INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Definitions of Research
A scientific investigation of phenomena, which includes collection, presentation, analysis, and interpretation
of facts that links mans speculation with reality.
A continuous discovery and exploration of the unknown.
A systematic study or investigation of something for the purposes of answering question posed by the
researcher.
The process of gathering data or information to solve a particular or specific problem in a scientific manner.
A systematic study or investigation of something for the purpose of answering questions posed by the
researcher.
What are the characteristics of research?
The following are the characteristics of research:
Empirical. Research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher. The collection of the data
relies on practical experience without benefit of the scientific knowledge or theory
Logical. Research is always based on valid procedures and principles. Scientific investigation is done in an
orderly manner so that the researcher has confidence on the results.
Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process. It starts with a problem and ends with a problem.
Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data, whether historical, descriptive,
experimental, or case study.
Replicable. The research designs and procedures are
replicated to enable the researcher to arrive at valid
and conclusive results.
Critical. Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.
What are the criteria of a good research?

Good research can be thought of as that which uses the scientific method. Emory and Cooper (1993)
suggest that good research should meet the following tests:
1. The problem and the purpose of the research should be clear and specific.
The objectives of the research or statement of the research problem should be clear and specific. It
should include analysis into its simplest elements, its scope and limitations, and precise specifications of
the meanings of all words significant to the research.
2. The procedures used should be detailed to permit another researcher to repeat the research.
The methodology of the research should be explained in detail.. It should reveal with candor the
sources of data and the means by which they were obtained.
3. The research designs should be well planned to yield objective results.
A detailed proposal should be done to explain very well the procedures of research design to be
used, sampling techniques to indicate representativeness of the sample. Direct
observations should be recorded in writing as soon as possible after the event. Efforts should be made
to minimize the influence of personal bias in selecting and recording data
4. The researcher should be honest to report problems encountered in the use of the design and its
effect upon the findings.
A researcher should be honest enough to indicate the problems he encountered regarding the
choice of his research design and its effects on his findings.
5. Use of appropriate statistical tool is important to yield significance on the study. The role of a
statistician should not be overlooked to provide the appropriate statistical tool to be used. The validity
and reliability of data should be checked carefully. The data should be classified in ways that assist the

researcher to reach pertinent conclusions. When statistical methods are used, the probability of error
should be estimated and the criteria of statistical significance applied.
6 Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those
for which the data provide an adequate basis.
Researchers should not draw conclusions beyond the findings of his study. Personal experiences
and opinions should not be part of the conclusions..
Why is research important to man?
Research has become indispensable to man. The improvement that research has done to people since
the beginning is tremendous. Research is important for the following reasons:
1. Research improves the quality of life. Researchers search for modern techniques to improve the
quality of life of the people. Research may be done along developing of technologies to improve
production to improve the income of the people.
2. Research improves instruction. In order to improve instruction, research should be done. The output
of research should be used in instruction. Several innovations, methods or strategies have been tried
through research to improve instruction. Combinations of methods and strategies had already been
tested
3. Research reduces the burden of work. Many work today has been reduced due to the
advancement in science and technology.
4. Research improves the quality of food products. Through research, the quality of food products
has improved.
What are the various kinds and classification of research?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Researches are classified according to the following criteria:

According to Purpose
According to Goal
According to the Level of Investigations
According to the Types of Analysis
According to Scope
According to Choice of Answers to Problems
According to Statistical Content
According to Time Allotment
According to the Types and Kinds of Research

The kinds and classifications of research are as follows:

According to Purpose
a. Predictive/Prognostic - determines the future operation of the variables
An example of a predictive/prognostic research is the
feasibility study where the researcher shows that the the behavior
of this kind of person will be different.
b.
Directive determines what should be done based on the findings.
An example of a directive research is a research similar to
what has been conducted because this research has been
conducted based from the recommendation of the previous
research.
c.
Illuminative concerned with interaction of the components of the variables
An example of an illuminative research is the study on Factors
Affecting the Behavior of gifted students.

According to Goal
a. Basic/Pure done for the development of theories and principles.
The various theories of management such as the Theory X and
Theory Y were developed as an offshoot of researches in
management.
b. Applied done to solve some problems or to test the efficiency of theories and principles.
A research on the problems of students .
According to the Level of Investigations
a. Exploratory study of variables pertinent to a specific
For example is a study on the exploration of the Sierra Madre
Mountain in terms of its floral diversity.
b. Descriptive study of the relationship of variables.
For example, a study on the Performance of Psychology Students
in their On the Job Training.
Experimental study of the effects of variables on each other
An example is, A Study on the Effect of Using CellPhone While on
the study habits of students .
According to the Types of Analysis

situation.

a. Analytic Approach - identification and isolation of components of a research situation.

An Example is the study on Behavior of people with
schizophrenia
b. Holistic Approach beginning with the total situation, focusing on the system and its
internal relationships
For example is the integrated research on the
impact of mining the communities of Masinloc
According to Scope
a. Action application of the steps of the scientific method in the classroom problems
Effects of High Level Thinking Case Analysis in Teaching
psychology Subjects
According to Choice of Answers to Problems
a. Evaluation all possible courses of action and what are advantageous.
Impact of Livelihood Training on the Socio-Economic Situation
of the People in the Community
b. Developmental finding or developing a more suitable instrument or process than what is
available
An example is the Development of a technique to treat AIDs
disease

What are the qualities of a good researcher?

Researchers must have the following qualities:
Intellectual Curiosity. A researcher undertakes reflective thinking, raises questions to find answer, and
continues to read the related literature. As the problem becomes clear he formulates and tests hypotheses
which may be accepted or rejected. The result of the hypothesis depends on the analysis of data he gathers.
Prudence. A researcher uses the 4Ms (Man, Money, Materials & Machinery) effectively and economically.
High Tolerance to Healthy Criticism. A researcher is doubtful of the veracity of the results are collected
honestly.

