E.C.Article500.5(B)
Anareawhere
FLAMMABLEGASESor
VAPORSareormaybe
presentintheairin
sufficientquantitiesto
produceexplosiveor
ignitablemixtures.

ClassILocations(Gases)

N.E.C.Article500.5(B)
Anareawhere
FLAMMABLEGASESor
VAPORSareormaybe
presentintheairin
sufficientquantitiesto
produceexplosiveor
ignitablemixtures.

ClassILocations(Gases)
7FAGETurbineInstallation

ClassILocations(Gases)
7FAGETurbineInstallation

ClassILocations(Gases)
CLASSIINDUSTRIESANDAPPLICATIONS
Naturalorliquefiedgasstoragefacilities
Chemicalplants
Petroleumrefineries
Bulkhandlingorstoragefacilitiesforgasoline
Diptanks
Storagetanksforflammableliquidsorgas
Sprayingareasforpaintsorplastics
Aircraftfuelservicingareasorhangers
Welldrilling(oilandgas),offshoreoron
Pipelinepumpingareas
Printingmachineareas

ClassIILocations(Dust)
N.E.C.Article500.5(C)
Anareawherepresenceof
COMBUSTIBLEDUST
presentsafireorexplosion
hazard.

ClassIILocations(Dust)
CLASSIIINDUSTRIESANDAPPLICATIONS
Grainstorage,handlingorprocessingplants
Coalstorage,handlingorprocessingfacilities
Metalgrindingormetalpowderproducingfacilities
Gunpowderorexplosive(fireworks)plants
Sugar,cocoa,spiceorstarchproductionorhandling
facilities

ClassIIILocations(Fibers)
NECArticle500.5(D)
Anareamadehazardous
becauseofthepresenceof
easilyignitableFIBERSor
FLYINGS,butinwhichsuch
fibersorflying'sarenotlikelyto
beinsuspensionintheairin
quantitiessufficienttoproduce
ignitablemixtures.

ClassIIILocations(Fibers)
CLASSIIIINDUSTRIESANDAPPLICATIONS
Cotton,textileorflaxproducingorhandling
facilities
Woodcutting,pulverizingorshapingplants
Clothingmanufacturingfacilities

Locations
Division1
Division2

Division1Location
NECArticles500.5(B)(1),
500.5(C)(1)and500.5(D)(1)
AnareawheretheHAZARD
EXISTUNDER
NORMALOPERATING
CONDITIONS.Thisalsoincludes
locationswherethehazardis
causedbyfrequent
maintenanceorrepairworkor
frequentequipmentfailure.

Division1Location
Considerthatthereare8,760hoursinayear.Itis
proposedthataDivisionIlocationwouldbeonethat
iswithintheflammablerangemorethan0.1%ofthe
time,thatismorethan8.76hrs/yr.
Fromapracticalviewpointonthisbasis,wewould
suggestthatanyareaintheflammablerange10
hrs/yr.ormoreshouldbeclassifiedasDivision1.

Division2Location
NECArticles500.5(B)(2),
500.5(C)(2),and500.5(D)(2)
Anareawhereignitablegases,
vapors,dust,orfibersarehandled,
processed,orused,butwhich
EXISTONLYUNDERABNORMAL
CONDITIONS,suchascontainersor
closedsystemsfromwhichthey
canonlyescapethroughaccidental
ruptureorbreakdown.
Note:Noelectricallyconductive
dustareincludedinClassII,
Division2atmospheres.

Division2Location
ADivision2locationwouldbeonethatis
withintherangemorethan0.01%andupto
0.1%ofthetime(0.876hoursto8.76hours).
Fromapracticalviewpointonthisbasis,we
wouldsuggestthatanyareaintheflammable
rangeclassifiedasDivision2,wouldbeinthe
rangebetween110hrs/yr.

ComparisonofDiv1andDiv2forGases

GroupsA,B,C,andD(Gases)
NECArticle500.6(A)
GroupsindicatestheDEGREEOFTHEHAZARD.
GROUPSA,B,CandDareclassifiedbychemicalfamiliesas
showninNFPA497M1986and325M1984.
TheimportantfactorinclassifyingagasorvaporbyGroupis
howmuchPRESSUREiscreatedduringanexplosion.GroupA
(Acetylene)createsthemostpressure,withGroupB
(Hydrogen)next.

GroupsA,B,C,andD(Gases)

GroupsA,B,C,andD(Gases)

Relativespeedandmaximumpressureoffivetest
gases:acetylene,hydrogen,ethylene,propane,andmethane.

GroupsE,FandG(Dust)
NECArticle500.6(B)
GroupsindicatestheDEGREEOFTHE
HAZARD,basedonElectricalResistivityfrom
Tableonright(Source:ANSI/ISAS12.10
1988)

GROUPEAtmospherescontaining
combustibleMETALDUST.

GROUPFAtmospherescontainingCARBON
BLACK,CHARCOAL,COAL,orCOKEDUST.

GROUPGAtmospherescontaining
AGRICULTURALandotherdusts

SummaryofClassesandGroups
CLASSI:FLAMMABLEVAPORS&GASSES(Volatilegasorvaporpresentin
sufficientquantitytoproduceignitionorexplosion).
GROUPA:ACETYLENE
GROUPB:HYDROGEN
GROUPC:ETHYLENE
GROUPD:GASOLINE
CLASSII:COMBUSTIBLEDUSTS(Combustibledustspresentinsufficient
quantitytopresentafireorexplosionhazard).
GROUPE:METALDUSTS
GROUPF:CARBONDUSTSCOAL
GROUPG:GRAINDUSTS
CLASSIII:FIBERS&FLYINGS(Easilyignitablefibersorflyingspresentbut
notlikelytobesuspendedintheair).

UnderstandingPowerConcepts
Part1
Introduction
Formulas(AC/DCBasics)
Standards
Codes/PersonalSafety
Grounding

REFERENCES

IEEEPES(PresentationMaterial)
NFPA70E
IEEE1584
NEC
OSHA
SELArcFlashSeminarMaterial

Thispresentationdoesnotqualifythepersontoperformthe
calculation(alicensedprofessionalengineerintheStatethe
analysisisbeingconducted)shallperformthestudy.
Thispresentationisforeducationalpurposes.

ELECTRICALHAZARDS
Electricalshock
Electricalarcflash
Electricalarcblast

ELECTRICALSHOCK
Bodyresistance
Wetordryskinsaremajorfactorsofresistance
Circuitvoltage
Amountofcurrentflowingthroughthebody
Currentthroughthebody
Areaofcontact
Durationofcontact

ELECTRICALARCFLASH
Arcoelectric flash

BodyBurn

ELECTRICALArcBlast
Rapidexpansionoftheaircausedbyan
electricalarc,referredtoasanelectricalarc
blastorexplosion

CONTRIBUTINGFACTORSTOELECTRICAL
ACCIDENTS

FaultyInsulation

Impropergrounding

Looseconnections

DefectiveParts

Groundfaultsinequipment

Unguardedliveparts

Failuretodeenergizeelectrical
equipmentwhenitisbeing
repairedorinspected

Intentionaluseofobviously
defectiveandunsafetools

Useoftoolsorequipmenttoo
closetoenergizedparts

Toolsleftinelectricalcubicle

AnIntroductionto
ArcFlash

203

AGENDA

StandardsRelatedtoSafety
Whatisthepurposeofanarcflashstudy?
ApproachtoArcFlash
PreparingtoWorkSafely
Discussion/PathForward

WHATCAUSESARCFAULTS?
Humanerror
Unintentionalgrounds
Equipmentfailure(Polesweldedshut)
Forgottentoolslyingonornearenergizedparts
Undetectedoverheating
Dielectricfailureoftheswitchgear
Smallanimalssuchasratorsnakescomingin
contactwithenergizedparts

AGENDA

StandardsRelatedtoSafety
Whatisthepurposeofanarcflashstudy?
ApproachtoArcFlash
PreparingtoWorkSafely
Discussion/PathForward

STANDARDSRELATEDTOSAFETY
NFPA70E
IEEEStandard1584
NEC110.16
OSHA

NFPA70E 2004

Appropriatesafetyrelatedworkpracticesshallbe
determinedbeforeanypersonapproaches
exposedlivepartswithintheLimitedApproach
Boundarybyusingbothshockhazardanalysisand
flashhazardanalysis.

NFPA70E 2004
Iflivepartsarenotplacedinanelectricallysafe
workconditions (i.e.,forthereasonsofincreased
oradditionalhazardsorinfeasibilityper130.1)
worktobeperformedshallbeconsidered
energizedelectricalworkandshallbeperformed
bywrittenpermitonly.
NFPA70E 2009
130.3(C) Equipmentshallbefilledmarkedwithalabel
containingtheavailableincidentenergyorrequiredlevelofPPE

NFPA70E
(B)ProtectiveClothingandPersonalProtectiveEquipmentforApplicationwith
aFlashHazardAnalysis.Whereithasbeendeterminedthatworkwillbe
performedwithintheFlashProtectionBoundaryby130.3(A),theflash
hazardanalysisshalldetermine,andtheemployershalldocument,the
incidentenergyexposureoftheworker(incaloriespersquarecentimeter).
Theincidentenergyexposurelevelshallbebasedontheworkingdistance
oftheemployeesfaceandchestareasfromaprospectivearcsourceforthe
specifictasktobeperformed.Flameresistant(FR)clothingandpersonal
protectiveequipment(PPE)shallbeusedbytheemployeebasedonthe
incidentenergyexposureassociatedwiththespecifictask.Recognizingthat
incidentenergyincreasesasthedistancefromthearcflashdecreases,
additionalPPEshallbeusedforanypartsofthebodythatarecloserthan
thedistanceatwhichtheincidentenergywasdeterminedAsanalternative,
thePPErequirementsof130.7(C)(9)shallbepermittedtobeusedinlieuof
thedetailedflashhazardanalysisapproachdescribedin130.3(A).
FPN:Forinformationonestimatingtheincidentenergy,seeAppendixD.

