Page |1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.NO.

AUTHOR

TITLE

PAGE

SUCCESSFUL MATRIX STIMULATION AND

WAX CLEANING OF A HIGH WATER CUT OIL
WELL OF EAST POTWAR REGION: A CASE
STUDY
EFFICIENT APPLICATION OF ROTARY
STEERABLE SYSTEM (RSS) AND POSITIVE
DISPLACEMENT MOTOR (PDM) TO YIELD
OPTIMAL PERFORMANCE
HYBRID DRILL BIT TECHNOLOGY; A
OPTIMUM & COST EFFECTIVE SOLUTION TO
MITIGATE DRILLING CHALLENGES IN
PAKISTAN
DRILLING AND COMPLETING DIFFICULT
HP/HT WELLS WITH THE AID OF CESIUM
FORMATE BRINES-A PERFORMANCE
REVIEW

MANSOOR AHMED
ANSARI

MOHSIN ARSHAD

SHEHROZ KHAN RIND

MUHAMMAD NOMAN
KHAN

MUHAMMAD SHOAIB

A REPRESENTATIVE FLUID MODEL

54

AELIA HUSSAIN

68

MUHAMMAD YOUNIS

MUZAMIL HUSSAIN

9
10

AGHA ALI AHMED

PATHAN
AADIL PANHWAR

11

MUHAMMAD HASAN

12

SYED SADDAM ALVI

13

HAIWAD AHMAD

MODELLING TRANSIENT BEHAVIOUR OF

SHALE GAS RESERVOIR USING ANALYTICAL
MODEL TO EVALUATE SHALE GAS PRICE IN
PAKISTAN'S ENVIRONMENT
EFFECT OF WATER BLOCKING DAMAGE ON
PRODUCTIVITY IN TIGHT GAS RESERVOIRS
A STUDY FOR THE OPTIMIZATION OF
WATER INJECTION CLUSTERS USING
NETWORK MODELING
DELIQUIFICATION OF GAS WELLS USING
CAPILLARY SOAP INJECTION
RIGLESS EXPLORATION TOOL A FUTURE
DEMAND
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF SHALE GAS
EXPLOITATION
DECLINE CURVE ANALYSIS FOR TIGHT GAS
RESERVOIR
ADDITION OF NANO PARTICLES, AN
ADVANCEMENT IN DRILLING FLUIDS

14

28

33

78
88

103
115
126
139
147
1|Page

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14

HIZBULLAH MEMON

SIMULATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE

FLOODING USING ECLIPSE SOFTWARE

153

15

ZEESHAN TARIQ

170

16
17

SYED MUHAMMAD
QASIM ALI
ABDUL BARI KHATRI

18

SIDRA CHUGTAI

19

Muhammad Taha

UNDERBALANCED DRILLING IN DEPLETED

RESERVOIRS
UNDERGROUND STORAGE OF NATURAL
GAS IN A DEPLETED GAS RESERVOIR
APPLICATION OF MODERN RESERVES
ESTIMATION TOOLS ON ANONYMOUS
TIGHT GAS FIELD AND CHECKING THEIR
VALIDITY WITH ECLIPSE SIMULATION
APPROACH TO AN EFFICIENT THERMAL
RECOVERY
INTEGRATION OF CARBON CAPTURE AND
SEQUESTRATION (CCS) APPROACH AND
ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY (EOR) FOR
OPTIMIZING RECOVERY OF AN OIL
RESERVOIR

20

YASIR IRFAN

DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES OF EXISTING

AND NEW OIL AND GAS FIELDS UNDER
CURRENT ECONOMIC CONDITIONS IN
PAKISTAN

245

184
200

216
225

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ORGANIZING COMMITTEE:
1. Abdul Bari Khatri (President SNSC 2012)
2. Mufaddal Murtaza (General Secretary)
3. Talha Shakil (Vice President)
4. Abdul Asad (Treasurer)
5. Ahsan Umar(Advisor to President)
6. Hasan Javed Khan
7. Muhammad Shoaib
8. Muhammad Bilal Lakhany
9. Waleed Anwar Saleem
10. Shahzaib Baber
11. Rizwan Haider
12. Saad Iqbal
13. Abdul Saboor
14. Ghazal Noor us Saba
15. Sidra Chugtai
16. Dayal Parkash

3|Page

Page |4

17.
4|Page

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SUCCESSFUL MATRIX STIMULATION AND WAX CLEANING OF A HIGH WATER CUT OIL WELL OF
EAST POTWAR REGION: A CASE STUDY
Author: Mansoor Ahmed Ansari, NED University of Engineering & Technology, Karachi.
Cell: +92 331 24 54 227; email: mansoor_ansari@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Effective acid diversion across high permeable
and fractured carbonate reservoirs have always
been challenging and even more complicated
when stimulating high water cut wells. In these
types of wells, it is a challenge to stimulate the
oil bearing zones rather than the water bearing
zone. To achieve diversion, polymer based
diverters were usually used earlier which has
less efficiency. In the case study discussed in
this paper, a polymer free diverter (NonDamaging and Diverting Acid System) was used
to divert and effectively stimulate the target
formation.
The target formation has been producing at
high water cut which was highly sensitive to the
pressure drawdown applied at the formation
face. The prime objective of the treatment was
to reduce the formation-face drawdown by
treating near wellbore damage, so that
reduction in water cut and increase in oil rate
can be achieved. The acid treatment of 15%HCl
with polymer free diverter system was used for
efficient and well controlled matrix stimulation.
The system consisted of a self diverter which
forms a gel as acid spent, and temporarily
blocks the pore throat allowing efficient
diversion of the main acid to the oil bearing
zones. When it came in contact with
hydrocarbons, it starts breaking, leaving the

pore throat clean. Wax/Asphaltene clean out

program is also carried out with
organic solvents inside wellbore and production
tubing.
Well tests were performed before and after the
stimulation treatment. Well test results
indicated an increase of ~130 bbl/day in oil
production with decrease of water cut to zero.
The increase
in oil production and elimination of water cut
shows the success of the stimulation treatment.
INTRODUCTION
Matrix acid stimulation has been used for
decades as an excellent technique to improve
production of oil and gas wells. It improves the
production by decreasing skin or by bypassing
the damage zone or creating worm holes in
carbonate formation. Every stimulation job
requires deep concentration for its designing
which will lead it to success. Over the years,
stimulation jobs are designed to target oil zones
and damaged zones. In an active water drive oil
reservoir, the major concern is to avoid the
water zone from stimulating fluid. With water
cut fields, successful stimulation treatment
involves reviewing the well history, reservoir
characteristics, and potential production results
before selecting the optimum stimulation

5|Page

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treatment [1]. However, there is always a risk of

stimulating the water zone.

eliminates the
stimulation.

The target formation is a highly fractured

carbonate reservoir having high secondary
permeability. Permeability of the reservoir
varies from 330 md to 870 md. Due to high
permeability, uniform stimulation is difficult by
using conventional stimulation techniques.
Effective diversion is the key for the success of
stimulation treatment to achieve uniform
treatment. Without diversion, acid seeks the
least resistance path move only in a small
portion of the whole interval. Chemical
diverting agents temporarily block the
undamaged or high permeable interval and
divert the acid towards the damage or low
permeable interval. Due to high permeability
and damaged zones, diversion is highly
recommended in these reservoirs.

Stimulation by coiled tubing was shown to be

the best tool for acid placement and to get
maximum coverage [7, 8]. Because of the nondamaging and effectiveness as diverting agent
polymer free diverter system is selected for
stimulating the well in the targeted formation of
the field. As targeted formation contains high
wax content due to which VLP of the well is
deceases so to improve it, a wax cleaning
program with toluene and diesel in the ratio of
70:30 is also carried out.

