Introductory Mechanics Approaches to Solid Friction

21

TABLE 2.1
Commonly Reported Static Friction Coefficients
(Dry or Ambient Air Conditions)
Material Combination

Typical Range in s

Clean, well-adhering metals

Typical, sliding metals (ambient air conditions)
Lightly oxidized or tarnished metals
Clean glass on glass
Graphite on graphite
Teflon on itself
Ice on ice at the melting point
Wood on wood

1.02.0
0.30.8
0.10.35
0.900.95
0.100.12
0.040.08
0.050.15
0.250.50

> . When FS = P, motion is said to be impending and the definition of the static
friction coefficient obtains:
F
(2.11)

s S
N
W sin s
(2.12)

s
W cos s
or simply,

s = tan s

(2.13)

Under these conditions, = s, the friction angle or the angle of repose. Should
there be high friction between the two contacting materials, or if the slider is relatively tall in comparison to its length, tipping could occur. In that case, a free-body
diagram such as that described in the previous section can be used. In the construction of such free-body diagrams, the directions and senses of the forces due to the
weights and applied forces are first determined. Then the directions and senses of the
friction forces opposing these forces can be determined.
Equations 2.12 and 2.13 imply that the static friction coefficient is independent
of the weight of the slider; however, as discussed in subsequent chapters, this is not
always true. Static friction coefficients have been measured for hundreds of years,
with most of the investigators using test bodies of convenient size for the time (say,
a few centimeters to a few decimeters in size). The friction coefficients measured
by such means are useful in treating many types of statics problems but may not be
accurate when precise values are required for mechanical design or in special situations, which differ from the conditions of the early experiments. Some commonly
reported ranges for static friction coefficients are given in Table 2.1.

2.3 INTRODUCTORY FRICTION PROBLEMS

The following examples illustrate how friction problems are presented in typical
statics and dynamics textbooks. These involve the concepts of force balances and
free-body diagrams in which friction forces are included.

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w = 0.4

NW

3.0 3.0 m

FW

x
Impending motion
WL
WM

60

Fg

3.0 m
No

p = 0.3

FIGURE 2.3 Friction force analysis for a ladder propped against a wall.

2.3.1

CASE 1. LADDER AGAINST A WALL

A ladder 6 m long is resting against a wall with the bottom end 3 m from the wall.
How far up the ladder can an 80 kg man climb without the ladder slipping? Assume
that the static friction coefficient of the ladder material against the wall ( w) is 0.4,
and against the pavement ( p) is 0.3.
The angle that the 6 m ladder makes with the ground is cos1(3/6), or 60. Draw
the free-body diagram (Figure 2.3) and balance the forces in both the vertical and
horizontal directions. Then ensure that the moments around the foot of the ladder at
equilibrium sum to zero.
NO = normal force at the origin of the system (foot of the ladder)
NW = normal force at the ladder against the wall
WL = weight of the ladder = (20 kg) (9.81 kg m/s2) = 196.2 N
WM = weight of man = (80 kg) (9.81 kg m/s2) = 784.8 N
FW = static friction force of the ladder against the wall
Fg = static friction force of the ladder on the pavement
x = the distance up the ladder that the man can climb before the ladder slips
First, balance forces parallel to the ground:
Fg =
pNO

(2.14)

Similarly, for the direction parallel to the wall:

WL + WM = FW + NO =
wNW + NO

(2.15)

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+y
NS
+x
 Fn
FW


Fn
W = mg

FIGURE 2.4 Friction and gravitational forces acting on a skier.