Intellectual Honesty. A researchers success and failure depends on his honest collection of data and its
interpretation.
Other traits of researchers are suggested in the following acrostic:
R
Result oriented
E
Efficient
S
Scientific
E
Effective
A
Active
R
Resourceful
C
Creative
H
Honest
E
Economical
R
Religious
What are the requirements of a good research?
A good research requires the following:
A. Systematic- a research proceeds through a series of steps and stages. It follows a logical flow which must
be understood by the researcher.
B. Accurate - a research emphasizes the importance of correspondence between what you say, you have
observed and what has actually occurred.
C. Precise- a research aims at estimating the exact amount of the event that has occurred or may yet to
occur.
Statistics is useful if you quantify the incidence of the event being observed. Quantitative method
is used if the researcher is interested in characterizing the event.
D. Record- observations must be recorded. It is necessary to document observations with the aid of
instruments like questionnaires, tape recorders for interviews.
E. Objective- ones observations must not be influenced by personal preferences, prejudices, biases,
attitudes and feelings. Scientific research is undertaken through an assessment of what is rather than
what ought to be. Subjective influences may take place especially when dealing with human behavior.
F. Controlled conditions- refers to aspiring, to eliminate other factors or variables that might intrude into the
observation of the major factors variables to be investigated.
Documentation ensures that other researchers of interested parties will be able to check the validity of
the method applied for a particular investigation and the quality of the results obtained.

Is research always problem based?

Studies were undertaken in direct response to problems that needed solving. The practical problemsolving emphasis is a critical feature of applied research, and one should expect such studies to be closely
related to action or policy needs. Pure research is also problem solving, but in a different sense. It is aimed at
solving perplexing questions (that is, problems) of a theoretical nature that have little direct impact on action or
policy decisions. Thus, both applied and pure research are problem based, but applied research is directed
much more to making decisions.
ETHICS IN RESEARCH
Principles of ethics in research?
1. Safety or Protection of Participants from Harm

Unless the research has the potential to provide information of extreme benefit to human beings, a
researcher must do all in his/her power to ensure that participants in a research study or protected from
physical or psychological harm, discomfort, or danger that may arise due to research procedures. A further
responsibility is obtaining the consent of individuals who may be exposed to any risk.
2. Ensuring of Confidentiality of Research Data
The confidentiality of the data collected from the sources should be kept by the researcher. Whenever
possible, the names of the respondents should be withdrawn from all data collections forms by using
numbers or codes. The result of the data should also be held in confidence. The names of individual
respondents should never be used in any publications that describe the research.
3. Truthfulness to respondents
Deception occurs when the respondent is only told a portion of the truth or when the truth is fully
compromised. Some believe this should never occur. Others suggest two reasons to legitimate deception: (1)
to prevent biasing the respondents prior to the survey or experiment and (2) to protect the confidentially of a
third party (e.g., the client). Deception should not be used in an attempt to improve response rates.
4. Research with Children
The following are guidelines when using children or minors as participants in a research study;
a. Informed consent of parent or guardians is required for participants defined as minors. Signers must be
provided all necessary information in appropriate language and must have the opportunity to refuse.
b. Researchers do not present themselves as diagnosticians or counselors in reporting results to parents,
nor do they report information given by a child in confidence. Children or minors may never be coerced
into participation in a study.
c. Any form of remuneration for the childs services does not affect the application of these ( and other)
ethical principles.
5. Right to Quality Research
From the proposal through the design to data analysis and final reporting, the researcher advises the client on
the proper techniques and interpretations.
6. Benefits
The purpose and benefits of the study or experiment must be concealed from the respondent to avoid
introducing bias. The need for concealing objectives leads directly to the problem of deception.
7. Debriefing of Respondents
Debriefing usually includes a description of the hypothesis being tested and the purpose of the experiment.
Subjects who were not deceived still benefit from the debriefing session. It is here that they are able to
understand why the experiment was created.
8. Rights to Privacy
The privacy laws are taken seriously and are safeguarded. All individuals have a right to privacy, and
researchers must respect that right. The importance of the right to privacy is illustrated with an example.
9. Respondents Consent
In most cases, securing informed consent from respondents is a simple matter of describing the
proposed survey or other research design and requesting permission to proceed. When dealing with children, it
is wise to have a parent sign a consent form.
10. Clients Ethics
Occasionally, researchers may be asked by clients to identify respondents or their groups, alter the data,
interpret the data in a favorable light, omit sections of data analysis and conclusions, or change the

research findings. Each of these is an example of unethical client behavior. Compliance by the researcher
would be a breach.
11. Protection of Anonymity
Researchers and assistants protect the confidentiality of the clients in formation and the anonymity of
the respondents. Each person handling data should have signed a confidentiality statement.
THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Importance of Proposal
A research proposal is the framework of objectives, goals, expected output, inputs and activities to be done.
According to Bestand Kahn (1989), it is a blueprint of the plan of the researcher. A proposal contains the budget
requirement of the project.
Initially, a proposal may be in capsule form pending its approval. Once it is approved for implementation by the
funding agency it is transformed into detailed proposal. The format of the proposal varies from institutions to institutions
but funding agencies require their own formats.
The proposal has several advantages:
1 It is a course requirement. Every undergraduate or graduate student can never escape doing research. But before he
conducts his research a proposal is a requirement. The subject research is now a part of the curriculum of almost all
courses being offered in the country. A research proposal is always required of each student as an offshoot of the
lectures in the course. It is usually submitted before the semester ends. For the graduating students a research is
required to be conducted and a manuscript is submitted before graduation.
2. Second, the proposal serves a guide for the researcher to follow in the actual implementation of the project. Fourth, the
proposal obliges the researcher to follow deadlines, targets, and the estimated budget so that costs and work
schedules are monitored. Lastly, the proposal becomes the primary basis fro the preparation of the final research report
which can either be published and/or presented to the requiring or sponsoring group.
3. The research proposal is in many ways of great value to the sponsoring organization or school because it enables the
organization or school to assess the conceptual and technical competence of the proponent based on the clarity,
coherence, depth, and organization of the proposal .It also allows the organization or school to set the terms of reference,
which include objectives and expected output that will guide the researcher in preparing the proposal.
4. It becomes the basis of the contract or agreement by which the researchers performance is assessed so that the
corresponding compensation or grade can be given.
4. It serves as training for the neophyte researcher to hone his skills in technical writing. Through his proposal, his skills
in writing proposals is developed.
5. Motivating factor for the writer to engage in research. Once the writer discovers that he can write a proposal, he will
continue to write until he discovers that he can become a good researcher.
.6.It can lead to professional growth and promotion. The more research proposals done by the teacher or researcher, the
more publications he can have and theses will all contribute to his promotion and professional growth.
6. It develops good behavior and attitude towards life. Being a researcher, doing research develops patience and
diligence. . The proponent must be industrious and interested with the proposal to have the determination to finish it
within a certain period of time. A researcher tends to become honest so that he can come up with reliable results.
7. It strengthens linkages with other agencies. Once the proposal is completed and it has potential impact to the
community, this can be submitted for funding.
What are the major steps in research?
The steps in conducting research are:
1. Identification of Research Problem-Formulation of Research Problem and Objectives

3.
4.
5.
6.