Conventional stimulation treatments use

regular acid or retarded acids [2, 3] in
conjunction with chemical diverters including
foams [4] to fully stimulate long, non uniform
carbonate formation. The most commonly used
chemical diverters are polymer based [5], and
are associated with induced formation damage
[6]. To perform stimulation of entire zone
uniformly a polymer free diverter system is
developed. The system is supplied as an active
solution. Upon addition to an aqueous brine
solution or upon acid spending into the
formation, the Gelling Agent will generate an
elastic gel. The gel will break upon contact with
isopropanol or other hydrocarbon fluids leaving
back a clean formation matrix with almost no
impairment to original matrix permeability and

concern

of

ineffective

THE FIELD
The targeted formation is a fractured limestone
formation, which has secondary porosity. It
encloses considerable amount of oil but as we
produces it, water encroachment occurs as
reservoir is supported by an active edge water
drive. It has a net pay thickness of 90m. It
produces crude oil, which has 33- 35 API
Gravity. The GOR at the separator is about 1931
scf/STB. So the crude oil extracted can also be
known as Black Oil.
The well was completed in 2005. Continued
production from the well results in water
conning due to excessive drawdown which may
be due to skin and wax deposits. The treatment
is designed to improve well deliverability to
minimize drawdown and water coning and also
to clean up the wax deposits in the tubing to
improve VLP and prevent choke plugging.
THE CARBONATE CHALLENGE
6|Page

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Carbonate matrix stimulation has been

extensively researched and discussed in
numerous publications [9, 10]. With the
selection of right stimulation fluid and injection
rate one more important consideration is the
diversion of the stimulation fluid across the
reservoir not only the high permeable layers or
less damage interval. In general, two ways of
diversion are available namely mechanical
diversion and chemical diversion.

Mechanical diversion

Tools are run inside the well bore which

provides mechanical diversion to the
stimulating fluid. Typically used mechanical
diverters are Packers and bridge plugs, ball
sealers or jetting devices.
Packers and bridge plug has been used with
success in through tubing operations. Packers
and plugs are set between the targeted
intervals which provide mechanical separation
between two intervals. But they require extra
time and cost for placing and removal.
Balls sealers shut off individual perforations
from taking fluid. When we pump the balls,
these will set in the perforations at minimum
differential pressure. Usually a large number of
balls are needed to be pumped which is
burdensome activity. It can not be used in open
hole completion.
Jetting devices are popular for use with coil
tubing devices and direct the flow towards the
concentrated streams. The impact force and

direction of nozzle is used to place the acid at

desired location. Due to diameter restriction we
can not use it.

Chemical Diversion

Fluid viscosity and solid particles are used to

create the resistance in the flow of acid in
undesired interval.
Particulate or thin film forming agents were
widely used in the early stage of matrix
stimulation. Particles such as Benzoic acid, rock
salt or oil soluble resins are used to form a
temporary layer which diverts the acid towards
damage interval. This occurs independently of
fluid in the formation [11].
The other group of chemical diverters consists
of viscous fluids. As it enters the formation due
to its viscosity it diverts the acid towards
damage interval. Viscous diverters consists of
three main groups namely polymer based fluids,
foamed fluids and non polymer fluids.
Polymer diversion is based on the differential
pressure created between a zone that accept
the polymer and a zone that does not accept
the polymer. Some polymers are non reactive.
Others are self diverting, it increases its viscosity
at particular pH and decreases it viscosity when
the acid is spent. The problem with this is small
pH window for the treatment.
Foamed fluid consists of liquid and gaseous
phases which form required differential
pressure in the formation. Several authors have
shown cases where properly engineered foams
7|Page

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remained stable in water rich environment,

while emulsion was separated in phases in oilsaturated layers [12, 13]. The drawback with
foamed diverter is that it requires nitrogen
tanks and extra pumping unit.
Polymer free diverter system shows similar
properties. The major advantage of this system
over conventional acids is that it is nonpolymeric and non-damaging. Unlike other
diverting materials, such as foam and
particulates, this system can be pumped as
single fluid, which will stimulate and divert in
one step. Alternatively, it can be pumped in
several stages with regular or retarded acid
stages. Also, this fluid can be used for the
stimulation of wells with a BHST of up to 400 0F.
[14]
The normal additives like corrosion inhibitor,
chelating agent and iron control agent are
compatible with this system. When stimulating
carbonate reservoir HCl reacts with CaCO3 and
creates worm holes
CaCO3+HCl CaCl2+CO2+H2O
Calcium chloride is produced while the acid is
spent. Upon acid spending into the formation,
the gelling agent will generate an elastic gel.
This elastic gel increases the viscosity (see Fig.
1). The resulting high viscosity creates
temporary blocking of the pores and diverting
the acid towards un-stimulated interval. The gel
will break upon contact with isopropanol or
other hydrocarbon fluids leaving back a clean
formation matrix with almost no impairment to
original matrix permeability. Post flush of a

mutual solvent will also help in break and flow

back of treatment fluid.
Since this system does not viscosity in the
tubing string, it can be easily pumped through
coiled tubing in both cased and open-hole
completions. Polymer free diverter system
contains no solids that could bridge when
pumped through coiled tubing. With CT, this
system provides the best results when diverting
in carbonate reservoirs. This system can also be
used for stimulating horizontal wells. Unlike
other diverting materials, such as foam and
particulate, polymer free diverter system can be
pumped as a single fluid stage, which will
stimulate and divert in one step. It can also be
pumped in several stages alternately with
regular or retarded acids. This self diverting acid
combines the capabilities of stimulation and
diversion in one process, which significantly
reduces the operation complexity.
CASE STUDY OF THE WELL:
The well was drilled down to a depth of 2274m
in the targeted Formation. Although the
primary objectives were other formations, the
well was completed as a dual string producer
from the Formation, in 2005, due to its
encouraging test results. The formation is
known to be an oil bearing carbonate and has
generally demonstrated significant pressure
support due to the presence of a strong aquifer.
The well is an open hole completion having
reservoir pressure of 4440 Pisa and BHT of 185
0
F.

8|Page

Page |9

Pressure transient testing was carried out in a

DST at the inception of the well. Though the
entire data set could not be matched using a
single set of variables, the general consensus
was that the reservoir permeability was high,
with a moderate skin.
Continued production from the Reservoir had
resulted in the encroachment and breakthrough
of water from the aquifer. The sensitivity of
water cut to drawdown was clear indication of
water coning. To keep the well producing water
free, initially the well was gradually choked
back. The issue was further compounded by the
deposition of organic materials in the long
string, resulting in restrictions and choke
plugging problems. Latest test results prior to
the remedial job carried out on the well are
presented in the table 1.
As the results clearly indicate, the well was
suffering from water coning issues. To ascertain
continued water free production from the
reservoir to maximize oil recoveries, it became
necessary to address the diagnosed skin to
effectively achieve higher production rates at a
reduced drawdown.
Well bore clean out Treatment was started with
the wax clean out job. 100bbl of Toluene +
Diesel were mixed for the wellbore cleanout
operations. The Toluene Diesel mixture was
pumped in batches of 3 bbl, each batch
circulated out by 15 bbls of NH4Cl. During the
tubing cleanout operations, the well was
continuously flowed at moderate rates into the
flare pit to allow for effective displacements of
solids out of the wellbore. Total volume of
Toluene-Diesel mixture used during the

operations amounted to 100 bbl while 443 bbls

of 4% NH4Cl brine were used in effectively
cleaning well tubing.
Acidization treatment was design to pump the
acid at different depths of open hole but
unfortunately during RIH, coil tubing experience
slack at 2714m so it is decided to limit
maximum
injection
depth
up
to
2713m.Treatment started with the pumping of
Mutual solvent based on 4% NH4Cl is used as
pre flush. The main acid treatment was pumped
in stages comprising of live acid and diverter,
each of 38 bbl and 12 bbl respectively. The
sequence and volume of injection of each stage
is presented below.
Pre-Flush

4% NH4Cl
Brine

71 bbl

Main
Treatment

15% HCl

190 bbl

NDA-S
Diverter

48 bbl

Post-Flush

4% NH4Cl
Brine

48 bbl

Nitrogen lift off was not required due to high

reservoir pressure and well started to off load.
Both strings have been effectively cleaned. Well
test is performed using test separator and
results shows an increase of 130bbl/day in oil
production (see fig.3) while reducing drawdown
has eliminated the water cut. Well tests are
performed two times with a gap of two weeks
which shows that water free production from
the well is sustained (Table 2).

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CONCLUSIONS:

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The treatment objectives of this well include

cleaning of wax in the tubing and stimulation of
near well bore damage. To achieve these goals,
an approach was developed, for wax cleaning
toluene and diesel mixture is used while in
stimulation acid and a self diverter is used, both
with combination of coil tubing.

The author would like to thank Pakistan

Petroleum Limited for the permission to publish
this paper. The author also would like to thanks
to Dr. Fareed Siddiqui, Mr. Noman Khan and Mr.
Sheharyar Mansur for data and support while
completing this case study.

Because pre and post-stimulation PLT logs were

unavailable due to commercial and economic
constraints, it is impossible to conclude where
the actual stimulation fluid went. The success of
the stimulation treatment is entirely based on
pre and post well test results and production
data.