IEEEStd1584 2002
AddressesArcFlashCalculations:
ArcingFault
Incidentenergy
Flashboundary
ValidRanges
208Vto15kV
700Ato106kA
Gap13mmto153mm
OutofRange
UseLeeEquation

AGENDA

StandardsRelatedtoSafety
Whatisthepurposeofanarcflashstudy?
ApproachtoArcFlash
PreparingtoWorkSafely
Discussion/PathForward

ARCFLASHSTUDIES
Purpose
Toexaminetheincidentenergyandarcflashboundaryat
eachelectricalequipmentlocationintheelectricalsystem.
StudyUsedtoDetermine:
Incidentenergy
ArcFlashBoundary
PersonalProtectiveEquipment(PPE)
Goals
Introduceoperatingprocedurestoavoidexposure.
Keepincidentenergyunder40cal/cm2 ifpossible.

INCIDENTENERGY

EnergyPerUnitofAreaReceivedOnASurfaceLocatedASpecificDistance
AwayFromTheElectricArc,BothRadiantAndConvective,inUnitsof
cal/cm2.

UseIEEE1584Calculations
PreliminaryIEEE1584workusedinNFPA70E
NFPA70Eequationslimitedto<1000V
IEEE1584equationsexpandedto15,000V
NFPA70E38%ArcingFaultCurrentisoverly
conservativeanddoesntguaranteeworstcase
incidentenergy.

INCIDENTENERGY
log(En)=K1+K2+1.081log(Ia)+0.0011G
En
K1
K2
Ia
G
solve

Incidentenergy(J/cm2)normalizedfor0.2sarcingduration
and610mmworkingdistance
0.792foropenconfiguration
0.555forboxconfiguration(switchgear,panel)
0forungroundedandhighresistancegroundedsystems
0.113forgroundedsystems
Arcingfaultcurrent
gapbetweenbusbarconductorsinmm
En=10logEn

INCIDENTENERGY
IncidentEnergyconvertfromnormalized:

E=4.184Cf En(t/0.2)(610X /DX)

E
incidentenergy(J/cm2)
1.0forvoltageabove1kVand
Cf
1.5forvoltageatorbelow1kV
t
arcingdurationinseconds
D
workingdistance
x
distanceexponent
x
1.473
1.641
0.973
2

EquipmentType
Switchgear
Panel
Switchgear
Cable,OpenAir

kV
<=1
<=1
>1

FlashBoundary
DB

arcflashboundary(mm)atincidentenergyof5.0(J/cm2)
DB

where

=[4.184Cf En(t/0.2)(610X /EB)]1/X

EB
incidentenergyset5.0(J/cm2)
Cf
1.0forvoltageabove1kVand
1.5forvoltageatorbelow1kV
t
arcingdurationinseconds
x
distanceexponent
x
1.473
1.641
0.973
2

EquipmentType
Switchgear
Panel
Switchgear
allothers

<=1
>1

kV
<=1

Theflashboundaryisessentiallyareversecalculationtodeterminethedistancewheretheincidentenergyisequalto1.2caloriespersquare
centimeters.

AGENDA

StandardsRelatedtoSafety
Whatisthepurposeofanarcflashstudy?
ApproachtoArcFlash
PreparingtoWorkSafely
Discussion/PathForward

6StepApproach
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

ProjectUnderstanding
BuildanElectricalSystemModel
ShortCircuitCalculations
ProtectiveDeviceCoordinationStudy
ArcFlashHazardAnalysis
ReviewandImplementtheResults

DataRequired

OneLineDiagrams
Breaker/SwitchPositions
UtilityShortCircuitContribution
TransformerData
GeneratorData
ReactorData
CableLengths&Sizes
ConnectedRotatingMachinery
BreakerClearingTimes
CTRatios
Relay/TripUnitManufacturer&Models
Relay/TripUnitSettings(Phase&Ground)
FuseData

Issues ArcFaultTolerance

ASmallReductioninAvailableFaultCurrentcanresult
inalargeincreaseinincidentenergyduetolongertrip
time.

IEEEP1584suggeststocalculateincidentenergybased
on100%and85%ofthearcingfault.

NFPA70Esuggeststocalculateincidentenergybased
on100%and38%ofthefaultcurrent.

PERFORMAN
ARCFLASHANALYSIS
ArcFlashCalculationStepReview
DetermineSystemModesofOperation
CalculateBoltedFaultCurrentateachBus
CalculateArcingFaultCurrentateachBus
CalculateArcingFaultCurrentseenbyeachProtective
Device
DetermineTripTimeforEachProtectiveDevicebasedon
ArcingFaultCurrent
CalculateIncidentEnergyatWorkingDistance
CalculateArcFlashBoundary
DetermineRequiredPPE

Deliverables
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

UpdatedOneLines
ArcFlashData
IncidentEnergy
ArcFlashBoundary
PersonalProtectiveEquipment
ClassificationofHazard/RiskCategory
WorkingDistances
Labels
ComprehensiveReport

AGENDA

StandardsRelatedtoSafety
Whatisthepurposeofanarcflashstudy?
ApproachtoArcFlash
PreparingtoWorkSafely
Discussion/PathForward

PREPARINGTOWORKSAFELY
WHATDOWENEEDTOKNOWORDO?

DocumentedProcedures
KnowFaultCurrentCalculations
KnowSafeApproachDistance
KnowArcingFaultClearingTime
KnowtheIncidentEnergyExposureCalculations
KnowHazardRiskCategory

PREPARINGTOWORKSAFELY
WHATDOWENEEDTOKNOWORDO?

DocumentedProcedures
Jobbriefing(writtenworkprocesses&procedures)
Energizedworkpermit

KnowFaultCurrentCalculations
KnowSafeApproachDistance
KnowArcingFaultClearingTime
KnowtheIncidentEnergyExposureCalculations
KnowHazardRiskCategory

SafeWorkPractices
OSHA1910.333(a)(1)&NFPA70E130.1
nottoworkhotorliveexceptwhenEmployercan
demonstrate:
1. Deenergizingintroducesadditional
orincreasedhazards
2. Infeasibledueto
equipmentdesign
oroperational
limitations

PREPARINGTOWORKSAFELY
WHATDOWENEEDTOKNOWORDO?

DocumentedProcedures

KnowFaultCurrentCalculations
BoltedFault
ArcingFault

KnowSafeApproachDistance
KnowArcingFaultClearingTime
KnowtheIncidentEnergyExposureCalculations
KnowHazardRiskCategory

PREPARINGTOWORKSAFELY
WHATDOWENEEDTOKNOWORDO?

DocumentedProcedures
KnowFaultCurrentCalculations

KnowSafeApproachDistance
Limitsofapproach
Flashboundary

KnowHazardRiskCategory
KnowArcingFaultClearingTime
KnowtheIncidentEnergyExposure
Calculations

PREPARINGTOWORKSAFELY
WHATDOWENEEDTOKNOWORDO?

DocumentedProcedures
KnowFaultCurrentCalculations
KnowSafeApproachDistance

KnowArcingFaultClearingTime
Timecurrentcurves
Coordinationstudies

KnowtheIncidentEnergyExposureCalculations
KnowHazardRiskCategory

PREPARINGTOWORKSAFELY
WHATDOWENEEDTOKNOWORDO?

DocumentedProcedures
KnowFaultCurrentCalculations
KnowSafeApproachDistance
KnowArcingFaultClearingTime

KnowtheIncidentEnergyExposure
Calculations
NFPA70EMethod
IEEE1584Method

KnowHazardRiskCategory

PREPARINGTOWORKSAFELY
WHATDOWENEEDTOKNOWORDO?

DocumentedProcedures
KnowFaultCurrentCalculations
KnowSafeApproachDistance
KnowArcingFaultClearingTime
KnowtheIncidentEnergyExposure
Calculations

KnowHazardRiskCategory
NFPA70E

PREPARINGTOWORKSAFELY
WHATDOWENEEDTOKNOWORDO?

Preparetoworksafely
KnowFaultCurrentCalculations
KnowSafeApproachDistance
KnowArcingFaultClearingTime
KnowtheIncidentEnergyExposureCalculations
KnowHazardRiskCategory

ButWhy?

ArcFlashIncident
480VoltSystem
22,600AmpSymmetricalFault
MotorControllerEnclosure
6CycleArcingFault(0.1sec)

Eachsliderepresentsapproximately1cycle

Duringthefirstcycle,thearcreleasessignificantenergyincluding
lightandheat

At2cycles,vaporanddebriscanbeseen.

At3cycles,thepressureandsoundwaves
begintomovetheworker.

At4cycles,theequipmentandworkerareengulfedinflame.
.

At5cyclessmokerisesfromthefire.

ArcFlashIncident
480VoltSystem
22,600AmpSymmetricalFault
MotorControllerEnclosure
CurrentLimitingDevicewith<Cycleoperation(.0083
sec).NotethatArcingFaultmustbeincurrentlimiting
range.

Againeachsliderepresentsapproximately1
cycle.

Duringthefirsthalfcyclesomelightandenergyis
released,butthefaulthasalreadybeencleared.

At2cycles,theenvironmentbeginstoreturn
tonormal.