Now, balance the moments about the origin at the foot of the ladder:
WM(x cos 60) + WL(3 cos 60) = FW(6 cos 60) + NW(6 sin 60)

(2.16)

Solve the vertical and horizontal force balances simultaneously, giving NO =

875.9 N, and NW = 262.8 N. Rearranging in terms of x,
x

FW (6 cos 60) N W (6 sin 60) WL (3 cos 60)

WM ( x cos 60)

(2.17)

Substituting and solving,

x

W N W (6 cos 60)
p N O (6 sin 60) WL (3 cos 60)

WM ( x cos 60)

0.4(262.8)(3) 0.3(875.9)(5.2) 196.2(3)

(784.8)(0.5)

(2.18)

x 2.79 m

2.3.2

CASE 2. SPEED OF A SKIER

A skier starts from rest and proceeds down a mountain. How fast is he/she traveling
after 8 s if the slope at the top of the mountain is 30, and the kinetic friction coefficient of waxed skis on snow ( ) is about 0.12?
Construct the free-body diagram, as shown in Figure 2.4. Since motion has
started, use the kinetic friction coefficient, . Resolve the components normal to the
slope NS and along the slope FW as follows:
NS = W cos 

and

FW = W sin 

(2.19)

In this case, it is more convenient to establish a coordinate system in which the

x direction is positive downhill and the y direction is positive normal to the slope of
the hill. Therefore, there is no motion in the y direction, and the relationship between
the skiers weight (W) and the normal force (Fn) is simply:
Fn = W cos 
(2.20)

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For the x direction, there is an acceleration, ax:

Fx = max = W sin 
Fn = W(sin 
cos )

(2.21)

But W = mg, so we can divide both sides by m and solve for ax simply in terms
of the angle of the slope and the acceleration due to gravity:
ax = g(sin 
cos )

(2.22)

From the basic laws of motion, v = vo + at, so starting from rest (vo = 0),
v = gt(sin 
cos )

(2.23)

v = (9.81)(8.0)[0.50 (0.12)(0.866)] = 31.1 m/s (69.5 mph)

(2.24)

Then after 8.0 s,

Had the snow been wet and increased to 0.25, the skier would be traveling at
about 49.7 mph.

2.3.3

CASE 3. MOTORCYCLE ACCIDENT

A motorcyclist lost control of his vehicle, resulting in a skid 46 ft long on the highway surface. How fast was the motorcycle traveling when it fell and began to slide to
a stop? Assume that the effective friction coefficient for the motorcycle on asphalt is
0.8, and that all the kinetic energy of the man on his motorcycle at the time he lost
control was entirely dissipated by friction over the length of the skid.
We equate the kinetic energy of the motorcycle with the energy dissipated by
moving a friction force F over a distance d as follows:
1 2
mv Fd
(mg)d
2

(2.25)

Solving for v,
v (2
dg)1 / 2 [2(0.8)(46)(32)]1 / 2
48.5 ft/s (71 mph)

(2.26)

Note that the masses of the vehicle and the rider are not required for this calculation. Vehicle accident reconstruction is an important area of litigation in the United
States, and commercial software has been developed specifically for this application. The issue of roadway friction against tires will be considered in more detail in
Chapter 9.

2.3.4

CASE 4. ANGLE OF BANK TO PREVENT SLIDING OF AN AUTOMOBILE

ON A CURVE UNDER WET OR DRY CONDITIONS

With what angle should a road be banked such that there would be no friction force
perpendicular to the direction of motion of an automobile on the curve? Assume the
situation shown in Figure 2.5.
The force normal to the plane of the road is Fn. This force can be resolved into a vertical component, Fn cos , and a horizontal component, Fn sin . The vertical component

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25

Fn sin
= (mv 2 /r)

Fn

Fn cos

FIGURE 2.5 Forces on a vehicle traversing a banked curve in the road.

will just equal the weight of the vehicle (mg). Solve for Fn in terms of the angle of the
roads slope: Fn = (mg/cos ). The horizontal component must balance the centripetal
force (mv2/r). Let r be the radius of the curve and v the velocity of the car. Then
Fn sin 

mv 2
r

(2.27)

2
rg

(2.28)

Since (sin /cos ) = tan ,

tan 

Note that the bank angle is independent of the weight of the vehicle and its
selection depends on the maximum anticipated speed on the curve.