NOMENCLATURES

The following conclusions were reached

regarding the treatment performance:
The polymer free diverter system
provides effective diversion and allowed
acid to stimulate damaged interval and
help in effective stimulation.
After treatment, an increase of
130bbl/day in oil production is observed
while water cut reduces to 0% (see fig 2,
3).
Wax clean out is done effectively with
toluene and diesel mixture.

VLP

= Vertical Lift Performance

GOR

= Gas Oil Ratio

Scf/STB

= Cubic feet per Stock Tank

Barrel

BHT

= Bottom Hole Temperature

CT

= Coil Tubing

RIH

= Run In Hole

PLT

= Production Logging Tool

bbl/day

= barrels per day

DST

= Drill Stem Test

10 | P a g e

P a g e | 11

REFERENCES
*1+ Chang, F., Qu, Q. and Freniner W.: A Noval
Self-Diverting-Acid Developed for Matrix
Stimulation of Carbonate Reservoirs paper SPE
65033, presented at the 2001 SPE International
Symposium on Oil Field Chemistry held in
Houston, Texas, 13-16 February 2001.
[2] Navarrete, R.C., Holms, B.A., McConnell,
Linton, D.E.: Emulsified Acid Enhances Well
Production in High-Temperature Carbonate
Formations, paper SPE 50612 presented at the
1998 SPE European Petroleum Conference held
in The Hague, The Netherlands, October 20-22.
[3] Nasr-El-Din, H.A. Solares, J.R., Al-Mutairi,
S.H. Mahoney, M.D.: Field Application of
Emulsified Acid- Based System to Stimulate
Deep, Sour Gas Reservoirs in Saudi Arabia,
paper SPE 71693 presented at the 2001 SPE
Annual Conference and Exhibition held in New
Orleans, LA, 30 September to 03 October.
[4] Logan, E.D., Bjomen, K.H., and Sarver, D.R.:
Foamed Diversion in the Chase Series of
Hugoton Field in the Mid-Continent, paper SPE
37432 presented at the 1997 SPE Production
Operations Symposium held in Oklahoma City,
OK, March 9-11.
[5] Lynn, J.D. and Nasr-El-Din, H.A.: A core
Based
Comparison
of
the
Reaction
Characteristics of Emulsified and in-situ Gelled
Acids in Low Permeability, High Temperature,
Gas Bearing Carbonates, paper SPE 65386
presented at the 2001 SPE International
Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry held in
Houston, TX, February 13-16.
[6] Nasr-El-Din, H.A., Taylor, K.C. and Al-Hajji,
H.H.: Propagation of Crosslinkers Used in In-

Situ Gelled Acids in Carbonate Reservoirs,

paper SPE 75257 presented at the 2002 SPE
Symposium on Improved Oil Recovery held in
Tulsa, OK, April 13-17.
[7] Safwat, M., Nasr-El-Din, H.A. Dossary, K.A.,
McClelland, K., Samuel, M., Enhancement of
Stimulation Treatment of Water Injection Wells
Using a New Polymer-Free Diversion System,
paper SPE 78588 presented at the 2002 SPE
International Symposium on Formation Damage
Control, Abu Dhabi, UAE, 13-16 October 2002.
[8] Saxon, A., Chariag, B., and Reda Abdel
Rahman, M.: An Effective Matrix Diversion
Technique for Carbonate Formations, paper
SPE 37734 presented at the 1997 Middle East
Oil Show, Bahrain, March 15- 18.
*8+ Robert J.A. and Crowe C.W.: Carbonate
Acidizing Design, Reservoir stimulation Vol.3
[10] Daccord, G., Touboul, E. and Lenormand,
R.: Carbonate Acidizing Towards a Quantitative
Model of the Wormholing Phenomenon, paper
SPE 16887, SPE Production Engineering
(February 1989)
[11] Shnaib,F. , Desouky, A.M., Mehrotra, N.,
Kuthubdeen, M., Rutzinger, G., Judd, T.C., and
Rebello, R.P.: Case Study of Successful Matrix
Stimulation of High-Water-Cut Wells in Dubai
Offshore Fields, paper IPTC 13203 presented at
International
Petroleum
Technology
Conference, Doha, Qatar , 7-9 December 2009.
[12] Zerhboub, M., Touboul, E., Ben-Naceur, K,
and Thomas, R.L.: Matrix Acidizing: A Noval
Approach to Foam Diversion, paper SPE 22854
presented at the 66th Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition held in Dallas TX, 6-9
October 1991.
[13] Parlar M., Parris M.D, Jasiniki R.J, Robert
J.A.: An Experimental Study of Foam Flow
11 | P a g e

P a g e | 12

Through Berea Sandstone with Applications of

Foam Diversion in Matrix Acidizing, paper SPE
29678 presented at the Western Regional
meeting held in Bakersfield CA, 8-10 March
1995.
[14] Al-Mutawa, M., Al-Anzi, Ravula, C., Al
Jalahmah, Jemmali, M., Samuel, E., and Samuel,

Choke

FWHP

1/64

psia

2459

M.: Field Cases of a Zero Damaging Stimulation

and Diversion Fluid from the Carbonate
Formations in North Kuwait, paper SPE 80225
presented at the SPE International Symposium
on Oilfield Chemistry held in Houston, Texas,
U.S.A., 5-8 February 2003.

Gas Rate

Oil Rate

Date

May 2012

MMscf/Day bbl/day
0.3

Water
Rate

Water Cut

bbl/Day

53

27

143

TABLE-1: Pre treatment well testing results that indicates water cut

TABLE-2: Post treatment well testing results which shows a sustainable oil production with
zero water cut
Choke

FWHP

Gas Rate

1/64

psia

2524

0.3

Choke

FWHP

Gas Rate

1/64

psia

2544

Water
Rate

Water Cut

bbl/Day

249

Oil Rate

Water
Rate

Water Cut

bbl/Day

Oil Rate

Date

Jun 2012

MMscf/Day bbl/day

Date

Jul 2012

MMscf/Day bbl/day
0.3

244

12 | P a g e

P a g e | 13

Fig. 1: Polymer free diverter system viscosity for spent system

Fig.2: Well Production History

300

100.00

250

80.00

60.00
150
40.00
100
50
0

Water cut (%)

Oil rate (bbl/day)

200

20.00

Oil rate

0.00

Water cut
(%)

3-Dec-09 3-Jun-10 3-Dec-10 3-Jun-11 3-Dec-11 2-Jun-12 2-Dec-12

Time

13 | P a g e

P a g e | 14

Fig.3: Well Performance Comparison

14 | P a g e

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Efficient Application of Rotary Steerable System (RSS) and Positive Displacement

Motor (PDM) to Yield Optimal Performance
Author: Mohsin Arshad,
NED University of Engineering and Technology
Cell: 03453994891, Email: mohsin_es_arshad@hotmail.com

Abstract
Operational constraints must be reviewed
completely before a decision is finalized to
run a RSS or PDM assembly. A PDM will
yield consistent results in most applications
while a RSS must be run in specific
conditions to yield optimal performance.
Some wells are not drillable with a RSS
(High dogleg requirements, open hole
sidetracking, loosely packed or
unconsolidated formations, etc.) while
others are not drillable with a PDM
(Extremely long laterals, hole cleaning
problems, bottom hole assembly (BHA)
sticking problems, etc.). Hole conditions and
well profile must be studied before a RSS is
run to ensure that the application in
question is suited for RSS operations.
This paper includes an introduction to RSS
and PDM, comparison of RSS and PDM in
different drilling environments to yield
optimal performance and case studies of
directional drilling in a field.

Introduction to RSS

A Rotary Steerable System (RSS) is a new

form of drilling technology used
in directional drilling. It employs the use of
specialized downhole equipment to replace
conventional directional tools such as mud
motors. They are generally programmed by
the MWD engineer or directional driller
who transmits commands using surface
equipment (typically using either pressure
fluctuations in the mud column or
variations in the drill string rotation) which
the tool understands and gradually steers
into the desired direction. RSS technology
was originally intended to improve overall
ROP and decrease drilling time by
eliminating the need to slide while
directionally steering a wellbore.
Principal of Operation
Rotary Steerable System can be categorized
by its mode of operation. There are two
steering concepts of this system: point-thebit and push-the-bit.
Push the Bit System
In push the bit system, pads actuate at the
base of the tool against the formation wall
to push the bit in a desired direction with a
15 | P a g e

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desired amount of deflection and stabilizers

keep the tool centralized within the
borehole as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: PowerDrive X5- Push the bit system

Point the Bit System

In point the bit system, hydraulic pistons
actuate to deflect an internal drive shaft and
point the bit in a desired direction with a
desired amount of deflection. The drive shaft

and hydraulic system are contained inside

the non-rotating sleeve. The non-rotating
sleeve remains stationary within the
borehole while the driveshaft and drill
string rotates as shown in figure 2.