3cycles

4cycles

5cycles.Forthiscase,byclearingthefaultis
lessthancycle,thereisnoperceivable
damage

Recommendations to Reduce Incident Energy Levels

Use optical sensors when flash occurs

Use instantaneous settings when work is being performed
(maintenance settings)
Reactors (current limiting)
Differential protection (increases complexity an
Fuses and or breakers (current limiting)
Block paralleling capabilities (watch for electrical reliability
issues)

Recommendations to Reduce Incident Energy Levels

Decrease pickup and delay settings (watch your coordination

issues)
Change relay settings or replacing fuse types to reduce incident
energy from arc flash events.
Reduce fuse sizes (watch your coordination issues)
Implement instantaneous functions
Use currentlimiting breakers or fuses for high arcing fault currents

Befamiliarwiththeequipment,
thiswillhelpminimizehuman
error.

PREVENTINGELECTRICALACCIDENTS

Largelypreventablethroughsafeworkpractices

Examplesofsomesafeworkpractices
Deenergizingelectricalequipmentforinspectionandrepair
Keepingelectricalandequipmentproperlymaintained
Exercisingcautionwhenworkingnearexposedenergizedlinesor
equipment
Usingappropriatepersonalprotectiveequipmentandinsulatedtools

ELECTRICALSAFETY
ENVIRONMENT,SAFETYANDHEALTHPRINCIPLES
(usedbyDOE)
PlanWork
AnalyzeHazards
ControlHazards
PerformWork
Feedbackandimprove

ELECTRICALACCIDENTSCAUSEDBYONEOFTHEFOLLOWING

Unsafeworkpractices
Unsafeequipmentorinstallation
Unsafeenvironment

REQUIREMENTS
Knowledge/Familiarity
MechanicalInterlocks
ElectricalInterlocks
BusTransferProcedures
Lock,TagandTryProcedures

REQUIREMENTS
Workers:TrainedandQualified
OneLineDiagrams:Up to dateandattachedto
procedures
TestEquipment:Goodworkingconditionand
calibrated
PPE(PersonalProtectiveEquipment)GoodWorking
Conditionandtestedperstandards

SAFETYINTERLOCKSINMEDIUMVOLTAGE
STARTERS
ProtectiveBarriersforSafeOperationofMV
StarterIsolatingSwitches
DesignAndFunctionOfSafetyInterlocks
MaintenanceofSafetyInterlocksinMVStarters

PowerCellMVCompartment
Thepowercellis
designedtoallow
easyaccesswithout
theneedtoremove
components.

1 High MV Cell

PowerCellMVCompartment
Thepowercellina
TwoHighstructure
includes,asstandard,
aswingoutLow
Voltagepanel,
allowingforincreased
workingarea.

Two High MV Cell

LowVoltageCompartment

Thestandardcomponentshoused
inthepanelare:

NormalOffTestselector
switch
Maletestpowerreceptacle
RectifierBridge
CR1andCR2controlrelays
Motorprotectionrelay(s)

NonloadBreakIsolationSwitch

When in the OFF position

the isolation switch is
connected to Ground
Potential via grounding
pins.

NonloadBreakIsolationSwitch
Itismechanicallyand
electrically
interlockedwiththe
contactortoensureit
cantopenorclose
whenthecontactoris
closed.
Itisalsomechanically
interlockedwiththe
powercelldoor.

MaintenanceAids
Voltagedetectors
Viewingwindows
Infraredsightglass
Groundingballs

284

VoltageCheckingDevices
NonContactVoltageDetectors(NCVD)
VoltageIndicator(lowandhighvoltage)
Voltmeters

285

VoltageDetectors

VoltageDetectors

VoltageDetectors

VoltageDetectors

GroundingBalls

GroundingCable

InfraredSightglass

InfraredScanning

MediumVoltageandLowVoltage

Thehighervoltagedoesnoteffectthefunction
oftheproduct
itonlyaffectstheformoftheproduct:
size
electricalclearances
interlocking
components

ArcShieldOverview
Arcventontheunitroof
Aluminumplatedesignedto
openunderhighpressure
associatedwitharcflash
conditions
Offsettorearofstructure
(allowsuseofLVwireways)
Installersmustnotsteponthis
area(suitablewarninglabelis
provided)

UnderstandingPowerConcepts
Part1
Introduction
Formulas(AC/DCBasics)
Standards
Codes/PersonalSafety
Grounding

TypicalSubstationGroundingGrid

Practical Earth Testing

Content

Principles
Test Methods
Practical Measurement
Summary

Earth / Ground Basics

Whatisground?
A conducting connection, whether intentional or
accidental, between an electrical circuit or equipment
and the earth, or to some conducting body that serves in
place of earth*

Ground is a connection to Earth made either

intentionally or accidentally

*NFPA 70-2000 (National Fire Protection Association)

Earth / Ground Basics

Whyground?
Toprotectpeopleandequipment
Bydissipatingstrayenergyfrom:
Electricalfaults(fuses,breakersetc.)
Lightningstrikes
RadioFrequency
Staticdischarges

Real Examples
Whytest? Catchtheproblembeforeithappens!
Estimate:atleast15%ofpowerqualityproblemsarerelatedto
grounding
Lightningstrikesonequipmentwithpoorlymaintained
protectionsystemsdestroymillionsofdollarsofequipmentand
lostproductioneveryyear
UsinggroundtestinginaPDMprotocolwillhelpprevent
possibledangeroussituationsandlossofdowntime
(=money)

Earth / Ground Basics

Spheresofinfluence

Earth / Ground Basics

TypesofGroundingSystems

Many different types available

Choice depends on local
conditions and required function

Simplest form is a single stake

Mostly used for:

Lightning protection
Stand alone structures
Back-up for utility ground

Ground rod

Earth / Ground Basics

TypesofGroundingSystems
ground rod group
typically for lightning
protection on larger
structures or protection
around potential hotspots
such as substations.

Ground rod group

Earth / Ground Basics

TypesofGroundingSystems
For areas where there is
rock (or other poor
conducting material) fairly
close to the surface ground
plates are preferred as
they are more effective

Ground plate

Earth / Ground Basics

TypesofGroundingSystems
A ground mesh consists of
network of bars connected
together, this system is
often used at larger sites
such as electrical
substations.

Ground mesh

Earth / Ground Basics

TypesofGroundingSystems
For the purposes of
this presentation the
grounding system
will referred to as
ground electrode.

Ground Testing Methods

Whataretheavailabletechniques?

Resistivity
Fall of Potential Three and Four Pole Testing
Selective Testing
Stakeless Testing
Two pole method

Ground Testing Methods

Resistivity Measurement
Thepurposeofresistivitymeasurementsistoquantifythe
effectivenessoftheearthwhereagroundingsystemwillbe
installed.
Differingearthmaterialswillaffecttheeffectivenessofthe
groundingsystem.
Thecapabilityofdifferentearthmaterialstoconductcurrentcanbe
quantifiedbythevalueE(resistivityin.m).
Resistivitymeasurementsshouldbemadepriortoinstallinga
groundingsystem,thevaluesmeasuredwillhaveaneffectonthe
designofthegroundingsystem.

Ground Testing Methods (1)

Resistivity values for different earth materials

Ground Testing Methods

Resistivity Measurement ( Wenner method)
Resistivitymeasurementsareperformedbyusingafourwire
method.
Usedtodetermineif
earthing shouldbe
placingearthstakes

Ground Testing Methods

Resistivity Measurement
FromtheindicatedresistancevalueRE,thesoilresistivityis
calculatedaccordingtotheequation:

E =2 .a.RE
E
RE
a

......meanvalueofsoilresistivity(.m)
......measuredresistance()
......probedistance(m)

Ground Testing Methods

Thestakelessmethod eliminatestheneedfortemporary
groundstakes.Thisisusefulinawiderangeofsituations.Examples
include:

Insidebuildings
Airports
Urbanlocations
Chemicalandindustrialplants

Thestakelessmethodisnotavailableonallgroundtesters.However,it
comesstandardontheearthgroundtesters.

Thetemporarygroundstakesarereplacedbytwocurrentclamps.The
firstclampgeneratesavoltageonthegroundcondutor,thesecondclamp
measuresthecurrentflowingduetothegeneratedvoltage.

Ground Testing Methods

The ground testers are
able to measure earth
ground loop resistances
for multi grounded
systems using only
current clamps.
With this test method,
two clamps are placed
around the earth ground
rod or connecting cable
and each connected to
the tester. Earth ground
stakes arent used at all.

Stakeless Measurement Equivalent Circuit

Whenandwhygroundtest?
Priortodesigningangroundingsystem:
thegroundmaterialshouldbeevaluatedbyresistivity
measurementbeforedesigningagroundsystem
Initialtestonnewgroundsystems:
therealeffectivenessofnewgroundsystemsshouldbe
measuredbeforeconnection fallofpotentialtest
Periodictestsongroundsystems:
groundsystemsshouldbecheckedperiodicallytoensurethey
arenotaffectedbychangesinthegroundorcorrosion
selectiveorstakelesstest

Grounding Continued:
The Role of Electrical Grounding in
Surge and Lightning Protection

Today in Electrical Engineering History

October 24, 1861
The first Transcontinental Telegraph Line across the United
States was Completed.
With this improvement in communication came
of the Pony Express which was started only
before and the realization of the increased risk
life and equipment due to lightning induced
overhead lines.

SALTLAKE,OCTOBER24,1861,5:13P.M.
TOGENERALH.W.CARPENTIER:
LINEJUSTCOMPLETED.CANYOUCOMETOOFFICE?

STREET

the demise
18 months
to operator
surges on

Why Ground Electrical Power Systems?

The fundamental purpose of grounding electrical power systems is for

safety related to electrical shock hazard.

Bonding of non-current carrying conductive materials to the mass of

Earth fixes their potential to Zero Potential and so renders them safe
for contact by persons even in the event that these materials come
into direct contact with ungrounded current carrying conductors.