2.3.5

CASE 5. FRICTION COEFFICIENT REQUIRED TO AVOID SLIDING

ON AN UNBANKED CURVE IN THE ROAD

What friction coefficient will just keep a 1600 kg motor vehicle from sliding off an
unbanked curve at a given velocity? The radius of the curve is 75 m.
To keep the vehicle moving in a circle,
F

m2 16002

21.332
75
r

(2.29)

and the normal force on the road is

Fn = W = mg = (1600)(9.81) = 15.696 N

(2.30)

The friction on the tires is

Ffriction =
sW

(2.31)

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TABLE 2.2
Critical Speeds to Avoid Tire Slipping
Speed (mph)

Speed (m/s)

(Required)

4.47
8.94
13.41
17.88
22.35
26.82

0.03
0.11
0.24
0.43
0.68
0.98

10
20
30
40
50
60

so at the point where one starts to loose traction, F = Ffriction, and

s(15696) = 21.33v2

(2.32)

or

s = 0.001359v2
Using the preceding values, one can make a table of velocity versus required
friction coefficient to avoid slipping (Table 2.2).
Reported values for the friction of rubber on dry pavement are in the range
0.60.7 and for wet pavement 0.150.20. Thus, one should keep the speed below
or about 25 mph on wet days and below 40 mph at any time.
The foregoing illustrations are typical of those given in introductory physics or
mechanics treatments of friction. Here, the friction coefficient was assumed to have a
single, constant value. Section 2.4 extends this treatment to simple machine elements.
In another section of in the chapter, the complications of rolling will be introduced.

2.4

FRICTION IN SIMPLE MACHINE COMPONENTS

In this section, several common types of machine components involving static

friction and sliding contact are examined:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Wedge-based mechanisms
Pivots, collars, and disks
Belts and ropes
Screws
Journal bearings and pulleys

Treatments of other types of components may be found in the references provided at the end of the chapter.

2.4.1

WEDGE-BASED MECHANISMS

Many types of machines contain wedge-like moving parts. A basic wedge system
is illustrated in Figure 2.6. A weight W is being raised against a fl at wall by the
application of a force P to a wedge of angle . We want to know the minimum force

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P
W
RW


Forces on the
upper body

RS

Forces on the
wedge






RS

Rb

RS
Rb
P

Force polygon for the wedge

FIGURE 2.6 Forces on a wedge system.

required to raise the upper body. We shall assume that the weight of the wedge can
be neglected in this case (it is straightforward to include the weight of the wedge,
if necessary), and that the static friction coefficients against the base and against
the wall are both equal to s. As shown at the bottom of the figure, two free-body
diagrams can be drawn. From the previous section, the tangent of the friction angle
equals s. Recognizing that the downward friction force, opposing the motion of the
upper body up the wall, is RW sin and stating the balance of forces in the y direction
for the upper body gives
W + RW sin = RS sin( + )

(2.33)

Similarly, balancing forces in the x direction,

RS sin( + ) = RW cos

(2.34)

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P
FV-groove is normal to
the plane of the figure

FIGURE 2.7 Normal forces on a V-guide. Friction forces act perpendicular to the plane of
the figure.

If we know the wedge angle, weight of the upper body, and friction angle, we can
solve the two equations in two unknowns to determine RS and RW. Knowing the value
of RS and using the law of sines permits solution of the force polygon for the wedge
(Figure 2.6, at the lower left). The angle between RS and Rb is [ + ( + )] or (2 + ),
and the angle between Rb and P is (90 ). Therefore, from the law of sines,
P
RS

sin(2 ) sin(90 )

(2.35)

and
P RS

sin(2 )
sin(90 )

(2.36)

For example, given a 200 kg mass (W = 1962 N), s = 0.45 (i.e., = 24.2), and
= 5, we find RS = 2922.6 N, and P = 2922.6 [sin(53.4)/sin(65.8)] = 2573 N. Note
that the force required to raise the mass using the wedge is about 31% greater than
that required to lift the mass straight up.
One machine component based on the wedge is the V-guide (Figure 2.7). For a
symmetric slot, the force normal to the wedge faces is N = P sin . Thus, the friction