Figure 2: PowerDrive Xceed- Point the bit

system

hydraulic pressure between a rotor and

stator causes the rotor to turn. Rotor
rotation is converted to bit rotation through
the bearing section. Rotor and stator
configurations are designed to meet specific
rpm and torque output requirements for
different operational needs. The bend
section can be fixed or adjustable, and can
be configured to many different settings.
Most PDM tools have an adjustable
stabilizer built in at the top of the bearing
section. Adjustable stabilizers can be
removed or configured to match a desired
hole gauge. Bearing sections are usually
described as short bit to bend (3 ft), or long
bit to bend (6 ft). A short bit to bend PDM
will generate higher DLS than a long bit to
bend PDM and is less fatigued by torsional
metal fatiguing forces when rotated. The
external diagram of PDM is shown in figure
3.

Figure 3: External diagram of PDM

Introduction to PDM
In Positive Displacement Motor (PDM), as
fluid is pumped through the power section,
16 | P a g e

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Figure 4: PDM power section

performance. Some wells are not drillable

with a RSS (High dogleg requirements, open
hole sidetracking, loosely packed or
unconsolidated formations, etc.) while
others are not drillable with a PDM
(Extremely long laterals, hole cleaning
problems, bottom hole assembly (BHA)
sticking problems, etc.). Hole conditions and
well profile must be studied before a RSS is
run to ensure that the application in
question is suited for RSS operations.

Comparison of RSS and PDM

Firstly, we need to understand the drilling
conditions for proper selection of efficient
drilling technology for directional drilling
(RSS and PDM).
Although a RSS assembly can outperform a
PDM assembly in many applications, PDM
technology will never be completely
replaced by RSS technology in its current
form. Specific operations require results
that cannot be achieved by RSS tools, such
as high build rates and high ROP when
drilling rig capabilities are limited. Both
systems have a place in drilling operations
and should be used according to the specific
nature of well designs and operational
limitations.
RSS assembly is not suited for every drilling
environment. Operational constraints must
be reviewed completely before a decision is
finalized to run a RSS or PDM assembly. A
PDM will yield consistent results in most
applications while a RSS must be run in
specific conditions to yield optimal

Well Planning Considerations

1. High DLS

Build rate requirements often dictate the

use of a PDM over a RSS in the build section
of many horizontal wells. Current RSS
technology is limited by the maximum
possible build rates it can achieve.
When a well is designed to build from
vertical at kick off point (KOP) to 90
inclination at landing point (LP), with a
desired dogleg severity (DLS) of greater
than roughly 10 degrees per 100 feet, a RSS
assembly is almost certainly not going to
produce the desired result. A PDM is
required to build angle in most applications
where well profile requires build rates from
KOP higher than approximately 10 degrees
per 100 feet (Weatherford, Schlumberger).
For instance, maximum dogleg by
Revolution RSS, Revolution Plus and
Revolution HP/HT is 10 degree/100ft, and
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by Revolution V is 5 degree/100ft
(Weatherford: Revolution RotarySteerable System brochure). And the
maximum dogleg by PowerDrive X6 and
PowerDrive exceed is 8 degree/100ft
(Schlumberger: PowerDrive X6 and
PowerDrive exceed brochures)
With current technology, both forms of RSS
tools are limited in build rate by an inability
to overcome gravity and a natural tendency
for the BHA continue in its current drilling
path. Most point the bit systems drill a hole
of slightly higher quality than push the bit
systems, but push the bit systems may yield
slightly higher build rates in some
applications and may be less affected by
formation inconsistencies. As hole angle
increases the effect of gravity has less
impact on build rates and RSS technology is
capable of achieving higher build rates.
2. Unconsolidated formations

In loosely consolidated formations or

washed out boreholes neither system (push
or point the bit system) is able to achieve
the borehole contact and tool stability
required to steer properly. A RSS must have
an in gauge hole to steer properly. Point the
bit tools require a high degree of tool
stabilization to deflect the drive shaft in the
proper direction while push the bit tools
require an in gauge hole so the paddles can
apply maximum force to the borehole wall
when actuated. In loosely consolidated
formations or washed out boreholes
neither system is able to achieve the

borehole contact and tool stability required

to steer properly.
In instances where high build rates are
required and/or hole gauge inconsistency is
expected a PDM should be used. PDM
technology is highly configurable and
capable of producing extremely high build
rates when needed. It is also very seldom
affected by formation inconsistencies or
hole gauge inconsistency as severely as a
RSS assembly.
3. Rotation Mechanism

A RSS assembly does not generate any

rotation or torque and therefore must
depend on the drilling rig to supply rotation
and power to the bit. On smaller land rigs
the top drive or Kelly may not be powerful
enough to provide adequate rotation and
power for RSS drilling. In these instances a
PDM should be used because it is capable of
supplying rotation and torque to make up
for the lack of power supplied by the drilling
rig. While, PDM requires relatively high
pump rates as there is a tremendous
pressure drop across the power section in
PDM.
Drilling with a PDM above a RSS in the same
BHA can supply adequate rotation and
power for RSS drilling when rig power is
insufficient.
4. Horizontal Section with high Torque and
Drag

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Although RSS capabilities are not suited for

many drilling applications, there are some
instances when a RSS is the only tool
capable of drilling a well to target. As lateral
length of horizontal well increases, torque
and drag increase significantly to a point
when high torque and drag make sliding
impossible. When sliding is not an option
RSS drilling becomes the only possible way
to directionally steer the wellbore while
rotating.

torque and drag are high enough that

rotation is required to mechanically agitate
the drillstring so that it freely moves
through the borehole. When rotation is
required to drill, a RSS is the only tool
currently capable of directionally steering
the wellbore.

Operational Considerations
1. Instantaneous ROP

5. Tortuosity of Wellbore
PDM drilling produces a notoriously rough
borehole. Rotating with a bent housing
PDM results in borehole spiraling (a highly
tortuous wellbore), and can yield
instantaneous, severe doglegs.
A RSS steers continuously so the measured
DLS is continuous over the entire 100 foot
range measured and therefore eliminates
severe instantaneous doglegs. Ideally, the
borehole will be drilled as smoothly as
possible to minimize problems getting a
BHA stuck in hole, running casing to
bottom, or passing completion assemblies
through the hole.
All borehole inconsistencies create points of
contact and increase friction between the
BHA and borehole. Increased contact and
friction produce an increase in torque and
drag through the drillstring. As torque and
drag increase, transfer of weight to bit
becomes exceedingly more difficult. Sliding
eventually becomes impossible when

Hydraulic power from the flow system is

converted to rotation (rpm) and mechanical
power (torque) by a PDM. Whereas, RSS
assembly rely solely on power provided by the
drilling rig. In operations utilizing rigs with
limited power output from the top drive or
Kelly, RSS performance may be limited by a lack
in rig capacity to adequately generate the rpm
and/or torque needed to maximize ROP (ROP
depends upon RPM and torque). Therefore,
instantaneous ROP of RSS is low as compared to
PDM.

Drilling with a RSS assembly may produce a

slight decrease in instantaneous ROP in
some cases while still drastically improving
overall ROP. Elimination of slides, time
spent orienting a motor, back reaming
stands to smooth the borehole, trips out of
the hole to adjust motor bend settings, and
other operations common to PDM drilling.
2. Overall ROP

A drilling plan including a PDM will often

include multiple planned bit trips to adjust
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motor bend settings. When RSS technology

is utilized these bit trips can be eliminated
because RSS tools can be programmed to
adjust desired toolface and deflection
settings while downhole.
The ability to adjust tool settings without
tripping out of the hole can eliminate
multiple bit trips, decrease drilling time by
eliminating slides and other PDM
operations, and maximize overall ROP.

3.