2. Development of the Theoretical Framework

Designing the Research Methodology
Collection, Analysis, and Interpretation of data
Presentation of Conclusions and recommendations
Taking Course of Action

FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

How is a research problem formulated?
Problem formulation appears to be the most difficult aspect in doing research. In fact many students and even
teachers hate doing research because identifying problem is very difficult. Not all questions are researchable and not all
research questions are answerable.
Edralin (2002) suggests that a student researcher may use the following as source of problems or problem areas:
1. Literature. Before one can identify his problem, he should first read literature. Literatures include books, journals, theses,
dissertations, monographs, and similar published and unpublished research publications. One has to read the
recommedations of previous studies or researches.

2.Professionals. Professionals in the business or such as managers and employees from government agencies or
even in the firms and other departments in the business sector may be consulted to give problems.
3. Academicians. Teachers from higher education institutions are some of the most reliable sources of problems . They may
not be in the business but research in higher education institutions is being strengthened. State colleges and universities
are mandated to do research. Professors of SUC s are required to do research, hence they are experienced.
4.Conferences / Fora / Symposia. The issues and prospects which are being discussed by leaders, mangers and other
researchers pertaining to business can provide topics or areas which are worth conducting.
5.Funding Agencies. Funding agencies provide their list of priority programs and projects. If problems are anchored along
their priorities for funding, chances are the proposals submitted will be funded.
What are the considerations in selecting a problem?
1.
2.
3.
4.

Newness of Topic. Topic should be relatively new or has not been done before.
Availability of Data. Needed data, primary or secondary, can be acquired to answer the problem
Time constraint. Research goal are achievable within the given timeframe.
Availability of Resources. Access to funds, facilities, computer technology, and human resources exist for one to
undertaken the study.
5. Significance of Topic. Research findings could comprise a valuable contribution to the field.
6. Availability of Literature. Literatures are available to serve as basis in constructing especially the methodology.
7. Timeliness of the research. Research problems formulated should answer he existing problem.
2.1
2.1.1

Formulation of the Research Problem and Objectives

Formulation of Research Problem
In formulating the problem statement, the following criteria should be considered:
1. The research problem is written in question form.
.2. The research problem identifies a specific area.
3. It indicates a specific area
4.Topic is phrased in workable team
5. The scope is limited
6. he words used are unbiased
.
7.The topic is phrased in workable and manageable terms.
8.The scope is limited to realistic parameters that are not too narrow not too broad
9.The words used are unbiased, objective, and not emotion-laden.
10. The relationship between variables to be studied are clearly cited.
11. The phrases and wordings are measurable and can be empirically proven.
12. The research problem identified the data and techniques needed to answer the questions.
13. The research problem is stated clearly in grammatical terms.

2.1.2

Formulation of Research Objectives

In some research, instead of statement of the problem, objectives are given. The general objective is
presented first followed by the specific objectives. Research objectives are presented to what are to be attained in the
study.
Given this nature, research objectives provide a detailed definition and delimitation of the research problem.
Moreover, objectives give particular and specific reference to the question posed at the introduction by formulating
subordinate items that need to be investigated in order to answer the question .
Objectives should meet the following criteria:
1. Specific. The objective of the study is definite to a particular area.
2. Manageable. The study can be controlled.
3. Attainable .The objective of the study is doable.
4. Realistic. The study looks into available resources and is practical.
5. Time bound. The study should have a duration
2.2

Review of Related Literature

The survey of related literature involves the comprehensive documentation of published and unpublished materials
relevant to the research problem.
The review of literature is primarily done by going through secondary sources in various libraries and/or accessing the
data through the computer.
In undertaking an adequate related literature survey, researches may follow these guidelines:
1. Identify the relevant data sources. Data may be obtained from published and unpublished works available in libraries and
offices. One may refer to indexes or catalogues that compile lists of journals, periodicals, books, articles, magazines,
newspaper, and monographs. Researchers should be able to access libraries in websites, for collections that are relevant to
the topic under review.
2. Develop a systematic procedure and note-taking skill in collecting literature survey data. Researchers will always be
faced with the problem of wanting to gather as much information as possible within a period of time. In this case, familiarity
with the location of the materials in the library and possessing computer skills in accessing and downloading databased
information will be helpful. One should start with the latest (preferably the last 10 years) bibliographies published locally and
internationally. When going through the material, the researcher should first read the abstract or executive summary, before
going through the entire text, to know if the work is relevant to ones proposed study.
3. Write a concise review of related literature. The review of related literature should never be an enumeration of annotated
bibliography. Data should be presented by topic or variable based on the objectives of the study. Information should not be too
detailed nor too brief to present the study overview. Text should be written in the past tense, citing author and date of
publication.
2.4 Significance of the Study
One of the primary considerations in undertaking research is the immediate or long-term benefit accruing to the end-user. It
is, therefore, vital that the researcher is able to cogently articulate the value of the investigation to various individuals, groups, or
sectors. Study-derived benefits may accrue to all or any of the following:
2.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study
The statement of the research problem requires a detailed explanation of the studys parameters and limitations. The
section on scope and limitation should indicate study coverage with concrete reference to (1) variables, (2) source of data, (3)
method(s) to be employed in data collection and analysis, (4) timeframe, and (5) constraints that might be encountered in the
conduct of investigation, such as non-availability of data, uncooperativeness of respondents, inability of respondents to recall
accurate responses, and confidentiality of some relevant information.

FORMULATING THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

3.1 Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a supposition of an occurrence of an event that can be tested. It is an educated guess which can be
proven empirical. One advantage of hypothesis is that it enables researcher to formulate a provisional explanation of outcome
that can serve as a guide in the investigation. One good source of hypothesis is the results of previous investigations on the
same line of topic to be studied.
Two types of hypothesis:
1. Null hypothesis expresses a no relationship or no difference between two variables, or an assertion that is it hoped to be
rejected.
2. Alternative hypothesis (Ha). This hypothesis expresses that there is a relationship or a difference between two variables or the
conjecture top be accepted.
The statement of the hypothesis is usually written in the null form (Ho).. Statistically, it is the null hypothesis that is tested
or proven. If the null hypothesis is rejected, then the alternative hypothesis is accepted.