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Fv

P
(+)

Fv
(+)

FIGURE 2.8

Forces on a taper key.

force opposing sliding along the axis of the wedge, assuming no elastic seating of the
wedge into the guide groove, is
FV-groove =
sP sin

(2.37)

Another adaptation of the wedge is the taper key (Figure 2.8). Its analysis is
slightly more complicated. One begins with the analysis similar to that for the simple
wedge, replacing the weight with the downward force of the inner slide. Solution of
the force polygon (bottom of Figure 2.8) permits calculating the force P, in terms of
the vertical force Fv, taper angle , and the friction angle = tan1 s:
P 2Fv

cos  sin( )
cos( 2)

(2.38)

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which can be approximated by

P = 2Fv tan( + )
(2.39)
The force to loosen the key is approximately 2Fv tan( ). Note that when
< , the key will be self-locking.

2.4.2

PIVOTS, COLLARS, AND DISKS

Components such as pivot bearings, flanges on shafts, clutches, brakes, and thrust
washers are important elements of industrial and transportation-related machinery.
In this section, we consider the simpler types of approaches used to estimate friction
and torques on such components.
In the general case of two flat-ended, axially loaded shafts of equal radius, R, placed
together under uniformly distributed contact face pressure, we find the moment of thrust
friction, M, by integrating the pressure, p, across the contact area, A, as follows:
R

M
s p r dA

(2.40)

where r is the distance from the center of the contact. When the contact is circular,
we integrate from r = 0 to r = the contact radius (R), and the moment (M) required
for impending motion is
2
M
sFth R
3

(2.41)

where Fth is the thrust force holding the disks together. In the case of a right-circular
pivot bearing (Figure 2.9a), R is the radius of the pivot. If the pivot bearing is a
tapered cone of apex angle (Figure 2.9b) and neglecting any minor effects of the tip
sharpness, the area in Equation 2.40, in terms of the pivot height h and radius of the
base of the cone r becomes
(2.42)
A  h2 r 2

Ro


(a)

(b)

Ri

(c)

FIGURE 2.9 Types of pivots (a) flat-ended, (b) taper-ended, and (c) annular. A small delivery
tube leading to the confined area inside the annulus can be used to admit pressurized oil to
improve the pivot bearings performance.

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and integrating for r going from 0 to R,

2
M
sPR sin 
3

(2.43)

Pivot bearings may also be constructed as shown in Figure 2.9c. The contact
surface is an annular ring with inner radius Ri and outer radius Ro. Equation 2.43
then becomes
R 3 Ri3
2
M
sFth o2
Ro Ri2
3

(2.44)

Note that Equation 2.44 can also be used to estimate the torque on a rotating
annular pivot bearing by replacing the static friction coefficient with the kinetic friction coefficient.
The friction coefficient in such bearings can be significantly lowered if an oil
film is present. Pressurization of the oil film either by external means or by special
design of the bearing reduces the friction still further. A Kingsbury thrust bearing
uses a special design to create a pressurized oil film during rotation. If the annular
pivot bearing is pressurized by an external oil supply, the moment can be calculated
in terms of the oil film thickness in the ring h (inches), the lubricant viscosity Z
(centipoises), and the rotational speed in revolutions per minute (rpm) as follows:
M (2.388 10 8 )Z ( Ro4 Ri4 )

(2.45)

where the radii are given in inches.

The effective kinetic friction coefficient in pressurized pivot bearings can range
from about 0.15 to 0.001 depending on the state of lubrication and the speed of
rotation.