Horizontal drilling

Horizontal drilling is frequently more

complex and more problematic than any
other well design. The complex nature of
horizontal drilling is a near perfect
application for RSS technology from an
operational standpoint (this may not always
be the case from an economic perspective).
However, most horizontal wells are planned
to maximize horizontal section in the target
zone by building the curve from KOP to LP
with the maximum DLS allowable for
completion and stimulation operations. The
DLS requirement through curve sections of
horizontal wells is often above the
operating limit of RSS capabilities. In such
cases, it is frequently beneficial to begin
drilling the curve with a PDM, and trip out
to pick up a RSS assembly once sufficient
angle is built for the RSS to achieve desired
build rates. Once the RSS is run in hole at
high angle it can be used to land the curve
and drill the lateral to TD. Again, RSS
utilization saves time by eliminating sliding,

reducing bit trips to adjust motor bend

settings, and maximization of overall ROP.
4. Hole Cleaning

Hole cleaning is improved by RSS operation,

especially in horizontal wells, as a result of
constant drillstring rotation while drilling.
During slides, cuttings can settle out of the
mud and end up deposited on the low side
of a highly deviated wellbore. Continuous
drillstring rotation aids hole cleaning by
mechanically agitating the mud system.
Mechanical agitation helps keep fluid flow
turbulent, keeps cuttings suspended in the
mud, and prevents cutting deposits from
forming in the wellbore.
5. Drill String Stuck

Continuous drillstring rotation also helps

prevent BHA sticking. Improved hole
cleaning aids in prevention of mechanical
sticking by helping to remove debris from
the borehole. Debris in the borehole
creates increased friction and hole
blockages which prevent motion of the
BHA. Mechanical sticking often leads to a
free-point and fishing operation with
marginal chances of success and large
amounts of non-productive time.
The most common time for differential
sticking to occur while drilling is during a
slide with a PDM. Drill pipe often remains
stationary through the entire duration of
the slide. Continuous drillstring rotation
prevents differential sticking by constantly
rolling drill pipe off of the borehole wall
20 | P a g e

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before it has a chance to become

differentially stuck.
PDM drilling notoriously produces high
tortuosity, borehole spiraling, borehole
ledges, and other unconformities, while RSS
drilling produces a smooth, clean borehole.
Many borehole logs require contact
between pads on logging tools and
formation rock. Smooth boreholes provide
a more consistent logging surface and help
to improve log quality as well as allow
logging tools to pass in and out of the
borehole without becoming stuck.
Economic Considerations
High RSS pricing deters many operators
from considering RSS usage. The common
argument states that RSS tools are too
expensive to warrant serious consideration
if a PDM can drill the well. This is
shortsighted and flawed logic when the
entire operation is considered in detail.
Often, the operational benefits of high
priced RSS drilling reduces cost significantly
when all operations are considered over the
duration of a project.
Many operators state instantaneous ROP as
an example of PDM superiority over RSS
technology in the land market. If a PDM can
achieve an ROP of X ft/hr and a RSS drills at
roughly the same ROP, why would anyone
consider paying higher prices for a RSS tool?
Even if the RSS saves time by eliminating
slides, rigs in the land market are

inexpensive enough that rig time saved will

not cover the added price of RSS tools. RSS
pricing is often as high as 50% of the entire
spread cost for many land operations. The
gaping hole in these arguments is
distinctions between instantaneous ROP
(ROP measured over a short interval while
on bottom drilling) and overall ROP (ROP
measured over an entire project including
survey times, bit trips, etc.), price ($/day
charge for a PDM or RSS tool) vs. cost (total
drilling expense including rig, MWD/LWD,
mud, generators, personnel, etc.), and time
saved outside of drilling operations by a RSS
assembly.
The entire spread cost of an operation must
be considered when making an economic
comparison between PDM and RSS systems.
Spread cost is the sum of all costs
associated to the operation, including the
rig, mud system, directional services (PDM
and/or RSS tools), measurement while
drilling and logging while drilling tools
(MWD/LWD), personnel, fuel for rig
generators, etc. A quality economic
comparison cannot be made when
evaluating only PDM vs. RSS pricing. The
distinction between price and cost is very
difficult for many operators to grasp and
can therefore be a major deterrent of RSS
drilling to the uninformed.
Spread rate is a highly important factor
when projecting or analyzing RSS economic
viability. A RSS assembly becomes more
economic as spread rates increase because
every hour of time saved is worth more. For
this reason, RSS assemblies have
21 | P a g e

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traditionally been popular in deepwater and

offshore applications relying on extremely
expensive drilling rigs and incurring very
high spread rates. In todays drilling market,
desire to drill more efficiently and minimize
cost is driving more operators to utilize high
end technology, such as RSS assemblies, in
the land market. In many instances RSS
tools can provide enough benefit to be
economic even when spread rates are
nominally low.

Case Studies
Field A Haynesville Shale, Northwestern
Louisiana
Field A is an organic rich shale deposit
ranging from approximately 11,500 ft true
vertical depth (TVD) to 13,000 ft TVD. The
formation is mostly heterogeneous and is a
few hundred feet thick in many places. Only
one significant challenge to drilling is
present in this field. It is very hot.
Temperature in the target formation ranges
from approximately 320F to 350F in most
areas.
The formation is drilled with oil based mud
(OBM) to prevent shale swelling. Life
expectancy of a PDM is reduced when run in
this environment because elastomers used
to make stators do not hold up well in OBM
at high temperature. As OBM flows past the
stator, gas evolves out of the mud and
penetrates the bond between the stator and
motor housing. High temperature
accelerates degradation of the stator and

stators chunk prematurely (Weatherford

Drilling Services).
Operators have found that RSS technology
outperforms PDM technology at the
temperatures present in this field. Recently,
RSS technology has become more popular
as a history of long bit runs has been built
and substantiated. Significant increases in
overall ROP have been recorded in laterals
drilled with a RSS in this field. Laterals
drilled with a RSS assembly average two
fewer bit runs per well than wells drilled
with a PDM. This is a savings of
approximately three days of rig time.
The average time spent drilling a lateral in
this field is eleven days when a PDM is used
and eight days when a RSS is used. In
addition to this, two extra days of reaming
have to be performed prior to beginning
completion operations after drilling with a
PDM. No reamer run is necessary when the
wells are drilled with a RSS assembly. This
increases the time saved by RSS drilling to
five days. Operators save an average of
$260,000 (29% decrease in cost) by drilling
with a RSS assembly in Field A. A graphical
depiction of days versus depth plot
comparing RSS performance to PDM
performance in Field A is presented in figure
3.
Horizontal wells can be drilled in Field A
with minimal sliding needed while PDM
drilling. The majority of rigs drilling in this
area support a top drive capable of
supplying RSS tools with ample drilling
22 | P a g e

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power. Overall ROP is nearly equivalent in

this field when PDM drilling or RSS drilling
so all time saved is hidden time.
Motor durability is a major issue in Field A.
RSS tools are not affected by temperature
when run within specification so all bit runs
made to replace chunking stators can be
eliminated when considering RSS drilling.
Figure shows that RSS tools were used to
land the curve and drill laterals to TD. This
means a trip out of the hole to adjust the
PDM bend setting can also be eliminated.
Overall ROP is roughly equivalent for RSS
and PDM assemblies so no time savings can
be assumed by elimination of sliding. Based
on these assumptions, a RSS assembly
should drill laterals in Field A in roughly
eight days. The reamer run can also be
eliminated when considering RSS drilling so
wells will be ready to turn over to
production after eight days.
Economically, the PDM vs. RSS breakeven
point is reached when a RSS takes 11.25
days to drill laterals in Field A and turn them
over to production. Laterals are projected
to drill and turn over to production in eight
days so RSS drilling appears to be much
more cost effective than PDM drilling. In
this case, field data supports calculated
projections and RSS drilling has been
proven to be highly economic.

Field B Haynesville Shale, Northeastern

Texas

Field B is contiguous and adjacent to Field A.

Both fields share the exact same reservoir
formation. Field B is slightly shallower than
Field A. It ranges from approximately
11,000 ft TVD to 11,500 ft TVD. The
formation is mostly heterogeneous and is
over a hundred feet thick in some places.
Unlike Field A, there is no significant
challenge to overcome in Field B.
Temperatures are less than 300F
throughout the field.
Drilling with a RSS assembly in Field B yields
a small increase in overall ROP and like Field
A the need for a cleanout run is present
after drilling with a RSS. Unlike Field A,
extreme temperatures do not frequently
damage mud motors. Laterals can often be
drilled to TD in one or two bit runs in Field B
since extra bit trips to replace a chunking
PDM is seldom necessary.
The average time spent drilling a lateral in
this field is eight days when a PDM or a RSS
assembly is used. In addition to this, two
extra days of cleanout have to be performed
prior to beginning completion operations
after drilling with a PDM. No cleanout run is
necessary when the wells are drilled with a
RSS assembly. Operators save an average of
$50,000 (7% decrease in cost) by drilling
with a RSS assembly in Field B. A graphical
depiction of days versus depth plot
comparing RSS performance to PDM
performance in Field B is presented in figure
5.