As a result of fixing the potential of one of the current conductors of

an electrical system the following arise: The potential of all electrical
conductors of the system become referenced to the potential of the
mass of Earth (Zero Potential). This assists in stabilization of the
voltage to ground during normal operation.

As a secondary consequence of the grounding of one of the current

carrying conductors of a system, all other conductors would cause a
short-circuit if they come into contact with ground. The value of the
ground short-circuit current would be determined by the system
voltage, impedance and the ground fault impedance. This would
facilitate the operation of over-current protective devices in the event
of a ground fault.

In Order to Achieve the Stated Objectives, the Ground

System:

Must be able to withstand the maximum fault current

without danger of burn-off or fusing.
Must produce a sufficiently low voltage between any
two points on the ground to prevent all personnel
hazard (Touch and Step Potentials).
Must minimize the Ground Potential Rise (GPR)
with respect to remote ground (zero potential point)
by having low contact resistance to ground (Ground
Resistance) fault current.

The Lightning Strikes and Lightning Induced Surges

Lightning is an atmospheric discharge of electricity. A bolt of

lightning can travel at speeds of 60,000 m/s (130,000 mph),
and can reach temperatures approaching 30,000 C (54,000 F)

Large bolts of lightning can carry up to 120 kA and 350

coulombs. The Voltage being proportional to the length of the
bolt.

It is important to note that although the value of the voltage

associated with lightning is proportional to the length of the
strike, it is not of critical concern as the main effects are related
to the stored charge and the discharge current of the strike.

Of more concern would be the voltage developed in conductive

parts of the system which are exposed to the magnetic fields
produced by the flow of high levels of electrical energy.

The Development of a Lightning Strike

With the development of very large storm clouds the lower part of
the cloud consists mainly of water droplets and the upper altitudes
are composed of ice crystals.
TheseCloudscanrangeinheightfrom2to16kM.
Strong upward currents within the cloud cause the water droplets to
be separated resulting in high levels of positive charge at the top and
levels of negative charge at the bottom of the cloud.
Thestormcloudthuscreatesadipolewiththeground.
Initially a discharge originating from the cloud known as a downward
leader is formed at the cloud center.
At the same time the electrical charge in the atmosphere at ground
level increases as the downward leader gets closer.

The Development of a Lightning Strike

Natural ionization begins to occur at points on the ground in the
vicinity and eventually turns into an upward discharge, the upward
leader.
Theupwardleaderdevelopstowardthecloud.
When one of these upward leaders comes into contact with the
downward leader a conductive path is created and a powerful current
flows.
It is important to note that the lightning strike may be made up of a
number of successive return strokes.

Lightning Formation

www.geog.ucsb.edu

Types of Lightning

NegativeDownwardLightning
CachoeiraPaulista(Brazil)

www.indelec.com/

PositiveupwardlightningNadachi
Nadachi(Japan)

Effects of Lightning

Therearetwo(2)maineffectsoflightningstrikes.
Direct strikes can cause damage to buildings equipment and property,
injury or death to people and animals.
Because of the high levels of electrical current discharged during
strikes in addition to the above electrical surges can result which can
cause damage to electrical equipment.

www.sciencefacts.us

NFPA 780 Standard for the Installation of Lightning

Protection Systems

The NFPA 780 Standard deals with the protection of structures by the
placement of air terminals and downward conductors to the grounding
system to provide a path for the electrical energy to the mass of earth.
The fundamental concept for determining the zone of protection offered
by the system is based on the rolling sphere method (3.10.2). Basically
this is based on the rolling of a sphere of radius 46m (150ft) over the
structure. The space not intruded by the sphere is the zone of
protection. (fig 3.10.3.1).
It is important to note that this standard was initially developed from
the document, Specifications for Protection of Buildings Against
Lightning first adopted by the NFPA in 1904. The standard has been
revised more than 25 times over the years until in 1992 it was
designated the number NFPA 780.

NFPA 780 Standard for the Installation of Lightning

Protection Systems

The underlying principle of protection of structures is the

provision of an easy and alternative path for the dissipation of
the electrical energy or the strike.
This is contingent on having a low impedance path to ground.
Although the air terminals and downward conductors of the
system are designed to meet this requirement, a common weak
link in the system is the ground system.
The NEC Code requires single point grounding which means that
all systems must be tied to a common ground connection point
to the mass of Earth.
This has implications for the rise in the ground voltage when the
protection system is required to dissipate a large amount of
energy as in the case of a lightning strike. In the case of
multiple point grounding, differential voltages can develop
between the grounds of independent systems within the same
structure.

RollingSphereMethod

www.ptsa.co.kr

TypicalLightningProtectionSystem

www.bondedlightning.com

SinglePointGrounding

www.nepsi.com

NFPA 780 Standard for the Installation of Lightning

Protection Systems

Although the Standard is comprehensive and is based on over

100 years of practical experience, studies and statistical data its
scope does not cover the issue of the effects of secondary
impulsive transients on electrical systems and equipment.
These secondary surges are caused by the induction of
impulsive transients into conducting systems by the magnetic
fields associated with the primary strike. They travel along
conductors and usually take the form high amplitude, short
duration voltages which have the potential to deliver large
amounts of energy. The effect of these impulsive transients is to
damage sensitive electronic equipment.

ImpulsiveTransients

IEEE Std 1159, IEEE Recommended Practice for Monitoring

Electric Power Quality, defines a Impulsive Transient as:
A sudden non-power frequency change in the steady state
condition of a voltage or current that is unidirectional in polarity
(primarily either positive or negative).
These transients are associated with lightning strikes.
Again the fundamental principle for the dissipation of these
transients is the shunting to ground. There also it is seen that
ultimately it is the impedance to the general mass of Earth that
will be the limiting factor in the level to which the ground
voltage will raise during a surge.

TypicalLightningStrokeImpulsiveTransients

www.mtm.at/pqnet/PQDEF.htm

TypicalImpulsiveTransientSuppression

WhatHappenswithadirectlightningstrikeonequipment

 The protection systems for both lightning protection

of structures and for the protection of electrical
systems against secondary induced impulsive
transients is contingent on the dissipation of the
electrical energy to the general mass of Earth.
The fact that for single point grounded systems the
point of connection to the general mass of Earth is
the electrical grounding system emphasizes the need
for care to be taken when designing the grounding
system.

IntroductiontoLightningProtection
PurposeofLightningProtection
Thepracticalsafeguardingofpersonsand
propertyfromhazardarisingfromexposureto
lightning.

Introduction to Lightning Protection

WhoinventedlightningProtection?
BenjaminFranklininventedlightningrodsin1752

IntroductiontoLightningProtection
LightningFacts
Globallysome2000ongoingthunderstormscauseabout
100lightningstrikestoeartheachsecond.
InsuranceCompanyinformationshowsonhomeowners
damageclaimforevery57lightningstrikes.
AnnuallyintheUSAlightningcausesmorethan26,000
fireswithdamagetopropertyinexcessof5billiondollars.
Lightningusuallytravelsat1/3thespeedoflight.

IntroductiontoLightningProtection
LightningDefinitions
AirTerminal Astriketerminationdevicethatisareceptorfor
attachmentofflashestothelightningprotectionsystemandislisted
forthepurpose.
ClassIMaterials Lightningconductors,airterminals,ground
terminalsandassociatedfittingsrequiredbythisstandardfor
protectionofstructuresnotexceeding75ft.inheight.
ClassIIMaterials ClassIMaterials Lightningconductors,air
terminals,groundterminalsandassociatedfittingsrequiredbythis
standardforprotectionofstructuresexceeding75ft.inheight.

IntroductiontoLightningProtection
LightningDefinitions
BondingConductor Aconductorusedforpotential
equalizationbetweengroundedmetalbodiesanda
lightningprotectionsystem.
GroundTerminal Theportionofalightningprotection
systemsuchasagroundrod,groundplateorground
conductorthatisinstalledforthepurposeofproviding
electricalcontacttoearth.
SideFlash Anelectricalsparkcausedbydifferencein
potentialthatoccursbetweenconductivemetalbodies
andacomponentofalightningprotectionsystemor
ground.

IntroductiontoLightningProtection
LightningDefinitions
SurgeArrester Aprotectivedeviceusedforlimitingsurge
voltagesbydischargingorbypassingsurgecurrentthat
canalsopreventcontinuedflowoffollowcurrentwhile
remainingcapableofdischargingorbypassingsurge
current.
ZoneofProtection Thespaceadjacenttoalightning
protectionsystem,thatissubstantiallyimmunetodirect
lightningflashes.

IntroductiontoLightningProtection

Considerationsbeforedesigningalightning
protectionsystem
1. Rooftypesandpitch
a) Gable
b) Hip
c) BrokenGable
d) Flat
e) Mansard
f) Gambrel

IntroductiontoLightningProtection

IntroductiontoLightningProtection
2. Pitch
Theroofspan,riseandrunistakenintoaccount.

IntroductiontoLightningProtection
3.

Materialsusedshallberesistanttocorrosion
a)

Copper

b)

CopperAlloys

c)

Aluminum
i.

Notes:

Copperlightningprotectionmaterialsshallnotbeinstalledon
aluminumroofing,sidingorotheraluminumsurfaces.

Aluminumlightningprotectionmaterialsshallnotbeinstalled
oncoppersurfaces.

IntroductiontoLightningProtection
i.

Notescontinued:

Aluminummaterialsshallnotbeusedwheretheycome
intodirectcontactwithearth.Abimetallicconnector
shallbeinstallednotlessthan10aboveearthlevel.

Aluminumconductorsshallnotbeattachedtoasurface
coatedwithalkalinebasepaint,embeddedinconcrete
ormasonry,orinstalledinalocationsubjectto
excessivemoisture.