2.4.3

BELTS AND ROPES

Consider a belt or rope rubbing against a fixed, circular cylinder, as shown in Figure 2.10a. The relationship between the tension on the belt on both right and left
sides is determined by the fact that the tractions vary from a minimum at the ends of
the arc of contact to a maximum at the center. If a force, equal to the tension on the
left side, is applied, and the weight hanging on the right just tends to move (impending motion), then the ratio of the tension on the left T1 to that on the right T2 is
T1
e
 / 57.3
T2

(2.46)

where e is the base of natural logarithms, is the friction coefficient between the
belt and the cylinder surface, and is the angle of arc (in degrees). The same equation can be written with in radians by omitting the division by 57.3. Note that
T1 is always greater than T2 when friction is finite because the tension on the left
must overcome not only gravity but the friction of the belt as well.

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T1
T2

W
(a)
P

T2
d1
T1

d2
d3

(b)

FIGURE 2.10
band brake.

Friction of belting against cylindrical shafts: (a) general case and (b) simple

Common applications of belt friction are belt drives that transmit power to a
shaft or belt brakes (band brakes) that serve to slow the rotation of a shaft due to
the frictional drag. An example of the latter is shown in Figure 2.10b. Analysis
of this system is relatively straightforward: (a) sum moments about the hinge and

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TABLE 2.3
Friction of Belting Materials and Ropes
Material Combination

Leather belt on a cast iron pulley

Moist
Slightly greasy
Very greasy
Leather belt on a wood pulley
Slightly greasy
Hemp ropes
On a cast iron drum
On a wood drum, polished
On a wood drum, rough

0.38
0.28
0.12
0.47
0.25
0.33
0.50

Source: Adapted from Kragelsky, I.V., Dobychin, M.N., and Kombalov, V.S. in
Friction and Wear Calculation Methods, Pergamon Press, 1982, 219.

set equal to zero, (b) determine the ratio of the tensions on each side of the shaft, and
(c) solve simultaneously. Thus,
Pd1 = T2 d2 + T1d3

(2.47)

so we can use Equation 2.47 to solve for the maximum tension on the belting (T1) in
terms of the known or measurable quantities in the system:
T1

Pd2
d3 d2 / e
 / 57.3

(2.48)

Typical values for the friction of ropes and belting are given in Table 2.3.
The friction between the belt or rope and the shaft is only one aspect of such problems. There is also friction internally in ropes, belts, and chains. These considerations
are very important in the design and efficiency of hoists, pulleys, and drives.

2.4.4

SCREWS

Friction in screws can be analyzed more easily when it is recognized that a screw
thread is an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder such that for each 360 of
rotation, the nut advances by a distance h. Letting r be the mean radius of the thread
from the center of the cylinder, then the length of the incline per 360 rotation is
related to the rise, h, by tan = (h/2r). Here, h is sometimes called the pitch of
the screw, and consequently, is defined as the pitch angle of the threads. The two
common kinds of screws are screws with square threadsused primarily in power
drives ( power screws), and screws with V-threadsused primarily for fastening.
The simplest analysis of square threads used for driving the shaft (e.g., in a jack
screw) assumes that any moment, due to torque on the screw, acts as a horizontal
force Fh at a distance r, defined earlier and the moment is just M = Fh r. To effect

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W

Fh

Downward screw motion


R

Fh
F

Upward screw motion



R
N

FIGURE 2.11

Force diagram for a screw with friction in its threads.

a force along the axis of the screw, that is, to raise a weight or perform similar work,
we can assume that the reactive forces to the axial force and the torque are distributed along the incline of the thread for the entire length so that the thread passes
through the supporting nut. Figure 2.11 illustrates the force diagrams for upward
screw motion, as if to raise a weight, and downward motion, as if to lower a weight.
Fh acts horizontally on a slope of pitch and angle , and W is the weight acting perpendicular to it. This force situation is similar in some ways to the analysis of wedges
given previously in this chapter. Friction force F opposes the motion of the screw by
acting down the slope. The resultant R is composed of force vectors acting normal
to and along the slope. In the instance of impending motion, a balance of forces in
horizontal and vertical directions can be written as follows:
Horizontal balance of forces: Fh = R sin( + )
Vertical balance of forces: W = R cos( + )

(2.49)
(2.50)