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While the wells are slightly cheaper to drill

with a RSS assembly, most operators are
drilling with PDM technology. The savings
are not significant enough to warrant the
extra risk incurred by running more
expensive technology downhole. Many
operators are concerned about massive lost
in hole replacement costs associated with
RSS tools and are not willing to risk paying
for a RSS tool in the event that it becomes
stuck downhole or damaged while drilling.

Improved overall ROP by elimination of

sliding, improved hole cleaning, reduced
potential for differentially or mechanically
sticking the BHA, increased lateral length
capability, better directional steering
capability, reduced nonproductive time for
tripping out of hole, improved well log
quality, and improved completions make
the rotary steerable system the most
operationally efficient and productive tool
for drilling the lateral legs of most
horizontal wells.

Horizontal wells can be drilled in Field B

with minimal sliding needed while PDM
drilling The majority of drilling rigs in this
area support a top drive capable of
supplying RSS tools with ample drilling
power. Overall ROP is nearly equivalent in
this field when PDM drilling or RSS drilling
so all time saved is hidden time. If a trip out
of hole to adjust PDM bend angle is
scheduled in the curve section of these
wells, picking up a RSS assembly and drilling
with it through LP to TD could significantly
improve economic benefits of RSS drilling.

As technology advances and day rates

continue to decrease, RSS tools will replace
PDM tools as the standard for directional
drilling.

RSS technology in its current form will never

completely replace the PDM, even as RSS
day rates and replacement costs decrease
over time. Both systems will be used for
specific applications where they are best
suited to perform.

A PDM can achieve significantly higher build

rates than the RSS technology in use today.
PDM usage is required in certain situations
such as kicking off from vertical, building
high DLS curves, open hole sidetracking,
and steering through formations with
severe tendencies to push the bit away
from target.

Drilling engineers should study a price vs.

cost comparison to fully understand the
economics of a RSS application.

Economic viability of a RSS system is more

impacted by spread rate and overall time

Conclusion
The operational benefits of RSS drilling
make it far superior to PDM drilling in most
cases. When comparisons are made to
show RSS operation is economically viable
in a project, RSS tools should be deployed.
RSS drilling is slowly becoming more utilized
as operators realize its operational and
economic benefits.

24 | P a g e

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saved than by the price differential
between a PDM and RSS assembly.

RSS applications require an in gauge hole to

yield best performance. Shallow wells or
well sections drilled through
unconsolidated or loosely packed
formations should be drilled with a PDM in
most cases.
Drilling engineers must calculate risk and
reward to adequately assess the economic
viability of running a RSS assembly. With
little drilling data or highly unreliable data,
drilling engineers in many instances will be
forced to model costs as a probabilistic
comparative estimate. This is especially true
in exploratory areas.
The decision to run RSS assembly or PDM
assembly should not be based on drilling
economics alone. Operational
considerations should be taken into account
to get a complete view of the overall cost of
the project and the feasibility of the
operation with each assembly.

References
D Stroud, M Russell, S Peach. 2003.
Development of the Industrys First
Slimhole Point-the-Bit Rotary Steerable
System. Paper presented at the SPE/ATCE,
Denver, CO. SPE 84449.
Al-Yami E. Al-Yami, Abdallah.A.Kubaisi,
Khalid Nawaz, Amir Awan, Jaywant Verma,
Sukesh Ganda. 2008. Powered Rotary
Steerable Systems Offer a Step Change in

Drilling Performance. Paper presented at

the Asia Pacific Oil & Gas Conference and
Exhibition, Perth, Australia. SPE
115491.
Kumud Sonowal, Bjarne Bennetzen, Patrick
Wong, Erhan Isevcan. 2009. How
Continuous Improvement Lead to the
Longest Horizontal Well in the World. Paper
presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling
Conference and Exhibition, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands. SPE 119506.
Hans-Henrik Ronnau, Peter Vilhelm Balslev,
Jon Ruszka, Carl Clemmensen, Sverre
Kallevig, Ralf Grosspietsch, Georg Mader.
2005. Integration of a Performance Drilling
Motor and a Rotary Steerable System
Combines Benefits of Both Drilling Methods
and Extends Drilling Envelopes. Paper
presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling
Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
SPE 91810.
Eric Maidla, Marc Haci. 2004.
Understanding Torque: The Key to Slide
Drilling Directional Wells. Paper presented
at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Dallas,
TX. SPE 87162.
Eichenberger, Mark. 2009. Horizontal
Drilling: A Comparison Between Drilling
with Rotary Steerable Systems (RSS),
Positive Displacement Motors (PDM), and
PDM with the Slider System. Paper
submitted to Darla-Jean Weatherford,
Texas A&M University, College Station,
Texas.
25 | P a g e

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Andy Syahputra, Bill Blaschke., and Jerry

Hudson. 2009. The Performance of Mud
Motors with Two Different Bend Housing on
Drilling a Lateral Section of Horizontal Wells
in North Dakota. Paper presented at the
SPE/IADC Middle East Drilling Technology
Conference and Exhibition,
Manama, Bahrain. SPE 125858.
Weatherford Drilling Services. Training
Manuals from Directional Drilling 1.
Weatherford International LLC. Houston,
TX.
Schlumberger. 2009. PowerDrive X6 Rotary
Steerable System Brochure. Paris, France.

26 | P a g e

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Figure 5: This chart shows days versus depth curve for two wells in Field A. Well 1 was drilled
with a RSS assembly while Well 2 was drilled with a PDM. The RSS substantially outperformed
the PDM in this case by saving six days of rig time and drilling 900 extra feet of lateral length.
The RSS assembly was also picked up higher in the curve section and completed the curve in
fewer days than the PDM by eliminating slides. Economic viability of drilling with a RSS in Field
A is also increased because a few days of rig time are saved during completion operations.
Clean out runs are required prior to running casing after drilling with a PDM but are not
required after drilling with a RSS in this field.

27 | P a g e

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Figure 6: This chart shows days versus depth curve for two wells in Field B. Well 1 was drilled
with a RSS assembly while Well 2 was drilled with a PDM. In Field B there is little difference
between RSS and PDM performance. The slope of each curve is relatively the same, showing
that both drilling assemblies yield roughly the same overall ROP. No time is saved drilling with a
RSS assembly but improved hole quality and all other benefits of RSS drilling are still present.
Drilling with a RSS in Field B is marginally economic because a few days of rig time are saved
during completion operations. Clean out runs are required prior to running casing after drilling
with a PDM but are not required after drilling with a RSS in this field.

HYBRID DRILL BIT TECHNOLOGY; A OPTIMUM & COST EFFECTIVE SOLUTION TO

MITIGATE DRILLING CHALLENGES IN PAKISTAN
SHEHROZ KHAN
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SZKHAN05@GMAIL.COM
+92-3332711357

Abstract
The hybrid bit technology is a fusion of Roller cone and PDC bits into a single, patented
design named as HYBRID DRILL BIT. This bit has proven to survive highly in interbedded
and hetrogenous formations, with smooth drilling and excellent tool face control.
Operators are achieving drilling rate improvements up to 62%; single bit run lengths are
increasing by exactly double, shaving days off standard rig times.
In Pakistan there is large number of hard and hetrogenous formations like Lower goru,
Pirkoh & kirther. Which significantly makes very low ROP and quickly wears the bit. This
paper deals with a hypothetical digital model which illustrates how we can increase the
drilling performance & cost efficiency in Pakistan with the help of hybrid bit.

Introduction
Pythagoras said whoever digs, finds, he who never digs, will never find. This quotation of
Pythagoras implies perfectly on petroleum industry. In petroleum industry no one can
predict that what is buried inside the subsurface without drilling it. Drilling is the second
name of exploration. Petroleum industry is all the game of economics and the drilling is
very expensive Process. So it is always the desire to have a optimum drilling practice to
arrive the target most economically method but with safety. The main tool which drill the
subsurface is Drilling BIT. A drill bit is what actually cuts into the rock when drilling an oil
or gas well. It is fixed at the tip of the drill string, below the drill collar and the drill pipe.
Currently there are two types of bits are being used in the industry i.e;
1. Roller cone bits, 2. Fixed cutter bits
Roller cone bits

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Roller cone bits comprise one, two, three cones or four having teeth sticking out of them.
A roller cone bit with three cones is the most often applied type of drilling bit. The cutting
action of this bit works like when it is rotated at the bottom of the hole, the teeth are
pressed onto the formation below the bit and applies a force exceeding the compressive
strength of the rock.
Fixed cutter bits
Fixed cutter or drag bits have no moving parts (bearings).