The Variable
Meaning of Variable
A variable is defined as a quantity or a characteristic that has two or more mutually exclusive values of
properties. (Sevilla et al., 1992). Numerical values or categories represent these quantities or
characteristics.
Types of Variable
There are five types of variables. These are the (1) independent variable, (2) dependent variable, (3)
moderate variable, (4) control variable, and (5) interning variable.
1 Independent variable. This is the stimulus variable which is chosen by the researcher to determine
its relationship to an observed phenomenon.
2 Dependent variable. This is the response variable which is observed and measured to determine
the effect of the independent variable.
3 Moderate variable. This is a secondary or special type of independent variable chosen by the
researcher to ascertain if it alters or modifies the relationship between the independent and
dependent
variables.
4. Control variable. This is a variable controlled by the researcher in which the effects can be neutralized by
eliminating or removing the variable.
5.Intervening variable. This is a variable which interferes with the independent and dependent variables, but its
effects can either strengthen or weaken the independent and dependent variables.
Components of the Research Process
The basic components of the research process are (1) Problem Identification (2) Formulation of hypothesis ,
(3) Hypotheses, (5) Review of Related Literature, (6) Research Design, (7) Data Collection, (8) Data Processing and
Statistical Treatment, (9) Analysis and Interpretation, and (10) Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations.
Figure 2 presents the schematic diagram of the research process.

Problem Identification
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
Assumptions
Hypotheses
Review of Related Literature
Research Design
Data Collection
Data Processing and Statistical Treatment
Analysis And Interpretation

METHODOLOGY
What the are the four major research designs?

1. Historical Method
2. Descriptive Method
3. Experimental Method
4. Case Study Method

1. Historical Method
History is a branch of knowledge concerned with the past events, especially those involving human affairs.
Any integrated narrative or descriptive of past events or facts written in a spirit or critical inquiry for the whole truth.
Historical Research
Is a systematic critical inquiry of the whole truth of past events using critical method in the understanding and
interpretation of facts which are applicable to the current issues and problems.
Uses of Historical Methods
Historical method has search the past for solutions to contemporary problems and needs
It gives people a sense of continuity of the past to the present.
By chronicling events of enduring worth which confers upon the individual persons consciousness of unity and
feeling of the importance of human achievement.
Major Steps of Historical Research
1. Collection of Data
2. Criticism of the data collected
3. Presentation of the facts in readable form

Sources of Historical Research

1. Primary Sources documents and remains
2. Secondary Sources materials such as histories of education, bibliographies, encyclopedia and other sources.
2. Descriptive Method
The study focuses at the present condition.
The purpose is to find new truth.
Descriptive studies are of large value in providing facts on which scientific judgment is based.
What are the types of descriptive research?
1. Descriptive survey
This approach is appropriate whenever the objects of any class vary among themselves and one is
instead knowledge the extent to which different conditions obtain among these objects. In descriptive survey
it is necessary to determine the psychological and social aspects of research by way of application or
implementation of evidence to recognize facts and influence.
2. Descriptive Normative Survey
The term normative is sometimes used because surveys are frequently made to ascertain the
normal or typical condition or practice, or to compare local test results with a state or normal norm
3.

Descriptive Status
This approach to problem solving seeks to answer questions to the real facts relating to existing
conditions.
A techniques or quantitative description which determines the prevailing conditions in a group of case
chosen for study.
Stress current conditions with an implication of the idea that things will change.

4. Descriptive Analysis
This is method of determining and describing the nature of a thing by separating it into its parts or
several components.
5.

Descriptive Classification
This method is employed in natural science objects. An example is the collection pf plants and then
these are classified.

6.

Descriptive Evaluative
This method is design to appraise carefully the worthiness of the current study.

7. Descriptive Comparative
It is a comparative survey where the research considers at least two entities and establishes a formal
procedure for obtaining criterion data on the basis of which he can compare and conclude which of the two is
better
8.Correlational Survey
This is designed to determine the relationship f two variables. An example is the relationship of shelf life of a
product with marketability.

9. Longitudinal Survey
This study is designed to determine performance of a product in the market every month of December. This
study involves much time allotted for investigation of the same subjects at two or more points in time
2. Experimental Method
It is a problem solving, approaching that the study is described in the future or what will be when certain
variables are carefully controlled or manipulated.
To conduct experiments means to try in order to see what happens.
An experiment represents directed observation guided by the purpose of the study and by understanding of
the conditions.
What are the types of experimental designs?
1. Single Group Design
This is a design, which involves single treatment with two or more levels.
2. Parallel Group Design
This is a design which involves with two or more groups are used at the same time with only one single
variable (control group) is manipulated or changed
3. Counter Balanced Design
This design falls on the quasi-experimental design and called rotation design.
It involves an exchange of two or more treatments taken by the subjects during the experiments.
The arrangement employed in this design is the Latin square in which the variable in a form of square occurs
once in each row or column.
4. Pretest Posttest Group Design
This design involves the experimental group and the control which are carefully selected through
randomization procedures.
5. Complete Randomized Design
This design in which a group of test plants or animals is studied only once but subsequent treatment is
applied to determine the cause of change.
There is no control in this design but the subjects will undergo randomization procedures
3. Case Study Method
It is a problem solving technique that the study is described from the past, present and future. It is an
intensive investigation of a particular individual , institutions,, community or any group considered as a unit which
includes the development , adjustment, remedial, or corrective procedures that suitable for diagnosis of the cause
of maladjustment or favorable development
The Case Study
1. Recognition and determination of the status of the
phenomenon to be investigated.
2. Collection of data relative to the factors or circumstances associated with the given phenomenon.
3.Diagnosis or identification of casual factors as a basis for remedial or development treatment.
4.Application of remedial or adjustment measures.