IntroductiontoLightningProtection

IntroductiontoLightningProtection
4. AirTerminalheight

Thetipofanairterminalshallnotbelessthen10
inchesabovetheobjectorareaitistoprotect.

5. Zoneofprotection

Todeterminethezoneofprotection,thegeometryof
thestructureshallbeconsidered.

IntroductiontoLightningProtection

IntroductiontoLightningProtection

IntroductiontoLightningProtection
6. Locationofdevices

Therearesetdistancesthatanairterminalcanbe
installedapartfromeachotheronaroofpeakorat
theedgeoftheroofthatispitchedorflat.
a) Within2oftheedgeoftheroof
b) 2025ft.maximumspacingalongtheridge.

IntroductiontoLightningProtection

IntroductiontoLightningProtection
7. Areaonroofsthatrequirespecialattention
a) Dormers
b) Exhaust
c) Flues
d) Chimneys
e) Stacks
f)

Handrails

g) Anythingthatishigherthantherooftip

IntroductiontoLightningProtection
8.

Crossrunconductors

9.

Crossrunconductors(mainconductors)shallberequiredto
interconnectthestriketerminationdevicesonflatorgreatlysloping
roofsthatexceed50ft.Inwidth

DownConductors

Downconductorsshallbewidelyseparatedaspractical.Theirlocation
shalldependonthefollowingconsiderations:
a)

Placementofstriketerminationdevices

b)

Mostdirectcourseofconductors

c)

Earthconditions

d)

Securityagainstdisplacement

e)

Locationoflargemetallicbodies

f)

Locationofundergroundmetallicpipingsystems

IntroductiontoLightningProtection
10.

11.

Numberofdownconductors
a)

Atleasttwodownconductorsshallbeprovideonanykindof
structure.

b)

Structuresexceeding250ft.Inperimetershallhaveadown
conductorforevery100ft.ofperimeter.

Protectingdownconductors

12.

Thedownconductorshallbeprotectedforaminimumdistanceof
6ft.Abovegroundlevel.UsuallyinaPVCraceway.

Groundterminals

Eachdownconductorshallterminateatagroundterminal
dedicatedtothelightningprotectionsystem.

IntroductiontoLightningProtection
13.

GroundElectrodes(Groundrods)
a)

14.

Shallbeinstalledbelowthefrostlinewherepossible.

Concreteencasedelectrode(Uferground)

Theseshallonlybeusedinnewconstruction.Theelectrode
shallbelocatednearthebottomoftheconcretefoundation
orfootingencasedbynotlessthan2ofconcrete.The
encasedelectrodeshallconsistofthefollowing:
a)

Notlessthat20ft.ofbarecopper

b) Anelectrodeconsistingofatleast20ft.ofoneormoresteel
reinforcingbarsthathavebeenbundledtogetherbywelding
orsecurewiretying.

IntroductiontoLightningProtection
15.

Groundplatesareanoptionwhensoilisshallowandrodscant
bedrivendeepenough.

16.

Lightningprotectionformiscellaneousstructures

17.

Groundplatesareaminimum2ft.Square,buriednolessthan18
deepandareatleast.032inthick.
Metaltowersandtanksconstructedsoastoreceiveastrokeof
lightningwithoutdamageshallrequireonlybondingtoground
terminals.

Concretetanksandsilos

Lightningprotectionsystemsforconcretetankscontaining
flammablevapors,flammablegases,andliquidsthatcanproduce
flammablevaporsandconcretesiloscontainingmaterials
susceptibletodustexplosionsshallbeprovidedwitheither
externalconductorsorwithconductorsembeddedintheconcrete.

IntroductiontoLightningProtection
18.

Protectionforheavydutystacks
a)

Smokeorventstackshallbeclassifiedasheavydutyifcross
sectionalareaofflueisgreaterthat500insquaredanda
heightgreaterthan75ft.

b)

Airterminalsshallbeplacedat8spacingmax.

c)

Allequipmentonupper25ft.Ofstacktobeleadcovered
copper,stainlesssteelorapprovedcorrosionresistant
material.

d)

Ifthestackhasplatformandladderseachofthesewillbe
bondedtothelightningprotectionsystemonthewaydown
thestack.

IntroductiontoLightningProtection
19.

SurgeSuppression
a)

Surgesuppressionshouldalsobeconsideredforyourmain
electricaldevicesintheplant.

Inallinstancesusehighquality,highspeed,selfdiagnosing
protectivecomponents.Transientlimitingdevicesmayusea
combinationofarcgapdivertersmetaloxidevaristorsilicon
avlanchediodetechnologies.Hybriddevicesusinga
combinationofthesetechnologiesarepreferred.
Knowyourclampingvoltagerequirements.Confirmthatyour
vendorsproductshavebeentestedtorigidANSI/IEEE/ISO9000
testingstandards.

IntroductiontoLightningProtection
20.

StandardsforLightningprotection

StandardNFPA780

2008NECArticle250

Article280SurgeArresterover1Kv

Article285SurgeProtectiveDevices1Kvorless

IntroductiontoLightningProtection
AnyQuestions?

Grounding Continued:
The Differences Between and
Purposes for Bonding, Grounding,
and Earthing in North American
Power Distribution Systems

Applicable Codes and Standards Pertaining to the Testing of

Bonding and Grounding Systems

NEC Article 250 (Contrary to popular belief, there are no testing or maintenance
requirements in Article 250.)

NFPA 99, Chapter 4 Electrical System Requirements (Paragraph 4.3.3

Performance Criteria and Testing)

NFPA 99, Chapter 8 Electrical Equipment (Paragraph 8.4.1.3 Testing

Requirements)

IEEE Standard 81 (IEEE Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Ground Impedance,
and earth Surface Potentials of a Ground System)

IEEE Standard 142, Chapter 4 (IEEE Recommended Practices for Grounding of

Industrial and Commercial Power Systems)

IEEE Standard 601, Clause 6.8.6.e Field inspection procedure (This clause
recommends testing, but does not mandate testing or provided for specific testing
methods.)

If a grounding system is not routinely inspected or tested, how do you know if it

is adequate or effective for the needs of your facilities?

Differences Between Bonding and Grounding

The terms bonding and grounding are

often employed interchangeably as
general terms in the electrical industry to
imply or mean that a specific piece of
electrical equipment, structure, or
enclosure is somehow referenced to
earth.
In fact, bonding and grounding have
completely different meaning and employ
different electrical installation
methodologies.

Bonding
Bonding is a method by which all electrically conductive materials and
metallic surfaces of equipment and structures, not normally intended to be
energized, are effectively interconnected together via a low impedance
conductive means and path in order to avoid any appreciable potential
difference between any separate points.
The bonded interconnections of any specific electrically conductive materials,
metallic surfaces of enclosures, electrical equipment, pipes, tubes, or structures
via a low impedance path are completely independent and unrelated to any
intended contact or connection to the Earth.
For example, airplanes do not have any connection to the planet Earth when
they are airborne. It is extremely important for the safety and welfare of
passengers, crew, and aircraft the all metallic parts and structures of an airplane
are effectively bonded together to avoid difference of potential between
structures and parts when traveling at high rates of speed or when the frame of
the aircraft is struck by lightning.
.

Bonding
The common mean to effectively bond different metallic
surfaces of enclosures, electrical equipment, pipes, tubes or
structures together is with a copper conductor, rated lugs, and
the appropriate bolts, fasteners, or screws.
Other effectively bonding means between different metallic
parts and pieces might employ brackets, clamps, exothermic
bonds, or welds to make an effectively connections.
In addition to preventing potential differences that may result
in hazards, effectively bonded equipment can also be
employed to adequately and safely conduct phase-to-ground
fault current, induced currents, surge currents, lightning
currents, or transient currents during such abnormal
conditions. .

Grounding
Grounding is a term used rather exclusively in North American to indicate
a direct or indirect connection to the planet Earth or to some conducting
body that serves in place of the Earth.
The connection(s) to Earth can be intentional or unintentional by an
assortment of metallic means intended to be employed as a designated
grounding electrode.
A designated grounding electrode is the device that is intended to establish
the direct electrical connection to the earth.
A common designated grounding electrode is often a copper clad or copper
flashed steel rod.
The designated grounding electrode might be a water pipe, steel columns
of a building or structure, concrete encased steel reinforcement rods, buried
copper bus, copper tubing, galvanized steel rods, or semi conductive
neoprene rubber blankets. Gas pipes and aluminum rods can not be
employed as grounding electrode
The grounding electrode conductor is the designed conductor that is
employed to connect the grounding electrode(s) to other equipment
grounding conductors, grounded conductor, and structure.

Earthing

Earthing is a term developed by the

United Kingdom and part of the British
Electrical Code and is employed in Europe
or other countries that employs
International Electric Commission (IEC)
standards.
The term earthing in European or IEC
countries is synonymous with the term
grounding in North America. .

The Five Principal Purposes of Bonding & Grounding Systems

The principle purposes for an effectively bonded grounding
system via a low impedance path to earth are intended to
provide for the following.
1. Provide for an applicable reference to earth to stabilize the system voltage
of a power distribution system during normal operations.
2. Create a very low impedance path for ground fault current to flow in a
relatively controlled path.
3. Create a very low impedance path for ground fault current to flow in order
for overcurrent protective devices and any ground fault protection systems
to operate effectively as designed and intended.
4. Limit differences of potential, potential rise, or step gradients between
equipment and personnel, personnel and earth, equipment and earth, or
equipment to equipment.
5. Limit voltage rise or potential differences imposed on a power distribution
system from lightning, a surge event, any phase-to-ground fault
conditions, or the inadvertent commingling of or the unintentional contact
with different voltage system.