Hybrid Drill Bit

The benefits of combining multiple qualities into one component or machine can create
improved performance without necessarily reinventing the wheel. Although the concept
was not new. Early concepts of hybrid drill bits go back to the 1930s, but the development
of a viable drilling tool has become feasible only with the recent advances in
polycrystalline-diamond-compact (PDC) cutter technology. hybrid drill bit to combine roller
cone and PDC technology to produce a hybrid bit with maximum durability and cutting
efficiency in tough and challenging applications compared to conventional bit technology.
This has been achieved by using a basic PDC bit design and replacing the secondary blades
on the periphery with rolling cutters equipped with tungsten carbide inserts.
The resulting product is frequently referred to as a hybrid bit. Hybrid drill bit has number of
applications, including interbedded formations, chert or basalt, large-diameter applications
and directional drilling.

Perfomance of hybrid drill bit

Since every trip to replace a bit adds significantly to time and well cost, the focus of new bit
technology has been on increased durability, reduced bit erosion and longer runs, whether
drilling the vertical, curve or lateral section. As in previous years, several records fell in the
categories of both shortened time and increased distance drilled without pulling to surface.
Geologically heterogeneous (mixed) formations pose a significant challenge to drillers in
terms of drilling performance. Shale and other soft and plastically behaving rocks favor the
use of PDC bits, while hard and abrasive sandstone with hard cement stringers favors roller
cone bits. the best features of both bit designs to drill formations that constantly fluctuate
between hard and soft lithology, and often without notice.

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A hybrid bit allows the maintenance of overall penetration rate (ROP) at much higher levels
than that of a roller cone or PDC bit alone. Avoidance of the necessity of tripping for bits
due to formation changes or for premature bit wear is clearly advantageous.
Leveraging the cutting superiority of PDCs in soft formations and the rock-crushing
strength and stability of roller cones in hard or interbedded formations, the hybrid bit has
the potential to maintain higher overall rate of penetration (ROP) for more footage than a
roller cone or PDC could individually.
PERFOMANCE RESULT
Experience from the USA, The hybrid bit drilled successfully interbedded and chert
applications with single bit run lengths extended by more than 200% where up to a 35%
reduction in drilling time has been achieved in heterogeneous formations,
In Brazil a interval of geologically interbedded sandstone and shale sequences was drilled in
which the results shows that it drilled 90% faster and 20% farther than offset bit
performances. And 44% decrease in total drilling time has been achieved.

ADVANTAGES OF HYBRID DRILL BIT OVER OTHER BITS

Drilled more than twice as fast as premium roller-cone bits

Excellent directional performance on steerable motor

More efficient drilling using less WOB than roller-cones

reduced vibration tendencies which results minimal wear

APPLICATIONS IN PAKISTAN

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Pakistan's total sedimentary basinal area is approximately 827,000 sq km. Historical data
suggests that only 10-20% of the total sedimentary area of Pakistan has been explored and
a large part of the country is still either frontier or remains under-explored.
Following are the formations of Pakistan with their drilling experiences.

EPOCH

FORMATIONS

Habib Rahi Limestone

(HRL)
(e.g. Mari Field)
EOCENE

DRILLING
CHARACTERSTICS

BIT PERFOMANCE

The Eocene rocks are

represented very hetrogenous
lithological assemblage
(shales, Limestone, evaporate,
coal and minor sandstone)

ROLLER CONE BIT

Sui Main Limestone

(e.g. Sui Field)

-moderate ROP
-wear up quickly
PDC BIT
-Low ROP

Pirkoh Limestone

Period
Cretaceous
(In Pakistan it covers
280,000sq.km;
52% of the total
prospective
sedimentary basins.)

Formations

- wear up at moderate rate.

Drilling charachterstics
ROLLER CONE/PDC

GORU (Badin area

fields, Sanghar
area fields, Sawan,
Miano, Kadanwai,
Mari Deep and
other fields)
PAB SANDSTONE
(BHIT and
ZAMAMA field)

Drilling rate in Cretaceous sediments is generally low

because of their compactness corresponding to their age and
the extent of overburden they have been subjected to
average rate of penetration ranges from 0.5m/hour to
7n/hour depending on how much older is sediment. Very
hard and abrasive sections of Pab sandstone results in
undergauged hole.

The above data shows that Pakistani formations are less rooler/pdc friendly as they worn them
quickly and make their rate of penetration very low hence it creates very long drilling day curve.

32 | P a g e

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To cope this problem a hybrid drill bit can play a vital role in the drilling department of Pakistan
by making it economical which can increase the rate of exploration.

References

Petroleum geology of Pakistan by Iqbal B.Kadri published by PPL.

Hydrocarbon Development Institute of Pakistan, 2008, Energy Year Book, 2008:
Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Resources, Pakistan.
JPTs
One petro
Baker huges catalogues
Drilling Engineering (Curtin University of Technology)

33 | P a g e

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DRILLING AND COMPLETING DIFFICULT HP/HT WELLS WITH AID CESIUM FORMATE
BRINES-A PERFORMANCE REVIEW
Author: Muhammad Noman Khan ,Spe Membership no: 4082427
Cell: +923024248454; email: noman.khan09pg08@gmail.com

Abstract
Conventional drilling and completion fluids
containing weighting solids or hydrocarbons or
halide brines can create problems with hydraulics,
well control, well integrity and well productivity in
HPHT operations. The negative influence of
conventional fluids on drilling and completion
operations can be sufficiently serious to
compromise safety and degrade the economics of
challenging HPHT field developments.
Formate brines have been developed
specifically to provide improved drilling and
completion fluids that are free of the troublesome
components found in conventional fluids and
therefore better suited to meet the needs of oil
companies involved in difficult HPHT well
constructions.
Formate brines have been successfully used as

reservoir drill-in, completion, workover and

suspension fluids in more than 130 HPHT well
construction operations over the past 10 years.
These applications have included 100 cases in which
high down-hole pressures have necessitated the
use of cesium formate brines for well control
purposes.
Some 15 applications of cesium formate
brines to date have been HPHT reservoir drill-in
operations in high angle wells where operators
considered that conventional fluids could create a
safety risk and adversely effect project economics.
We review the published information on the field
performance of the cesium formate brines in HPHT
applications, and conclude that the novel benefits
of the technology that were first promised some 15
years ago during the early product development
phase have now been fully validated.
34 | P a g e

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Introduction
The objective of the drilling and completion
process is to safely deliver high quality wells that
are optimized in terms of providing shareholder
value:
-

Best well productivity at lowest drawdown

Best well integrity and longest structural
Lifetime
- Lowest well construction cost
- Lowest environmental impact and liability
exposure
- Best reservoir information capture
The choice of drilling and completion fluid used in
a well construction operation has a critical
influence on the extent to which an operator can
meet this objective. In particular the Fluids
performance will play a significant part in
determining
whether or not an operator meets its key
performance indicator targets in the following
areas:
- Time to drill and complete
- Well control and safety incidents
- Well integrity
- Well lifetime and maintenance costs
- Well productivity index
- Waste management costs
- Logging capability and interpretation
- Environmental footprint and impact
- Exposure to liability (short- and long-term)
The drilling fluid chosen for the upper well sections
must offer a host of functionalities:
- Ability to maintain the integrity of weak rocks
- Ability to minimize fluid loss into permeable
rocks
- Ability to provide stable well control
- Ability to efficiently transfer hydraulic power
- Ability to move cuttings to the surface
- Provide steel/steel and steel/rock lubricity
- Provide protection against all forms of
Corrosion.

Allow formation evaluation

Pose little or no hazard to rig personnel
Have little or no adverse effect on the
Environment.
- Have little or no adverse effect on elastomers
If the drilling fluid is to be used in reservoir
sections without further intervention it must cause
minimal change to the native permeability of the
reservoir rock in the near wellbore area. The
drilling fluid filtrate must also be compatible
with other filtrates that might leak-off from
subsequent cementing and completion operations.
A completion fluid should have the same overall
properties as a reservoir drilling-in fluid and, ideally,
should be the same fluid minus any drilled solids.
In the past these functionalities have been
provided by surprisingly low-tech/low-cost fluid
formulations based simply on slurries of barite
particles suspended in viscosified oil or water
containing halide salts (chlorides or bromides).
The problem now facing the oil industry is that the
process of economically extracting what remains of
the worlds hydrocarbon reserves is stretching the
traditional drilling and completion fluids to their
performance limits and beyond. This is particularly
true in the case of offshore HPHT field developments
where the application conditions are extremely
challenging and the required fluid performance
demands are exacting.
This paper examines how conventional drilling
and completion fluids have been failing to fully meet
the demands of difficult HPHT well construction. It
then charts the development of formate brines as
the new improved HPHT drilling and completion
fluids, from their origins in Shell Research in 1986
through to the present day use of cesium formate
brine in North Sea and Gulf of Mexico.
Our review of the published information on the
field performance of the cesium formate brines
in HPHT applications draws us to conclude that the
benefits of the technology that were first promised
some 15 years ago during the early product
35 | P a g e

P a g e | 36

development phase have now been fully validated.