5. Subsequent follow-up to determine the effectiveness of the corrective or development measures applied.

SAMPLING
Sampling is the process of choosing adequate and representative elements from the population. By studying the
sample, 1) the researcher is able to draw insights and conclusions for the entire population.
In data gathering, sampling has many advantages over census or total enumeration. Aside from being able to
generalize the findings for the entire population, 2) the researcher is also able to save in terms of time, efforts, and cost, 3)
Sampling makes the scope of the study manageable because of the small number of respondents to be covered, and increase
the likelihood of obtaining more reliable and accurate result.
One major problem that can be encountered is that the sample drawn is not the representative of the population from
which it is drawn.
For reliability, samples, however must meet the criteria of adequacy and representative ness. Adequacy refers to the
sample size (n), while representative ness pertains to the possession of the homogenous characteristics of the sample as
specified characteristics of the population.
As a process, sampling involves this steps:

Sampling designs are commonly classified into probability and nonprobability sampling. Probability sampling gives
each element of the population a known and equal chance to be included as a sample, while nonprobability sampling does not
provide this predetermined chance. Probability is used when inferences about the population are required, as in thesis,
dissertation or other academic researches. Nonprobability sampling is usually adopted when immediate information feedback is
needed, as in marketing research studies, such as product launching.

SAMPLING DESIGN
Whether a research design is descriptive or experimental, sampling is necessary, if the population of the
study is too large where the 4 Ms (Man, Money, Material and Machinery) resources of the investigator are limited.
And it is advantageous for him to use sample survey rather than the total population.
However, the use of the total population is advisable if the number of subjects under study is less than 100.
Sampling may be defined as the method of getting a representative portion of a population. The term,
population, is the aggregate or total of objects, persons, families, species or orders of plants or of animals.

Advantages of Sampling
The following are the advantages of sampling:
1. It saves time, money and effort. The researcher can save time, money and effort because the number of
subjects involved is small. There are only a small number to be collected, tabulated, presented, analyzed
and interpreted, but the use of sample gives a comprehensive information of the results of the study.
2. It is more effective. Sampling is more effective if every individual of the population without bias has an
equal chance of being included in the sample and data are scientifically collected, analyzed and
interpreted.
3. It is faster and cheaper. Since sample is only a drop in bucket, the collection, tabulation, presentation,
analysis and interpretation of data are rapid and less expensive because of the small number of subjects.
4. It is more accurate. Fewer errors are made due to the small size of data involved in collection, tabulation,
presentation, analysis and interpretation.
5. It gives more comprehensive information. Since there is a thorough investigation of the study due to a
small sample, the results give more comprehensive information because all members of the population
have an equal chance of being included in the sample.
Limitations of Sampling
If sampling design has its strength, it also has its weaknesses. The following are advantages of sampling
design:
1. Sample data involve more care in preparing detailed subclassifications because of a small number of
subjects.
2. If the sampling plan is not correctly designed and followed, the results may be misleading.
3. Sampling requires an expert to conduct the study in an area. If this is lacking, the results could be
erroneous.
4. The characteristic to be observed may occur rarely in a population, e.g., teachers over 30 years of
teaching experience.
5. Complicated sampling plans are laborious to prepare.
Determination of Sample Size
To have a scientific determination of sample size, the following formula is suggested:
Ss = NV + [ Se2 (1-p)] __
NSe + V2 x p (1-p)]
Ss = Sample size
N = Total number of population
V = The standard value (2.58) of 1 per cent level of probability with 0.99 reliability.
4.2.1 Probability Sampling
1. Random sampling allows each element in the population an equal chance of being chosen as a respondent.
2.Systematic sampling makes use of a constant number in the selection of a sample.. This constant number is a constant
number (k) is derived from dividing the total population (N) by the computed sample size (n). The formula is k=N. similar to
random sampling. This sampling is used when the population is heterogeneous. The availability of the list of the population
frame is necessary to apply this technique.

3. Stratified sampling. In this type of sampling, the population is divided into subgroup/strata helps in the selection of
respondents when there are already identifiable subgroups or strata of elements within the population which are of interest to
the researcher. Once the stratification is made, the final respondents can then be selected either by random or systematic
sampling using proportionate number of elements. Stratifying the population based on variables such as gender, age, income
level, size of company, nature of business, ownership of firm, establishes the homogeneity within each subgroup so that clear
differences between groups are determined.
4. Cluster sampling involves the grouping or division of the elements of the population into heterogeneous groups. Then some of
these groups are randomly selected and all the elements of the cluster are studied. It should be noted that each cluster
sample is composed of respondents with different perspectives and interests. This way of selecting is deemed less costly.
Some normally occurring clusters in business research are cluster of managers, customers, suppliers, stock brokers,
investors, accountants, and advertiser.
5. Area sampling pertains to the grouping of the population into geographical divisions before selecting the respondents. This
sampling can be done if there exists a clear delineation of communities where the respondents can be found. Common
sampling areas are villages, subdivisions, cities, and municipalities.
6. Double sampling means getting a smaller sample from the initial large sample. This design is sometimes called sample within
the sample. Double sampling is usually done when the researcher intends to gather more in-depth and focused data on the
topic of investigation. The initial larger sample provides preliminary information which helps in determining the second sample
set to be drawn from the same sample group.
7. Multi- Stage sampling is a cluster sampling done in several stages. The type is usually used in nationwide survey, where
each region, province, city, municipality, or baranggay is subdivided and selected, before the actual respondents are chosen.
8.Quota sampling is selecting the predetermined required number from the population regardless of how they are chosen. This
design is usually done in opinion or poll surveys. An example is shown below.
Quota sampling is used through the following steps:
8.1 Stratification of the population.
Based on previous studies made, the following are the percentage distribution among different income levels in the
municipality: low income (60%), middle income (30%), and high incomer (10%).
There are also known areas (barangays and villages) where households of particular income segments can be found.
8.2 Predetermining of quota. Based on budget considerations, only 100 respondents could be interviewed-60 from lowincome, 30 from middle-income, and 10 from high-income households.
8.3 Selection of samples. Interviews were then conducted among: (a) the first 60 respondents from low-income households
available for interview and found in the low-income barangay; (b0 the first 30 available respondents from middleincome households from the middle income villages, and and (c) first 10 available respondents from high-income
households found in high income villages.
9. Judgment sampling involves the selection of respondents considered to be in the best position, or most knowledgeable, to
give the needed information. Some data about the company are known only to key informants, such as the controller,
managers, or owners of the firm.
10. Convenience sampling allows the researcher to gather data from respondents who are conveniently available to provide
the necessary information. The design is used to get information fast.
11. Accidental sampling implies that information is collected from respondents who, by chance or circumstance, are met by the
researcher in the process of data gathering.
12.Snowball sampling means choosing initial samples. These samples will then refer other respondents from whom the same
information may be obtained.