Selected Clauses from IEEE 142

Clause 2.1.4 Overcurrent Protection Operation

The equipment ground system is an essential part of
the overcurrent protection system. The overcurrent
protection system requires a low-impedance ground
return path in order to operate promptly and properly.
The earth ground system is rarely of low enough
impedance and is not intended to provide an
adequate return path. The impedance of the
grounding conductor must be low enough that sufficient
ground-fault current will flow to operate the overcurrent
protective device and clear the fault rapidly.

Clause 2.8.8 Earth Resistivity

Earth is inherently a rather poor conductor whose
resistivity is around one billion times that of
copper.

Selected Clauses from IEEE 142

Clause 4.1.3 - Resistivity of Soils:

It is strongly recommended that the resistivity
of the earth at the desired location of the
connection be investigated. The resistivity of soils
varies with the depth from the surface, the type and
concentration of soluble chemicals in the soil, the
moisture content, and the soil temperature. The
presence of surface water does not necessarily
indicate low resistivity.

Clause 4.1.6 - Soil Treatments:

To be effective, a regular maintenance scheme
must be established to ensure low resistance
grounding is achieved.)

Selected Clauses from IEEE 142

Clause 4.4.5 - Electrical Grounding and

Corrosion:
The effect of the grounding installation on
corrosion must be considered. Systems,
equipment, and lighting sometimes
unknowingly contribute to galvanic
corrosion of underground conductors,
structures, and piping. Galvanic corrosion
is caused by electrically connected dissimilar
metals which form a galvanic cell. Under
these conditions the following factors
determine the rate of corrosion.

Selected Clauses from IEEE 142

Clause 4.4.5 - Electrical Grounding
and Corrosion:

The rate of oxidation and corrosion

is determined by;
The potential difference between the
two metals.
The ratio of the exposed areas of the
two metals.
The resistance of the electrolyte.
The resistance of the external circuit.
Stray currents between electrodes,
conductors, structures, pipes, and
earth.
Current of one ampere flowing for
one year will corrode away 20lbs of
steel, 22 lbs of copper, 24 lbs of
aluminum, 75 lbs of lead, or 26 lbs
of zinc. With greater current flow,
more metal will corrode away.

NFPA 70 [The National Electrical Code (NEC)]

Article 250 in the NEC covers grounding.

The NEC is NOT a design document .

The NEC is NOT a maintenance document.
The NEC is NOT a performance document .
The NEC is NOT a testing document.
The NEC is ONLY a minimum construction and
installation requirement document.
Minimum requirements are insufficient for the
construction and installation of grounding systems
associated with Critical, Emergency, and Life Safety
Power Distribution Systems in Healthcare Facilities.

Definitions in the 2005/2008/2011 Edition of the NEC

What is Effectively Grounded?

The 2005/2008/2011 National Electrical Code defines effectively grounded as: Intentionally
connected to earth through a ground connection or connections of sufficiently low impedance
and having sufficient current-carrying capacity to prevent the buildup of voltage that may result in
undue hazards to connected equipment of persons."

What is Grounded?
The 2005 NEC defines Grounded as: Connected to earth or to some conducting body that
serves in place of the earth."
The 2008 NEC defines Grounded as: Connected to earth.
The 2011 NEC defines Grounded as: Connected (connecting) to ground or to a conductive
body that extends the ground connection.

What is Solidly Grounded?

Connected to ground (earth) without inserting any resistor or impedance device."

Definitions in the 2005/2008/2011 Edition of the NEC

What is Solidly Grounded?
Connected to ground without inserting
any resistor or impedance device."

What is Grounded Conductor?

A system or circuit conductor that is
intentionally grounded."
A grounded conductor carries current
during normal operations of the
power distribution system.
(The grounded conductor is
commonly referred to as the neutral
conductor.)

Definitions in the 2005/2008/2011 Edition of the NEC

What is Grounding Conductor?
A conductor used to connect equipment
or the grounded circuit of a wiring system
to a grounding electrode or electrodes."
A grounding conductor is intended to
only carry current during an abnormal
operation of the power distribution system
or a faulted condition.

What is the Equipment Grounding

Conductor?

The conductor used to connect the noncurrent carrying metal parts of equipment,
raceways, and other enclosures to the
system grounded conductor, the
grounding electrode conductor, or both at
the service equipment or at the source of
a separately derived system."

Definitions in the 2005/2008/2011 Edition of the NEC

What is Grounding Electrode?

A device that establishes an
electrical connection to the earth.

What is a Grounding Electrode

Conductor?
The conductor used to connect
the grounding electrode(s) to the
equipment grounding conductor, to
the grounded conductor, or to both,
at the service, at the building or
structure where supplied by a
feeder(s) or branch circuit(s), or at
the source of a separately derived
system.

Definitions in the 2005/2008/2011 Edition of the NEC

What is Main Bonding Jumper (MBJ)?

The connection between the grounded
circuit conductor and the equipment
grounding conductor at the service.
The primary function or purpose of the
MBJ is to provide a low impedance
return path for the return of phase-toground fault current from the ground
bus in the service equipment to the
power supply source (transformer,
generator, or output terminals of an
UPS).
The MBJ must be adequately sized to
effectively carry all phase-to-ground fault
current likely to be imposed on it.

Definitions in the 2005/2008/2011

Edition of the NEC
What is Bonding Jumper?
A reliable conductor to ensure the
required electrical conductivity
between metal parts required to be
electrically connected.
The primary function or purpose of
a bonding jumper is to provide a low
impedance electrically conductive
connection between separate
enclosures, conduits, raceways,
structures, or equipment frames.
Must be properly sized to effectively
carry any and all current likely to be
imposed on it.

Definitions in the 2005/2008/2011 Edition of the NEC

What is System Bonding Jumper?

The connection between the grounded circuit conductor
and the equipment grounding conductor at a separately
derived system. (New definition introduced into the 2005
NEC.)
The connection between the grounded circuit conductor
and the supply-side bonding jumper, or the equipment
grounding conductor, or both, at a separately derived
system. (As revised in the 2011 NEC.)
The primary function or purpose of the system bonding
jumper is to provide for an applicable reference to earth for
the system voltage at the origins of the specific and
separately derived system. The system bonding jumper is a
connection between the Xo terminal of a transformer,
generator, or UPS output terminals and earth. This jumper is
not normally sized to carry ground fault current.
(i.e. 600Y/347V, 480Y/277V, or 208Y/120V, 3 Phase, 4 Wire,
Solidly Grounded, WYE Systems)

Common Issues Found with Bonding and Grounding Systems

All utilities are not effectively bonded together.

All structures are not effectively bonded together

EMT conduits with set screw couplings employed as the ground fault return path.

No grounding bushings employed

Improper or loose connections. Undersized grounding conductors

Oxidization and reduction of mechanical grounding connections

Lightning abatement system directing lightning currents into the building via
connections to building steel

No access to external ground grid system

Deterioration of external ground grid system over time

No records of initial ground grid testing.

No records of regular inspections and maintenance of grounding systems.

Excessive impedance in the ground fault

return path
No drawings or records available for the
facilitys grounding system

Advantages and Disadvantages of

Different Types of Neutral Grounding
Systems

NEUTRAL GROUNDING OF POWER

SYSTEMS
OBJECTIVES
1. Discussfivetypesofgroundingforpower
systems.
2. Discussadvantagesofhighresistance
grounding.
3. Showequipment

POWER SYSTEM GROUNDING

Power system grounding is a connection between an
electrical circuit or equipment and the earth or to some
conducting body that serves in place of earth.
This presentation concerns the design of power system
grounding for industrial and commercial facilities not
utility systems.

DISCUSSION OF GROUNDING
1. Ungrounded system
2. Solidly grounded system
3. Reactive grounded system
4. Low resistance grounded system
5. High resistance grounded system

Are You at Risk?

Do you use
electricity?
Electrical deficiencies
are the leading ignition
source and cause of
fire and explosion.

POWER SYSTEM GROUNDING

SYSTEM FAILURES SHORT CIRCUITS
(FAULTS)
INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEMS
FAILUREMODE
1.LINETOGROUND
2.PHASE PHASE
3.THREEPHASE

PERCENTAGE
OFFAILURES
98%
<1.5%
<.5%

Mostthreephasefaultsaremanmade:
I.E.Accidentscausedbyimproperoperatingprocedure.

Two Types of Faults

Bolted Faults
Solid connection between two
phases or phase and ground resulting
in high fault current.
Stresses are well contained so fault
creates less destruction.

Arc Faults
Usually caused by insulation
breakdown, creating an arc between
two phases or phase to ground.
Intense energy is not well contained,
and can be very destructive.

Bolted Faults
Result from a solid connection accidentally
being made between two phases of the system
or between one phase and an adjacent
grounded metal surface.
Because they are low resistance, high current
events, this type of fault may actually be less
destructive because the energy is spread over a
large area and the protective devices are
activated very rapidly by the large current.
All types of electrical equipment with a
withstand and/or interrupting rating are tested
using bolted fault conditions.
The majority of the stresses (thermal and
mechanical) are confined within the bus-bar
and associated supports, so very little arc flash
/ blast occurs, if any at all.

Arc Fault
Usually caused by insulation breakdown, an
arc jumps between two phases or between one
phase and a grounded metal surface.
The resulting fault current is smaller because of
the relatively high resistance of the arc (2540% of a bolted fault).
Protective devices may be slow in responding
to the smaller fault current.
Arc faults can be the most destructive because
of the intense energy that is concentrated in the
small area of the arc.
The majority of the stresses (thermal and
mechanical) are not confined within the busbar and associated supports, it extends to the
space in the compartment.