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From M = Fhr, and Equations 2.49 and 2.50,

Upward motion: M = Wr tan( + )

(2.51)

When the screw is turned in the opposite direction, say to lower the weight, the
direction of the moment M is reversed, and the friction angle lies on the other side
of the normal. Solving as done earlier,
Downward motion: M = Wr tan ( )

(2.52)

Note that if < , then the screw will be self-locking. If not, a screw lock
of some kind will be needed to prevent the screw from rotating downward. This
situation can be a problem in vibrating machinery in which is about equal to and
the vibration supplies just enough extra horizontal force to rotate the screw.
For a V-grooved screw and nut, the moments (torque) required to tighten or
loosen a nut under an axial force A, as given in Marks Standard Handbook for
Mechanical Engineers,1 are
To tighten: M = Ar[tan( + ) + 1.5
ns]

(2.53)

To loosen: M = Ar[tan( ) + 1.5
ns]

(2.54)

where ns is the friction coefficient between the nut and thread (typical range
0.030.25, depending on the state of lubrication), is the pitch angle as defined
previously r is the mean radius of the threads, and is defined in terms of , the
angle between the plane tangent to the thread face and the (horizontal) plane perpendicular to the screw axis at the same location. That is,
= tan1(
ns sec )

2.4.5

(2.55)

SHAFTS AND JOURNAL BEARINGS

Journal bearings containing shafts are among the most common types of rotary
motion bearings. A simple analysis considers the friction acting at a point on the
circumference of the shaft turning within the bearing (Figure 2.12). The moment
required to maintain motion in a horizontal shaft of radius r and exert a downward
load W is found simply by summing moments about the central axis of the shaft,
M = Rr sin

(2.56)

where R is the reactive force acting at the contact point of the shaft in the journal
bore. A friction circle can be defined as the minor circle of radius rf to which the
reactive force R is always tangent. The friction force F is tangent to the shaft outside
diameter. For well-lubricated bearings, M = Rr, because at small angles, sin tan
, the kinetic friction angle.
Pulleys on shafts are one case where the previously mentioned analysis can be
applied. A pulley with good belt traction and of diameter D is shown in Figure 2.13.
The free-body diagram shows the tension T pulling downward at the right to raise
a load L at the left. As T increases and motion impends, the point of contact of the

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r

rf

Shaft rotates
clockwise

F
R

FIGURE 2.12

FIGURE 2.13

Forces on a simple journal.

Forces on a pulley.

pulley internal diameter with the shaft rotates counterclockwise by an angle . The
radius of the friction circle when motion impends is r sin . But at small angles sin
. Therefore, the radius of the friction circle in terms of the radius of the
shaft, r is r, and the origin of the system about which to sum moments is displaced
to the left of the vertical line that passes through the shaft center by a distance
r. Therefore, the minimum tension in the belt to overcome the load L at constant
velocity is found from
T(D + r
) = L(D r
)

(2.57)

and
TL

2.5

D r

D r

(2.58)

ROLLING FRICTION

Friction during rolling is important for applications such as the performance of rolling element bearings and the rolling of sheet products. If a cylinder of radius R rolls
along a stationary base such that when it rolls through an angle the axis of the
cylinder is displaced relative to the base by an amount equal to R, then pure rolling is said to exist. In pure rolling, the point of contact of the cylinder on the base
plane remains stationary (Figure 2.14), and the axis passing through that point and
perpendicular to the base plane is called the instantaneous axis of rotation. If the

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F


x

FIGURE 2.14

Simplified analysis of rolling friction forces.

cylinder and plane were both perfectly rigid and there was no friction from the air,
the cylinder would continue to roll indefinitely. However, as shown in Figure 2.14,
there is not a single point of contact but rather a distribution of the contact pressure
along a slight ridge that is developed at a location toward the direction of travel
(toward the left in the present case).
A driving force F must be applied to maintain motion. The pressure distribution
on the buckled section of the surface can be represented by a resultant, normal
force N, acting at a point offset a distance x from the perpendicular through the
center of the cylinder. If we assume force equilibrium during continuous rolling
motion, we can sum moments about that point and find that
Wx = F(R cos )

