Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila

Intramuros, Manila
College of Engineering and Technology

DIODES

Submitted to:
Dr. Carlos Sison
Professor

Submitted by:
Seminiano, Ralph Jireh B.
2012-20407

January 2016

A diode is a specialized electronic component

with two electrodes called the anode and the cathode.
Most diodes are made with semiconductor materials
such as silicon, germanium, or selenium. Some diodes
are comprised of metal electrodes in a chamber
evacuated or filled with a pure elemental gas at low
pressure. Diodes can be used as rectifiers, signal
limiters,
voltage
regulators,
switches,
signal
modulators, signal mixers, signal demodulators, and
oscillators.
They are a building block component in
electronics and understanding them allows us to use
them. Diodes are created by joining a P-type
semiconductor with an N-type semiconductor creating a PN junction. This PN junction
holds the key to understanding diodes. Semiconductors are actually made of a base
material like silicon (Si) which is a poor conductor. The reason for being a poor
conductor is because all 4 valence electrons in Si are involved in covalent bonding with
a neighbouring silicon atom. Consequently there are no electrons available to transport
charge.

Covalent Bonding of Pure Silicon

PN junction showing the depletion region.

The fundamental property of a diode is its tendency to conduct electric current

in only one direction. When the cathode is negatively charged relative to the anode at a
voltage greater than a certain minimum called forward breakover, then current flows
through the diode. If the cathode is positive with respect to the anode, is at the same
voltage as the anode, or is negative by an amount less than the forward breakover
voltage, then the diode does not conduct current. This is a simplistic view, but is true
for diodes operating as rectifiers, switches, and limiters. The forward breakover voltage
is approximately six tenths of a volt (0.6 V) for silicon devices, 0.3 V for germanium
devices, and 1 V for selenium devices.
The above general rule notwithstanding, if the cathode voltage is positive relative
to the anode voltage by a great enough amount, the diode will conduct current. The
voltage required to produce this phenomenon, known as the avalanche voltage, varies

greatly depending on the nature of the semiconductor material from which the device is
fabricated. The avalanche voltage can range from a few volts up to several hundred volts.
When an analog signal passes through a diode operating at or near its forward
breakover point, the signal waveform is distorted. This nonlinearity allows for
modulation, demodulation, and signal mixing. In addition, signals are generated at
harmonics, or integral multiples of the input frequency. Some diodes also have a
characteristic that is imprecisely termed negative resistance. Diodes of this type, with
the application of a voltage at the correct level and the polarity, generate analog signals
at microwave radio frequencies.
The semiconductor diode, with applications too numerous to mention, is created
by simply joining an n -type and a p -type material together, nothing more, just the
joining of one material with a majority carrier of electrons to one with a majority carrier
of holes. The basic simplicity of its construction simply reinforces the importance of the
development of this solid-state era.
There are three types of semi-conductor diode and there are certain reasons why they
are used.

Ge: Germanium is in limited production due to its

temperature sensitivity and high reverse saturation current. It
is still commercially available but is limited to some highspeed applications (due to a relatively high mobility factor) and
applications that use its sensitivity to light and heat such as
photo detectors and security systems.

Si: Without question the semiconductor used most frequently

for the full range of electronic devices. It has the advantage of
being readily available at low cost and has relatively low
reverse saturation currents, good temperature characteristics,
and excellent breakdown voltage levels. It also benefits from
decades of enormous attention to the design of large-scale
integrated circuits and processing technology.

GaAs: Since the early 1990s the interest in GaAs has grown
in leaps and bounds, and it will eventually take a good share
of the development from silicon devices, especially in very large
scale integrated circuits. Its high-speed characteristics are in
more demand every day, with the added features of low reverse
saturation currents, excellent temperature sensitivities, and
high breakdown voltages. More than 80% of its applications

are in optoelectronics with the development of light-emitting diodes, solar cells, and
other photo detector devices, but that will probably change dramatically as its
manufacturing costs drop and its use in integrated circuit design continues to grow;
perhaps the semiconductor material of the future
Semiconductor diodes can be designed to produce direct current (DC) when
visible light, infrared transmission (IR), or ultraviolet (UV) energy strikes them. These
diodes are known as photovoltaic cells and are the basis for solar electric energy systems
and photo sensors. Yet another form of diode, commonly used in electronic and
computer equipment, emits visible light or IR energy when current passes through it.
Such a device is the familiar light-emitting diode (LED).
A forward-bias or on condition is established by applying the positive potential
to the p -type material and the negative potential to the n -type material, while in
reversed-bias an external potential of V volts is applied across the p n junction such
that the positive terminal is connected to the n -type material and the negative terminal
is connected to the p -type material, the number of uncovered positive ions in the
depletion region of the n-type material will increase due to the large number of free
electrons drawn to the positive potential of the applied voltage

The semiconductor diode behaves in a manner similar to a mechanical switch in

that it can control whether current will flow between its two terminals. However, it is
important to also be aware that:
The semiconductor diode is different from a
mechanical switch in the sense that when the switch is closed it will only permit current
to flow in one direction. Ideally, if the semiconductor diode is to behave like a closed
switch in the forward-bias region, the resistance of the diode should be 0 . In the
reverse-bias region its resistance should be to represent the open-circuit equivalent.