13. Purposive sampling involves the selection of key informants based on a predetermined set of criteria. These are people
considered to be the most appropriate source of data in terms of the objectives of the study.

Validity, Reliability and Usability of Research Instrument

The qualities of a good research instrument are:
1. Validity
2. Reliability
3. Usability
Validity
It is the degree to which a measuring instrument measures what it intends to measure.
The validity of a measuring instrument:
Soundness
Effectiveness
Application
Kind of validity
1. Content Validity
It is the extent to which the content is truly representative of the content of the course.
2. Concurrent Validity
It is the degree in which the test agrees or correlates with a criterion set up as an acceptable measure.

3. Predictive Validity
This is determined by showing how well predictions are made from the test are confirmed by the valid
information gathered.
4. Construct Validity
It is the extent to which the test measures a theoretical construct or trait.
Examples are intelligence and mechanical aptitude tests
Reliability
It is the extent to which a test is dependable, self-consistent and stable.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Methods of estimating the Reliability of Good Research Instrument

Test-retest Method
Parallel-forms Method
Split-half Method
Internal-consistency Method

1. Test-retest Method
The same research instrument is administered twice to the same group of subjects and the correlation
coefficient is determined.
2. Parallel-forms Method
Parallel or equivalent forms of a test may be administered to the group of subjects, and the paired
observations correlated.

In estimating reliability by the administration of parallel or equivalent forms of a test criteria parallelism is
required.
3. Split-half Method
It is administered once, but the test items are divided into two halves. The common procedure is to divide a
test into odd and even items.
4. Internal-consistency Method
It is used with psychological tests which consist of dichotomously scored items. The examinee either passes or
fails in an item. A rating of 1 is assigned for a pass and 0 for a failure.
Usability
It is the degree to which the research instrument can be satisfactorily used by teachers, researchers, supervisors
and school managers without undue expenditure of time, money, and effort.
It can also mean practicability.
Factors that determine Usability
1. Ease of administration
2. Ease of scoring
3. Ease of interpretation and application
4. Low cost
5. Proper mechanical make-up
What are the methods of data collection?
1. Primary data collection- it involves the gathering of data from the respondents through the use of different techniques such
as survey, observation, tests and scales and experimentation.
Other techniques of collecting primary data are the following:
1.1Delphi method is a qualitative process of acquiring information on issues. It involves forecasting or projecting trends or
outcomes. Eg. Prospects of the banking industry
1.2Projective method the use of standardized psychological tests such as inkblots, sentence completion and thematic
apperception to probe deeper into the minds, behavior and attitudes of respondents.
1.3Unobtrusive method uses other data sources aside from individuals. For instance the time record is a source of
information on employee attendance.
2.

Secondary data collection it involves the acquisition of data from second hand sources like census reports, financial
statements, annual reports, brochures, catalogues and other documents and reports.

Conducting A Survey
Survey is the most common method used to gather opinions, current conditions, preferences, health care needs,
attitudes or any information that might be useful in any research undertaking. The survey is the most common way of
gathering data.
Survey Research
Survey research studies large and small populations (or sample universe) by selecting and studying samples
chosen from the population.

Survey research is the collection of information from a fraction or a sample of a population to arrive at
generalizations about the population.
The survey is a fact-finding study with adequate and accurate interpretation. It is used to collect demographic
data about peoples behavior, practices, intentions, beliefs, attitudes, opinions, judgments interests, perceptions and
the like. Then, such data are analyzed, organized and interpreted (Calderon, 1993).
What are the types of survey?
Surveys can be conveniently classified by the methods in which they obtain information: personal interview,
panel, telephone, mail questionnaire and e-mail.
1. Personal Interview
This is a face-to-face meeting of individuals interacting purposely together to get information regarding the
research topic (Rivera, 1999). Another definition advanced is that personal interview is a method of obtaining
information or gathering data from people that is a carefully planned, person-to-person, question-to-answer session
type (Pablo, 2003).
2. Panel
In a panel survey, respondents are selected and interviewed, and then re-interviewed, and then re-interviewed
and the results studied at a later time. The panel technique enables the researchers to study changes in behaviors
and attitudes of a particular group or sample at various times.
3. Telephone surveys
The telephone survey has little to recommended beyond speed and low cost. When the interviewers are unknown
to the respondents, they are limited by a possible nonresponse, uncooperativeness and reluctance of the
respondents to answer more than simple, superficial questions. Yet, telephoning can sometimes be useful in
obtaining information essential to a study, especially when the study is limited by time constraints
4. The Mail Questionnaire
The mail questionnaire is another type of survey wherein a questionnaire is mailed to the respondents. The
questionnaire is accompanied by a cover letter that states the reason or purpose why the survey is being undertaken
and the acknowledgement. A postage paid self-addressed envelope is given to facilitate the return of the survey
questionnaire.
5. Survey by electronic mail (e-mail)
With computers, surveys facilitated through the e-mail are now possible. The questionnaire, with its purpose and
objective, is sent to the e-mail address of sample respondents. The researchers should make sure that the directions
are clear to elicit the needed data.
How to conduct survey?
The following are steps to be done before conducting a survey:
1. Start with the objectives of the survey. The general and specific problems that are to be solved are as carefully and
as completely stated as possible.
2. List each step to be taken.
3. End with a final report.
What are the steps in conducting a survey research?
1. Identify the need for the research.
2. Formulate the objectives of the research.
3. Determine the information to be gathered.
4. Identify the method of data collection to be used.
5. Design a sample. Select the respondents to be included in the study.
6. Design the data collection form. Pretest its validity and reliability.
7. Revise and finalize the questionnaire.