(2.59)

However, when R >> x, Equation 2.59 can be approximated, Wx FR. The distance
x is often defined as the coefficient of rolling resistance:
x

F
FR
R cos
W
W

(2.60)

Note that this coefficient is not dimensionless but is given in units of length.
Review of the literature suggests that there is no universally agreed upon symbol for
the coefficient of rolling resistance. Therefore, the symbol used for the coefficient of
rolling resistance must be determined from the context of the work.
Consider a cylinder of known weight lying at rest on a flat board. If the board
is lifted at one end and at an angle of degrees the cylinder begins to roll down the
incline, then Equation 2.60 can be used to compute the coefficient of rolling resistance.

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Friction Science and Technology: From Concepts to Applications

TABLE 2.4
Coefficients of Rolling Resistance
Material Combination

Coefficient of Rolling Resistance (mm)

Hard, polished steel on hard, polished steel

Well-oiled surfaces (average)
Steel on steel (typical)
Rusty surfaces (average)
Properly inflated rubber tires on hard road surface
Hardwood on hardwood

0.008
0.038
0.051
0.190
0.203
0.508

Source: Adapted from Kragelsky, I.V., Dobychin, M.N., and Kombalov, V.S. in Friction and Wear
Calculation Methods, Pergamon Press, 1982, 219.

Table 2.4 shows several reported values for the coefficient of rolling resistance. Additional data are available from Ref. 2.
The type of rolling that occurs in most rolling element bearings is not pure.
In fact, it is usually accompanied by a degree of slip. A more detailed analysis of
the latter case is also provided by Kragelsky et al.,2 and the following example will
illustrate that situation.
When a ball rolls down a conforming, rectilinear, circular groove (Figure 2.15),
it rotates around the central axis such that the various points on the curved contact
area are at different distances from this axis. Since the contact area moves along
the groove while rotation occurs, some slip must occur within that area. It has been
shown that there are only two points, symmetrically placed with regard to the centerline of the groove, at which pure rolling occurs. Between these pointsslip occurs
opposite to the direction of ball motion and exterior to these pointsslip occurs in
the opposite direction. Figure 2.15 indicates this. The resistance to rolling due to slip
is a function of the relative size of the radii of the ball Rb and the groove Rg. Let d be
the groove width, N the normal force, and f the rolling resistance, then the moment
Mr about the axis of rotation is
M r 0.324

f Nd 2
8

(2.61)

where
1
1
1 0.5
Rb Rg

(2.62)

It has been established that when the radii of curvature of the ball and groove
differ by less than about 20%, the rolling resistance due to slip predominates over
hysteresis losses.

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Introductory Mechanics Approaches to Solid Friction

39

Ball motion

Contact
width inside
the groove

Positions of slip
direction reversal

Elastic contact zone

FIGURE 2.15

Spherical rolling element in a groove.

2.6 FRICTION IN GEARS

Spur gears operate with a combination of slip and rolling contact, depending on the
design of the gears and the specific location on the gear teeth during their engagement. Friction between surfaces is one of the main sources of power loss in gears,
so gear designers consider the frictional implications as they compute tooth profiles. Pure rolling is said to occur only at a certain orientation between the meshing
gear teeth, called the pitch point. On either side of this point, the slip increases.
In general, the percentage of slip (S ) between surfaces having surface velocities of
v1 and v2 can be calculated from the following:
S 100

2 1 2
1 2

(2.63)

Without the factor of 100, this expression is also known as the slide-to-roll ratio.
Experiments in rolling contact are commonly conducted using stacked disks whose