Several types of diodes are available for use in electronics design. Some of the different
types are:

1.

Light Emitting Diode (LED) - It is one of the most popular type of diodes and
when this diode permits the transfer of electric current between the
electrodes, light is produced. In most of the diodes, the light (infrared) cannot
be seen as they are at frequencies that do not permit visibility. When the diode
is switched on or forward biased, the electrons recombine with the holes and
release energy in the form of light (electroluminescence). The colour of light
depends on the energy gap of the semiconductor.

2.

Avalanche Diode - This type of diode operates in the reverse bias, and used
avalanche effect for its operation. The avalanche breakdown takes place
across the entire PN junction, when the voltage drop is constant and is
independent of current. Generally, the avalanche diode is used for photodetection, wherein high levels of sensitivity can be obtained by the avalanche
process.

3.

4.

Laser Diode - This type of diode is different from the LED type, as it produces
coherent light. These diodes find their application in DVD and CD drives, laser
pointers, etc. Laser diodes are more expensive than LEDs. However, they are
cheaper than other forms of laser generators. Moreover, these laser diodes
have limited life.
Schottky Diodes - These diodes feature lower forward voltage drop as
compared to the ordinary silicon PN junction diodes. The voltage drop may be
somewhere between 0.15 and 0.4 volts at low currents, as compared to the
0.6 volts for a silicon diode. In order to achieve this performance, these diodes
are constructed differently from normal diodes, with metal to semiconductor
contact. Schottky diodes are used in RF applications, rectifier applications
and clamping diodes.

5.

Zener diode - This type of diode provides a stable reference voltage, thus is a
very useful type and is used in vast quantities. The diode runs in reverse bias,
and breaks down on the arrival of a certain voltage. A stable voltage is
produced, if the current through the resistor is limited. In power supplies,
these diodes are widely used to provide a reference voltage.

6.

Photodiode - Photodiodes are used to detect light and feature wide,

transparent junctions. Generally, these diodes operate in reverse bias,
wherein even small amounts of current flow, resulting from the light, can be
detected with ease. Photodiodes can also be used to generate electricity, used
as solar cells and even in photometry.

7.

Varicap Diode or Varactor Diode - This type of diode feature a reverse bias
placed upon it, which varies the width of the depletion layer as per the voltage
placed across the diode. This diode acts as a capacitor and capacitor plates
are formed by the extent of conduction regions and the depletion region as
the insulating dielectric. By altering the bias on the diode, the width of the
depletion region changes, thereby varying the capacitance.

8.

Rectifier Diode - These diodes are used to rectify alternating power inputs in
power supplies. They can rectify current levels that range from an amp
upwards. If low voltage drops are required, then Schottky diodes can be used,
however, generally these diodes are PN junction diodes.

9.

Small signal or small current diode - These diodes assumes that the
operating point is not affected because the signal is small.

10.

Large signal diodes - The operating point in these diodes get affected as the
signal is large.

11.

Transient voltage suppression diodes - This diode is used to protect the

electronics that are sensitive against voltage spikes.

12.

Gold doped diodes - These diodes use gold as the dopant and can operate at
signal frequencies even if the forward voltage drop increases.

13.

Super barrier diodes - These are also called as the rectifier diodes. This
diodes have the property of low reverse leakage current as that of normal p-n
junction diode and low forward voltage drop as that of Schottky diode with
surge handling ability.

14.

Point contact diodes - The construction of this diode is simpler and are used
in analog applications and as a detector in radio receivers. This diode is built
of n type semiconductor and few conducting metals placed to be in contact
with the semiconductor. Some metals move from towards the semiconductor
to form small region of p- tpye semiconductor near the contact.

15.

Peltier diodes - This diode is used as heat engine and sensor for
thermoelectric cooling.

16.

Gunn diode - This diode is made of materials like GaAs or InP that exhibit a
negative differential resistance region.

17.

Crystal diode - These are a type of point contact diodes which are also called
as Cats whisker diode. This didoe comprises of a thin sharpened metal wire
which is pressed against the semiconducting crystal. The metal wire is the
anode and the semconducting crystal is the cathode. These diodes are
obsolete.

18.

Avalanche diode - This diode conducts in reverse bias condition where the
reverse bias volage applied across the p-n junction creates a wave of ionization
leading to the flow of large current. These didoes are designed to breakdown
at specific reverse voltage in order to avoid any damage.

19.

Silicon controlled rectifier - As the name implies this diode can be

controlled or triggered to the ON condition due to the application of small
voltage. They belong to the family of Tyristors and is used in various fields of

DC motor control, generator field regulation, lighting system control and

variable frequency drive. This is three terminal device with anode, cathode
and third controled lead or gate.
20.

Vaccum diodes - This diode is two electrode vacuum tube which can tolerate
high inverse voltages.