8. Collect data. Administer the questionnaire.

9. Analyze the data through statistical means.
10. Write the results.
11. Submit the research paper.
There are other types of survey techniques or approaches. The purpose of the survey would determine the
survey technique or approach to use. Some example are poll survey, market survey, community survey, census and
school survey.
Computer-Assisted Survey
College students are very much aware that knowledge is now limitless. Students are thus honed to gather,
analyze and interpret data or they can contribute to existing body of knowledge. Equipping our freshmen students
with the rudiments of computer operation will help them generate and later share knowledge. Now, even surveys can
be accessed through the computer.
One of the big problems is computer-assisted interviews aside from the cost and maintenance of the technology
is the organization of the computer program Whereas the face-to-face interviewer can nimbly adjust the paper
instrument to accommodate a variety of responses and problems, a computer screen full or written alternatives
(called branching and skipping) can be a little messy. Every complication increases the risk of data loss.
Interview
Webster (1986) defines the interview as a meeting in which information is obtained from the interviewee. It is
a face-to-face meeting of individuals interacting together purposely to get information regarding a research topic. The
interview is an important survey instrument where the interviewer questions a select group of respondents to gather
important data needed for the study. Interviews may be classified according to purpose, according to format and
according to style.
What are the types of interview?
According to Purpose
Treece, et. al. (1973) classifies the interview according to purpose as follows:
Standard Interview
This is otherwise known as the formal interview.This interview uses substantially uniform and wellestablished questions without variation from the interview schedule. This interview is conducted in the same way as
the other types of interview.
A. Nonstandardized Interview
This is also known as the informal interview. This interview involves the use of a set of questions organized
by the interviewer according to a specific pattern of questions and the method appropriate to the situation or
condition. The interviewer is given the liberty to organize the interview questions and the manner of asking the
interviewees.
B. Semistandardized Interview
This interview is the combination of the standardized and the nonstandardized interviews with the questions
asked by the interviewer regarding the stated specific problems of the study.
Nondirective Interview
This type of interview gives liberty to the interviewees to talk freely on the questions asked or the topic given by
the interviewer.

C. Focused Interview
This type is also called indepth interview and is similar to the informal interview. In this type, the interviewer
focuses on asking questions on specific topics that are to be investigated in-depth.
According to Format
Interview classified according to format are (Manuel, 1976):
1. Standardized or Structural Interview
2. Semistandardized or Semistructural Interview
3. Unstructured or Nonstandardized Interview
According to Style
There are tow types of interview according to style, namely: formal and informal interviews.
Formal Interview
In this type of interview, the interviewer follows a standard set of questions.
The interview schedule and the interview guide mentioned in this type are the interview tools used in
research.
The interview schedule is an instrument made up of questions similar to that of the questionnaire
accomplished by the researcher/interviewer during the conduct of the interview, while the interview guide is made up
of an idea, concept or general information the will guide the researcher in the conduct of the interview.

Important Points to Consider in the Conduct of an Interview

1. Preparing for the Interview. This involves working out an interview guide, an interview schedule and
identifying possible strategies to utilize in the conduct of the interview.
2. Knowing the appropriate place and time for the interview. This includes selecting an ideal, comfortable place
and suitable time to conduct the interview.
3. Developing rapport. The interviewer should develop harmonious, friendly and cordial atmosphere with the interviewee at
the start of the interview.
4. Sustaining the interview. The interviewer should learn to carry on the conversation smoothly until the end of the
interview. If needed, some key words provided by the interviewer could help sustain the interview.
5.

Recording the Interview. During the actual interview, portable tape recorder could be used to accurately document the
interview. This will present misquoting or misinterpreting any statement made by the interviewee.

6.

Closing the interview. If the interviewer feel the conversation should stop, the interview should end with the expression
of deep gratitude and appreciation for the time, effort and generosity of the interviewee in providing information relevant to the
study.

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Analysis of data and interpretation of results are difficult tasks for the researcher, especially if he is not expert
in diagnosing the correct statistical tools to answer the research problems/objectives.
Analysis should be done first before interpretation. An analysis is useless without interpretation while
interpretation is impossible without analysis. In analyzing the data, statistical techniques are used to give meaning to
the data gathered from the subjects. A set of raw data per se is meaningless but has meaning once it is interpreted.
For instance, a correlation value of 0.95is meaningful only if it is verbally interpreted as having a high relationship.
Generally speaking, analyzing and interpreting the raw data should go hand in order to give meaningful results.
Interpretation is important to have a clearer meaning of the research findings.
Data Analysis
Data analysis may be defined as an examination of data or facts in terms of quantity, quality, attribute, trait,
pattern, trend, relationship among others so as to answer research questions which involve statistical techniques and
procedures.
The bases in analyzing research data are specific problems/ objectives, hypotheses, measuring instruments and
statistical tools.
There are 10 types of data analysis.
(1) Univariate analysis,
(2) bivariate analysis,
(3) multivariate analysis,
(4) normative analysis,
(5) status analysis,
(6) descriptive analysis,
(7) classification analysis,
(8) evaluative analysis,
(9) comparative analysis,
(10) cost effective analysis.
After preparation of data, these may now be subjected to the type of analysis identified by the researcher in the
proposed research methodology. If the data only require qualitative analysis, descriptive tools such as content analysis and
descriptive statistics can be used. Content analysis is a systematic process of ascertaining the qualitative meaning of
information which can be used for interpreting the outcome of a set of observations or responses. Content analysis is usually
applied on open-ended questions related to processes, procedures, systems, perceptions, and feelings about courses of action
on varied problems.
Once the data had been prepared, the researcher or data tabulator/encoder may now manually record or enter the data
directly to the computer file. From these tabulated or encoded data, a data set file can be generated (refer to Appendix G for a
sample of data set). At this stage, data adjustment may be done to enhance to quality for analysis. Statistical adjustments
commonly done include creating dummy variables to respecify nominal variables, collapsing large or few variables, transforming
scales into comparable levels, or assigning weights for some underrepresented sample cases.
Presenting the Research Results
After the data have been gathered and analyzed, it is now the task of the researcher to prepare a written report on the
results of the study. It is very important that the research output be presented in an organized, coherent, and understandable
manner so that the user can make important decisions about the said results.
The guidelines to be considered in the preparation of the research output are as follows.
1. Purpose. Type. Length, and nature of data being presented should be relevant to the purpose of the researcher. It must be
clear whether the purpose of the research is to inform, or to critique a previously done investigation about an issue, or to