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Friction Science and Technology: From Concepts to Applications

spindle speeds can be independently adjusted to produce different values of S. For

example, the kinetic friction coefficient using two hardened steel disks rolling on
one another3 remained relatively constant ( 0.04) above a slide-to-roll ratio of 0.2
(or less than 0.2) but plummeted to near zero when the slide-to-roll ratios were in
the range 0.03 to 0.03.
The design and operating conditions of gears also determine the regime of lubrication between the surfaces of the teeth, a subject discussed in Chapter 6. A more
detailed discussion of gear types, nomenclature, wear modes, and regimes of lubrication can be found in the handbook article by Dudley.4 Nevertheless, it is useful to
consider the factors that enter into rolling plus sliding analyses by considering one
expression that has been used to calculate the friction coefficient between gear teeth.
It involves not only the dimensions and geometry of the gears but also their surface
finish and the characteristics of the lubricant. Hohn et al.5 developed the following expression for the friction coefficient (subscripted M to acknowledge coauthor
Michaelis), which was used to analyze carburized steel gears:
F b

M 0.048 bt
 
c c

0.2

0.05 Ra0.25 X L XSC

(2.64)

where
Fbt = the normal force on the tooth in a transverse section
b = width of the gear
vc = the sum velocity at the pitch point
c = equivalent curvature radius at the pitch point
= kinetic viscosity of the lubricating oil
Ra = the composite surface roughness of the two mating surfaces (see
Chapter 6)
XL = a correction factor for the additives in the oil (XL = 1 for mineral oils)
XC = a correction factor to account for the presence of a coating on the
gear(s) (XC = 1 for noncoated gears)
Unlike the previous relationships presented in this chapter that were derived
primarily from mechanics, Equation 2.64 reflects a more empirical approach to
account for the role of surface finish, lubricant viscosity, and the possible use of
coatings. In general, the more rigorous the attempt to model the friction of a practical mechanical system, the larger the number of variables that must be included.
Unfortunately, the adjustable correction factors that are so prevalent in engineering can be difficult if not impossible to determine from first principles and, therefore, must be measured or inferred to enable the model to fit the data. Wear-induced
changes in the contact surfaces also affect friction, a subject further discussed in
Chapter 4.
In this chapter, we considered traditional mechanics treatments of the following friction problems: simple sliding friction, tipping versus slipping, developing force diagrams, simple machines, and rolling friction. Experimental methods
for measuring friction coefficients in the laboratory are discussed in Chapter 3.

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Introductory Mechanics Approaches to Solid Friction

41

Such information, if properly used, can facilitate the design and analysis of machines,
and measurements often show that the friction coefficient in practical devices is not
necessarily constant over time.

FURTHER READING
E. A. Avallone and T. Baumeister III, eds. (1987). Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical
Engineers, 9th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, NY (Section 3.2 by D. Fuller).
D. C. Giancoli (1991). PhysicsPrinciples with Applications, 3rd ed., Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ (Sections 49).
R. C. Hibbeler (1983). Engineering MechanicsStatics and Dynamics, 3rd ed., Macmillan,
New York, NY (Chapter 8).
M. M. Khonsari and E. R. Booser (2001). Applied Tribology: Bearing Design and
Lubrication, Wiley, Oxford, UK.
I. J. Levinson (1971). Statics and Strength of Materials, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
NJ (Chapter 6).

REFERENCES
1. E. A. Avallone and T. Baumeister III, eds. (1987). Marks Standard Handbook for
Mechanical Engineers, 9th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
2. I. V. Kragelsky, M. N. Dobychin, and V. S. Kombalov (1982). Friction and Wear
Calculation Methods, Pergamon Press, 219 pp.
3. J. Kleemola and A. Lehtovaara (2007). Experimental evaluation of friction between
contacting discs for the simulation of gear contact, Tribotest, 13, pp. 1320.
4. D. W. Dudley (1980). Gear Wear, in Wear Control Handbook, eds. W. O. Winer and
M. B. Peterson, ASME, New York, NY, pp. 755830.
5. B.-R. Hohn, K. Michaelis, and T. Vollmer (1966). Thermal Rating of Gear Drives:
Balance Between Power Loss and Heat Dissipation, AGMA Technical paper.

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