THE ARCING FAULT

An arcing fault is an intermittent failure between
phases or phase to ground. It is a discontinuous
current that alternately strikes, is extinguished and
restrikes again. For solidly grounded systems, the arc
currents are: in percent of bolted three phase faulted
FAULTS
THREE PHASE
LINE-LINE
LINE-GROUND

89%
74%
38%

ArcingGroundFaults
IntermittentorRestrike
Plot of transient over-voltage for an arcing ground fault

Industry Recommendations
IEEE Std 242-2001 (Buff Book)
Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of Industrial and Commercial
Power Systems
8.2.5 If this ground fault is intermittent or allowed to continue, the system could be
subjected to possible severe over-voltages to ground, which can be as high as six to
eight times phase voltage. Such over-voltages can puncture insulation and result in
additional ground faults. These over-voltages are caused by repetitive charging of the
system capacitance or by resonance between the system capacitance and the inductance
of equipment in the system.

THE UNGROUNDED POWER SYSTEM

THE UNGROUNDEDED POWER SYSTEM

UNGROUNDED SYSTEM
NORMAL CONDITIONS

UNGROUNDED SYSTEM
GROUND FAULT ON PHASE A

UNGROUNDED SYSTEM
GROUND FAULT ON PHASE A

THE UNGROUNDED POWER SYSTEM

GROUND DETECTION CIRCUIT

THE UNGROUNDED POWER SYSTEM

GROUND DETECTION CIRCUIT

THE UNGROUNDED POWER SYSTEM

GROUND DETECTION CIRCUIT WITH ALARM

THE UNGROUNDED POWER SYSTEM

ADVANTAGES
1. Lowvalueofcurrentflowforlinetogroundfault
ampsorless.
2. Noflashhazardtopersonnelforaccidentallineto
groundfault.
3. Continuedoperationontheoccurrenceoffirstlineto
groundfault.
4. Probabilityoflinetogroundarcingfaultescalatingto
line lineorthreephasefaultisverysmall.

THE UNGROUNDED POWER SYSTEM

DISADVANTAGES
1. Difficulttolocatephasetogroundfault.
2. Theungroundedsystemdoesnotcontroltransient
overvoltages.Ifyouhavea4160Vdeltasystemyou
needtoinstall5kV133%or8kV100%ratedcable.
3. Costofsystemmaintenanceishigherduetolaborof
locatinggroundfaults.
4. Asecondgroundfaultonanotherphasewillresultina
phasephaseshortcircuit.

THE SOLIDLY GROUNDED POWER

SYSTEM

THE SOLIDLY GROUNDED POWER SYSTEM

SOLIDLY GROUNDED SYSTEM

THREE PHASE SHORT CIRCUIT

SOLIDLY GROUNDED SYSTEM

THREE PHASE SHORT CIRCUIT

SOLIDLY GROUNDED SYSTEM

LINE GROUND SHORT CIRCUIT

SOLIDLY GROUNDED SYSTEM

LINE GROUND SHORT CIRCUIT

SOLIDLY GROUNDED SYSTEM

LINE-LINE SHORT CIRCUIT

THE SOLIDLY GROUNDED POWER SYSTEM

LINE TO GROUND FAULT

Industry Recommendations
IEEE Std 141-1993 (Red Book)
Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution for Industrial Plants
7.2.4 The solidly grounded system has the highest probability of escalating into a
phase-to-phase or three-phase arcing fault, particularly for the 480V and 600V systems.
The danger of sustained arcing for phase-to-ground fault probability is also high for the
480V and 600V systems, and low for the 208V systems. For this reason ground fault
protection is shall be required for system 1000A or more (NEC 230.95). A safety
hazard exists for solidly grounded systems from the severe flash, arc burning, and
blast hazard from any phase-to-ground fault.

THE SOLIDLY GROUNDED

POWER SYSTEM
ADVANTAGES
1. Controlstransientovervoltagebetweentheneutral
andground.
2. Notdifficulttolocatethefault.
3. Canbeusedtosupplylineneutralloads

THE SOLIDLY GROUNDED

POWER SYSTEM
DISADVANTAGES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Severeflashhazard
Mainbreakermayberequired
Lossofproduction
Equipmentdamage
Highvaluesoffaultcurrent
Singlephasefaultescalationinto3phasefaultislikely
Createsproblemsontheprimarysystem

NEUTRAL GROUNDING
RESISTOR

NEUTRAL GROUNDING
RESISTOR with Transformer

Reactive Grounding
Uses reactor not resistor
Fault values of transient-overvoltages are
unacceptable in industrial environments
Typically found in high voltage applications (>46 kV)

LOW RESISTANCE GROUNDING OF

POWER SYSTEMS

LOW RESISTANCE GROUNDING OF

POWER SYSTEMS

This design is generally for the following systems:

At 2.4 kv through 25 kv.

Systems serving motor loads
Current is limited to 200 to 400 amps
Systems typically designed to shut down in 10 seconds

LOW RESISTANCE GROUNDED

ZERO SEQUENCE RELAYING
PARTIAL SINGLE LINE

LOW RESISTANCE GROUNDED

POWER SYSTEMS
400 AMP GROUNDING

Disadvantages

Relatively large ground fault is required and thermal damage and core restacking is
possible

The faulted machine is shutdown

Starter fuse may also operate

Must trip upstream circuit breaker.

Advantages

400 amp grounding does look at a large part of the machine winding.

HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDING OF

POWER SYSTEMS

THE HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDED

POWER SYSTEM

HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDING

EXAMPLE

HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDING

GROUND FAULT ON PHASE A

HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDING

GROUND FAULT ON PHASE A

HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDED SYSTEM

LINE-GROUND SHORT CIRCUIT

HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDING

HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDING OF

A 2400 / 1385 VOLT SYSTEM

THEHIGHRESISTANCEGROUNDEDPOWER
SYSTEMCHOOSINGTHEGROUNDRESISTOR
Always specify a continuously rated resistor for 5 amps for all system
voltages.
SYSTEM
VOLTAGE

380
415
480
600
2400
3300
4160

RESISTOR
AMPS

5
5
5
5
5
5
5

RESISTOR
OHMS

43.88
47.92
55.4
69.3
277
295
480

RESISTOR
WATTS
(CONTINUOUS)

1,097
1,198
1,385
1732
6,925
7,375
12,000

THE HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDED

POWER SYSTEM
ADVANTAGES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Lowvalueoffaultcurrent
Noflashhazard
Controlstransientovervoltage
Noequipmentdamage
Servicecontinuity
Noimpactonprimarysystem

HOW DO YOU FIND GROUND

FAULTS?
Ungrounded
Solidly grounded
Low resistance grounded
High resistance grounded

PROCEDURE FOR LOCATING

GROUND FAULT
1. Alarm indicates ground fault.
2. Technician confirms ground
faults by visiting substation.
3. Voltage on meter relay
4. Current through ground resistor.

5. Substation zero sequence feeder

ammeters will indicate specific feeder
to MCC or Power Distribution Panel.
6.Go to specific MCC or PDP, open
wireway and use clamp-on ammeter
around outgoing leads to determine
failed circuit.
7. Evaluate need to replace or fix
component.

Ground Fault Location Method

NOTE: Tracking a ground fault can only be done on an

energized system. Due to the inherent risk of electrocution
this should only be performed by trained and competent
personnel wearing proper PPE clothing.

Per IEEE
TO HRG OR NOT TO HRG?

IEEE Std 142-1991 (Green Book)

Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial
Power Systems
1.4.3

The reasons for limiting the current by resistance

grounding may be one or more of the following.
1) To reduce burning and melting effects in faulted electric
equipment, such as switchgear, transformers, cables, and
rotating machines.
2) To reduce mechanical stresses in circuits and apparatus
carrying fault currents.
3) To reduce electric-shock hazards to personnel caused
by stray ground-fault currents in the ground return path.

Per IEEE
TO HRG OR NOT TO HRG?

IEEE Std 142-1991 (Green Book)

Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial
Power Systems
1.4.3

The reasons for limiting the current by resistance

grounding may be one or more of the following.
4) To reduce the arc blast or flash hazard to personnel who
may have accidentally caused or who happen to be in close
proximity to the ground fault.
5) To reduce the momentary line-voltage dip occasioned by
the clearing of a ground fault.
6) To secure control of transient over-voltages while at the
same time avoiding the shutdown of a faulty circuit on
the occurrence of the first ground fault (high resistance
grounding).

Per IEEE
TO HRG OR NOT TO HRG?

IEEE Std 141-1993 (Red Book)

Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution for Industrial
Plants
7.2.2

There is no arc flash hazard, as there is with solidly

grounded systems, since the fault current is limited to
approximately 5A.

Another benefit of high-resistance grounded systems is

the limitation of ground fault current to prevent damage
to equipment. High values of ground faults on solidly
grounded systems can destroy the magnetic core of rotating
machinery.

Per IEEE
TO HRG OR NOT TO HRG?

IEEE Std 242-2001 (Buff Book)

Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution for Industrial
Plants
8.2.5
Once the system is high-resistance grounded, over-voltages are reduced; and
modern, highly sensitive ground-fault protective equipment can identify the
faulted feeder on the first fault and open one or both feeders on the second
fault before arcing burn down does serious damage.

Design Considerations with HRG

Systems
National Electrical Code (2005)
250.36

High-impedance grounded neutral systems in which a

grounding impedance, usually a resistor, limits the
ground-fault current to a low value shall be permitted for
3-phase ac systems of 480 volts to 1000 volts where all the
following conditions are met:

1) The conditions of maintenance and supervision ensure that only

qualified persons service the installation.
2) Continuity of power is required.
3) Ground detectors are installed on the system.
4) Line-to-neutral loads are not served.