propose policies or strategies. It must be ensured that the problem of the paper is properly addressed from the beginning to
end.
2. Target Reader-End-User. Contents and presentation of data should be pertinent to the needs of the target reader or enduser. Sometimes, even the format, length, and the style of writing are specified by the end-user, particularly the schools when
these are part of their requirements in a thesis/ dissertation course. Funding agencies, like the Commission on Higher
Education, Department of Science and Technology Philippine Council for Agriculture and Forestry Research and
Development, and Department of Agriculture-Bureau of Agricultural Research specify their preferred formats, length of report,
and the accompanying appendices.
3. Clarity. Using specific, measurable, and descriptive words will help in illustrating statements and ideas. Logical data
organization and sound interpretation add clarity to the report. Do not make conclusions and recommendations not warranted
by data on hand.
4. Appropriate Words. Concepts or variables or words with flawed meaning, given a particular situation or context, should be
avoided. Avoid the use of jargon. The language of the written report must be familiar to the reader or is commonly used in dayby-day business in the field of the end-user. Technical terms, if cannot be avoided, must be defined operationally. Words which
appeal to emotions, biases, and moral judgement must be avoided.
5. Style
The written composition should be consistent. Correct grammar, right spelling, proper punctuation, short and simple
sentences, and use of the active voice should be observed. It is appropriate to use the past tense when referring to
steps or procedures already completed or to data of a previous research. However, it is correct to use the present
tense when presenting proofs or interpreting tables or graphs immediately under discussion.
Technical writing in research also requires that the report be written in the third person. Therefore, the use of I, we,
and our should be avoided.
6. Graphic Aids. One way of effectively sending the message of the report is to use graphic aids such as tables, graphs, maps,
and diagrams properly. These graphic aids can be used as an integral or supplemental part of the text.
Graphs/Charts. These are visual forms of presenting the data. Symbols such as lines, bars, pictures, and circles are
used to capture the essence of the data. Each graph/chart should include:
7. Body contains the entire set of data being discussed in the text.
8. Legends to explain the symbols used in the body.
9. Sources to indicate if data came from a secondary source.
10. Acknowledgment and Citation. There are instances in the report when the source(s) of information should be carefully
cited and acknowledgment. Acknowledgment is necessary when quoting more than a few lines for publication from copyrighted
sources. In this case, permission is usually sought, either from the author or publisher. On the other hand, if paraphrasing and/or
borrowing of ideas have been done, it is common practice to acknowledge the source(s) either by the use of endnotes,
footnotes, and direct citation in the text or in the bibliography.
11. Format. Although research formats can vary depending on the need of the end-user, the format that follows tries to include
all the possible contents of any research report. The researcher may adjust ones report by using the following model:
12. Title Page. The title must be brief, straightforward, and must capture the essence of the investigation. This page must also
indicate the name of the researcher and the date the report is being submitted.
13. Table of Contents. The topics covered in the report must be indicated in sequence with the responding page where they are
found.
14 Abstract/Executive Summary. The abstract is usually written in not more than 150-500 words or one to two pages. The
contents are written in the past tense. Some examples are presented in the following pages.
15.Conclusion. This portion must be able to directly state the answers to the research problem and hypothesis of the study.
This is written coherently and concisely.
16. Recommendations. This part requires the presentation of suggestions or courses of action relevant to the findings of the
study which the end-user can adopt. Aside from relevance, recommendations should be made in terms of cost,
application, and time elements on the part of the end-user or future researchers. Therefore, each suggestion should be
explained concisely.
17. Bibliography. This portion contains a complete list references used in the study. The format recommended by the APA
Manual of 1994 is suggested. The bibliography of this book provides examples.

Presentation of Research Results

The main key to the successful presentation is to repeat your story four times: in the title, abstract,
introduction (or chapter 1) and in the text. That is, make readable and as complete as possible versions of your work
using the order of 10, 100, 1000 and 10.000 words. Because you have four different types of readers. Among those
who will ever notice your work, I estimate that 80% will see only title, 15% will read the abstract, 4% will read also
introduction, and the surviving 1% will read the whole paper. This is assuming you did your job properly, otherwise
you will have 0% in the last group.

Title
Choose a title that enables the expert to figure out the essence of the basic idea(s) and the main contribution(s).
Wrong title may bring you wrong referees or examiners, and may not attract busy colleagues to your work when
seeing it on your web page or on a search engine that may not even catch your work (which decreases your
visibility). If you are solving problem X using method Y, you have probably searched Internet for both X and Y. Others
do the same, so let your work be observed easily.

Abstract
State clearly what problem has been studied and/or what is the goal of the thesis/paper. Give a brief
statement on existing solutions and their drawbacks. List major contributions of the thesis. State briefly assumptions
and limitations. The abstract should also include major idea(s), the type (e.g. performance, complexity) and result of
analysis done.
The abstract is written for researchers that are familiar with the research area, and can grasp your
contribution easily. Most of them have worked on the same or related problem. Clear abstract is the key to having
your work properly credited in other peoples work, since again colleagues may be too busy to figure it themselves,
and are more likely to ignore it then to spend time doing the work you were supposed to do. Examiners will also have
a friendly start with your text. Misleading abstracts are unfortunately quite common practice in the research literature.
Avoid excessive explanations that should be part of introduction. First answer above questions, then see whether you
have space to say anything else.
This structure is also suitable for performance evaluation type of articles. In a performance evaluation article,
the problem is to determine the best protocol under various conditions. Existing performance evaluations are existing
solutions etc. Survey type of articles have different presentation style. A survey should describe all relevant solutions,
classify them according to assumptions made and some properties (that is, present a taxonomy), and draw some
conclusions.

Chapter 1 (Introduction)
The introduction of the paper, or Chapter 1 of the thesis, should give the summary of the article. It should contain
separate sections on the following items:
i) Introduction (basic facts needed to tune the reader to the thesis or paper);
ii) Problem statement (precise definition and importance); avoid very technical/definitions and statements (present
them in later text) and instead give good intuition for your involved definitions or facts.
iii) Existing solutions and their criticism (limit only to those directly relevant to the contribution of the thesis; give a
motivation for doing research on the topic);
iv) Contributions (proposed solutions; why they are expected to be better; essence of the idea(s) used in proposed
solutions);
v) Conditions, assumptions and limitations of the research done;

Literature review

Chapter 2 or section 2 should give a full literature review. It should collect all known results relevant to the
problem stated, whether or not they are used in proposed contributions. No additional literature review shall be added
in later chapters. Discuss advantages and drawbacks of known solutions that are relevant to your problem, and also
discuss the relevance of each reviewed item to your topic and your solutions.

Conclusion
The conclusion indicates what had been achieved with this research. The ownership of some other possible
solutions, not fully explored, or subject of your forthcoming different article, can be protected by outlining them briefly
in the conclusion section, sometimes with reference to upcoming article.