Duty Ratings for NGRs

IEEE Std 32
Time Rating and Permissible Temperature Rise for Neutral Grounding
Resistors
Time Rating (On Time)

Temp Rise (deg C)

Ten Seconds (Short Time)

760oC

One Minute (Short Time)

760oC

Ten Minutes (Short Time)

610oC

Extended Time

610oC

Continuous

385oC

Increased Fault Time Requires Larger Resistor

Duration Must Be Coordinated With Protective Relay Scheme

THE HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDING

OF POWER SYSTEM
The high resistance grounded power system provides the
following advantages:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Noshutdownswhenagroundfaultoccurs
Quickidentificationoftheproblem
Saferforpersonnel&equipment
Offersallofadvantagesoftheungrounded&solidly
groundedsystems
5. Noknowndisadvantages

Should High Resistance Grounding

be used to help prevent Arc Flash
Hazards to Personnel?

Absolutely!! Since 98% of faults

start off as a phase to ground faults,
this will lower the current that is
supplied to the fault.

Can I lower the Amps Interrupting

Capacity (AIC) rating of my
switchgear, if I have a neutral
grounding resistor?

No. You could still have a phase to

phase fault that could produce the
high current fault levels.

Retrofit from Solidly or Ungrounded

Grounded System to High
Resistance Design Considerations
1.

Are cables rated line to line or line to neutral. On a

480 Volt system some people have installed 300 Volt
cable.
2. Are there surge arrestors and MOVs on the system.
Are they sufficiently rated?
3. Are the Neutrals on the transformers fully insulated?
4. Are there other sources of power on the circuit?
Generators or Tie Breakers

Zig-Zag Wiring

Minimum Specifications
120 Volt Control Circuit
385C Temperature Rise Resistor
Line Disconnect Switch
Ground Bus (freestanding units only)
Pulser, Including Pulsing Contractor, Pulsing Timer, Normal/Pulse Selector Switch
Relays for under and over voltage
Relays for under and over current measuring only fundamental
Auxiliary contacts
Test Push-button
Fault Reset Push-button
Green Indicating Light for Normal Indication
Red Indicating Light for Fault Indication

GENERATOR APPLICATONS OF
NEUTRAL GROUNDING
RESISTORS

GENERATOR APPLICATONS OF
NEUTRAL GROUNDING
RESISTORS
1. All generators should use a NGR.
2. If you have 2 generators on a system with
different pitches you will need to use 2 NGRs to
limit the harmonics that are generated.
3. On a delta generator you should use an NGR
with a zig-zag transformer.

Generator Grounding IEEE

IEEE Std 242-2001 (Buff Book)
12.4 Generator Grounding

A common practice is to ground all types of generators through some form

of external impedance. The purpose of this grounding is to limit the
mechanical stresses and fault damage in the machine, to limit transient voltages
during fault, and to provide a means for detecting ground faults within the
machine
Solid grounding of a generator neutral is not generally used because this
practice can result in high mechanical stresses and excessive fault damage in
the machine
Generators are not often operated ungrounded. While this approach greatly
limits damage to the machine, it can produce high transient overvoltages during
faults and also makes it difficult to locate the fault.

Generator Grounding IEEE

IEEE Std. 142-1991 (Green Book)
1.8.1 Discussion of Generator Characteristics

Unlike the transformer, the three sequence reactances of a generator are not equal.

The zero-sequence reactance has the lowest value, and the positive sequence
reactance varies as a function of time. Thus, a generator will usually have higher
initial ground-fault current than a three-phase fault current if the generator is
solidly grounded. According to NEMA, the generator is required to withstand
only the three-phase current level unless it is otherwise specified
A generator can develop a significant third-harmonic voltage when loaded. A
solidly grounded neutral and lack of external impedance to third harmonic current will
allow flow of this third-harmonic current, whose value may approach rated current. If
the winding is designed with a two-thirds pitch, this third-harmonic voltage will be
suppressed but zero-sequence impedance will be lowered, increasing the groundfault current
Internal ground faults in solidly grounded generators can produce large fault
currents. These currents can damage the laminated core, adding significantly to the
time and cost of repairBoth magnitude and duration of these currents should be
limited whenever possible.

GENERATOR APPLICATONS OF
NEUTRAL GROUNDING
RESISTORS

A large generator (> 20 MVA, 13,800

volt) may take 5 to 20 seconds to stop. A
IEEE working group wrote a series of four
papers. They proposed a hybrid system
having a low resistance grounding system
and when the fault occurred switch to a
high resistance grounded system.

HYBRID SYSTEM

Commonoptions
Enclosure rating
Enclosure finish
Current transformer
Potential transformer
Disconnect switch
Entrance/exit bushings
Elevating stand
Seismic rating
Hazardous area classification
Third party certification

Ground Fault Detection Under voltage and under current detection and alarm
Resistor Monitoring NEW Sensing resistor for neutral path monitoring standard
Pulsing System Adjustable from 10 to 50 pulses per minute allowing custom setup within your system
Password Security NEW Prevent unauthorized parameter and setting changes
Harmonics Filtering Avoids nuisance tripping by measuring only fundamental frequency
Communications NEW Remote operation and monitoring via Ethernet and RS 232/485 (Modbus)
Data Logging

NEW Comprehensive data logging of all alarms and events for fault isolation and
trending

Tapped Resistors NEW Quickly and easily change resistance taps via terminal strip

THE HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDED

POWER SYSTEM
CONTROL OF TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGE

How Modern High Resistance Grounding

Systems Calculate the Capacitive Charging
Current

THE HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDED POWER

SYSTEM
LINE GROUND FAULTS DELTA CONNECTED MOTORS

THE HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDED POWER

SYSTEM
LINE-GROUND FAULTS WYE CONNECTED MOTORS

COMPARISON OF THE FOUR

METHODS

HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDING

OF A 2400 VOLT MOTOR SYSTEM
COMPARISON OF SOME CHARACTERISTICS

THE HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDED

POWER SYSTEM
DAMAGE TO POWER SYSTEM COMPONENTS
1. Thermal damage

2. Mechanical damage

I RMS ) 2t
Ip ) 2

Comparisonofsolidlygroundedandhighresistancegrounding
methods 2000KVA transformerat480volts
SYSTEM
GROUNDING

LINEGROUND
FAULTAMPS

Hi R
Solidly
Increaseindamage=

DAMAGETO
EQUIPMENT

5A
20,000 A

20,000A
5A

1 per unit
16 x 10 6
2

=16,000,000

CHARGING CURRENT
CALULATIONS
Some manufactures are now bringing in the 3
phase voltages and determining the capacitive
charging current on the actual system.

HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDING 2.4KV SYSTEM

CALCULATION OF SYSTEM CHARGING CURRENT

CHARGING CURRENT TESTS

ON POWER SYSTEMS
Tests made by federal pioneer of Canada at several pulp and paper
sites in Canada.
.02-.06 amps per 1000kva of transformer nameplate KVA. For
system with no aerial construction.

TRANSFORMER
KVA
1000
1500
2000
2500

CHARGING
CURRENT
.02 - .06 AMPS
.03 - .09 AMPS
.04 .12 AMPS
.05 .15 AMPS

HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDING 2.4KV SYSTEM

CALCULATION OF CHARGING CURRENTS

1. SURGE CAPACITORS
6

3 ICO = 3(2f CE/10 ) = 3(2*60*.5X(2400V/3^1/2)= 3X.261= .783 AMPS

6
10
2.MOTORS
3 ICO = [0.005X (

HP
RPM

)] REF. ALVIN KNABLE

450

450 HP MOTOR 0.05 X 1765= .013AMPS

200

200 HP MOTOR 0.05 X 180 = .06AMPS

100

100 HP MOTOR 0.05 X 257 = .02AMPS

125

125 HP MOTOR 0.05 X 585 = .01AMPS

3.ZIGZAGTRANSFORMER APPROXIMATEVALUE.01TO.001MICROFARAD
10^6
XC=377X10^-2
= 2.65 X 10^5 TO 2.65 X 10^6 OHMS

3ICO=2400/3^(1/2) = .0156 TO .00156 AMPS. DISREGARD THIS VALUE

2.65X10^5

HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDING 2.4KV SYSTEM

CALCULATION OF SYSTEM CHARGING CURRENT

CABLE CAPACITANCE
C= 0.00735(SIC)
LOG (D/d)

mfd
100 ft.

WHERE SIG= SPECIFIC INDUCTIVE CAPACITANCE =3

D= DIAMETER OVER INSULATION
d=DIAMETER OF CONDUCTOR

AVERAGE LENGTH OF CABLE RUNS = 75 FT, #2 5KV UNSHIELDED.

0.00735*3
LOG (.56.34)
75 f
C= .1017 X 1000 ft = 7.63X10^-3 ufd
10^6
Xc=377 X 7.63x10^-3 =3.47x10^5 OHMS.

C=

3Ico= 2400/ 3^(1/2)

3.47X10^5 OHMS

= .0119AMPS = .012AMPS PER FEEDER

HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDING 2.4KV SYSTEM

CALCULATION OF SYSTEM CHARGING CURRENT

HIGH RESISTANCE GROUNDING 2.4KV SYSTEM

CALCULATION OF SYSTEM CHARGING CURRENT

SUMMARY OF CAPACITIVE FAULT CURRENT VALUES

3MVA Transformer
= .15A.
FDR #1
= .013 + .012 = .025A.
#2
= .06 + .012 =.072A.
#3
=.06 + .012
=.072A
#4
=.02 + .012
=.032A
#5
=.02 + .012
=.032A
#6
=.01 + .012
=.022A
SURGE CAPACITORS = .783A
1.188 AMPS
CHOSE GROUNDING RESISTOR OF 5 AMPS
NOTE: SURGE CAPACITORS ACCOUNT FOR 75% OF THE
TOTAL