Problem definition
Modern HPHT drilling conditions can expose the
inherent design failings of conventional drilling
1

fluids . The high loading of barite in conventional

muds creates high frictional pressure losses during
circulation in long sections, leading to unacceptably
high ECDs in narrow drilling windows. High
downhole temperatures can degrade the
solids-carrying capacity of conventional muds,
causing both dynamic and static barite sag and
increasing the risk of loss of well control in highangle wells. Oil-based muds can absorb large
volumes of gas and this can cause well control
problems too if the muds remain static for long
periods in long horizontal holes.To make thing
worse, an influx of hydrocarbon gas into oil-based
mud may destabilize the formation and cause
barite sag. Laboratory return permeability tests done
on samples of a range of conventional mud types
taken directly from the field show that they can
2

cause considerable formation damage , and the

presence of very high levels of barite in high-weight
muds formulated for high-pressure wells cannot
improve matters
The use of Corrosion Resistant Alloys (CRA) in
HPHT wells has been exposing fundamental flaws in
the performance of conventional completion fluids
based on chloride and bromide brines. It is welldocumented that severe localized corrosion and
stress corrosion cracking of CRA tubulars will take
place in HPHT wells if they are exposed to chloride
and bromide brines containing oxygen, CO2 or
3-9

H2S .Furthermore, the sulfur-containing corrosion

inhibitors commonly used in halide brines are
known to decompose to H2S at high temperatures
and create
10

another source of stress corrosion

cracking . To date the vendors of halide brines

seem to have made little progress towards finding

an effective inhibitor to mitigate the serious

corrosion problems created by their products in
HPHT wells.
In conclusion, a review of the challenge posed to
conventional fluids by the demands of HPHT
operations indicates that the use of hydrocarbons,
solid weighting agents and halide brines (chloride
and bromides) in drilling muds and completion
fluids increases the risk of problems with well
control, well integrity and well productivity. The
negative influence of conventional fluids on drilling
and completion operations can be sufficiently
serious to compromise safety and degrade the
economics of difficult or ambitious HPHT field
developments.
The birth of formate brines
In the early-1990s Shell had a small drilling fluids
research team based in The Netherlands looking at
how to deal with the problems caused by
conventional fluids in HPHT operations. The team
decided that the best way forward was to focus
on finding a new fluid system that could provide
all of the required functionality under HPHT
conditions without resorting to the inclusion of
hydrocarbons, solid weighting agents and halide
brines. In their view the ideal solution was one that:

reduced hydraulic flow resistance

eliminated solids sag
did not solubilise hydrocarbon gases
was not destabilized by the influx of reservoir
gases
reduced localized or pitting corrosion by acid
gases
eliminated stress corrosion cracking
did not require the use of corrosion inhibitors
avoided causing formation damage
It appeared that an aqueous formulation based
on solids- free, non-corrosive brine might
provide the required properties. The question of
which brine to use had already been partially
36 | P a g e

P a g e | 37

answered by another of Shells research teams

working on drilling fluid viscosfiers in the mid1980s. This team had discovered that the
temperature stability of common drilling fluid
polymers was enhanced when they were
dissolved in a q u e o u s solutions containing high
levels of sodium and/or potassium formates11.This
insight gave them novel ability novel ability to
formulate solids-free brine formulations with
densities up to SG 1.57 (13.1ppg) that had viscosity
and fluid loss control stability at high temperatures.
Further investigation showed that the density
ceiling of formate brine systems could be extended
to SG 2.30 (19.2ppg) with cesium formate12-14.This
breakthrough made it possible to create a
seamless suite of formate brines suitable for use
as solids-free drilling and completion fluids across
the commonly required density range; a feat that
had never been possible before. At the closing
stages of the first phase of product development in
1995 the perceived advantages of the formate
brines when compared with conventional HPHT
drilling and completion fluids were15:
Minimal formation damage
Maintenance of additive properties at high
Temperatures
Elimination of barite and its sagging problems
Reduced hydraulic flow resistance

Lower ECDs

Lower swab and surge pressures

Better power transmission to motors and

Bits
Low gas solvency

Better kick detection and well control

Faster flow-checks

Low potential for differential sticking

Naturally lubricating
Reduced torque and drag
Inhibition of hydrate Formation.
Non-hazardous
Very low corrosion rates, local and general

No stress corrosion cracking

Compatibility with elastomers
Biodegradable and posing little risk to the
environment
The advent of fluids with such a unique set of
performance advantages promised to eliminate a
host of HPHT well construction problems caused by
the inherent deficiencies of traditional drilling muds
and brines.
What is wrong with conventional HPHT drilling
fluids?
High level of weighting solids create problems,
1) High ECD (equivalent circulating density
2) Potential to sag
3) High swab and surge.
4) Differential sticking risk.
5) formation damage (Intractable).
6) failure of hydraulically-activated tool and valves.
conventioanl drilling and completing fluids
containing weighting solids or HCS or halide brine
can create problems with hydraulics,well
control,well integrity and well productivity in HPHT
operations.
What is wrong with conventional oil-based HPHT
drilling fluids ?
Oil phase can create well control problems.
Oil is a good solvent for natural gas.
Can create a well control problem if left static in
horizontal well.
Gas/condensate influxes can destabilise oilbased muds

Well control problem created by barite sag after

destabilisation.
What is wrong with conventional HPHT
completion fluids?
Environmental contamination of halide brines can
cause structural failure in Corrosion Resistant Alloys
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P a g e | 38

(CRA 13Cr, 22Cr, 25Cr) ,Chloride and bromide*

brines can cause pitting corrosion and Stress
Corrosion Cracking of CRA if O2 or CO2 are present .
Making A Better HP/HT Drilling /Completing
Fluid?
Remove
weighting solids, oil and halides to correct the fluid
performance deficiencies .
Reduce the flow resistance.
Improve well control .
Reduce local corrosion and SCC .
Reduce formationdamage.
What is Cesium Brine Formate?
Cesium formate brine is high-density, low-viscosity
clear brine that makes the ideal non-damaging
reservoir drilling fluid. Cabot Specialty Fluids 2.2
s.g. / 18.36 ppg cesium formate brine is produced
from pollucite at the TANCO mine in Manitoba,
Canada. It is supplied in bulk or packed in 1 m IBCs.
In the density range 1.58 s.g. 2.1 s.g. / 13.2 17.5
ppg cesium formate is normally blended with
potassium formate brine. In addition to lowering
fluid cost, the use of blends minimises the brines
water content and provides improved fluid
properties over diluted cesium formate brine.
Cesium formate can also be blended with sodium
formate for unusual applications where the
presence of potassium ions needs to be minimized.

Benefits of Cesium Formate Brine in HP/HT Wells

Cesium formate brines from Cabot Specialty Fluids
are ideally suited for challenging HPHT drilling,
completion, workover and fraccing operations.
Time and time again these unique products have
improved economics and reduced risk in HPHT well
construction projects. Here's a list of the most
compelling reasons to choose cesium formate
brines from Cabot Specialty Fluids:\
Improve well control

The risk of a well control incident happening in your

HPHT well is much reduced when you use formate
brine as a drilling and completion fluid.
Lower ECD
The use of low-solids drilling fluids based on
formate brines reduces ECD by around 0.04 0.06
s.g. / 0.3 0.5 ppg in a typical deep HPHT well.
Minimise formation damage and avoid screen
plugging. Most users report well productivity
indices that exceed expectations after drilling and
completing in formate brine.
Improve well integrity
Avoid the risk of catastrophic localized corrosion
and stress corrosion cracking in well tubular
exposed to acid gases.
Set new higher HSE standards and reduce liability
No other high-density fluids come close to matching
the high HSE standards set by cesium and potassium
formate brines.
Reduce risk and uncertainty
Formate brine is a reliable and mature product,
deployed and field proven in over 250 HPHT
operations since 1999 at well temperatures of up to
235C / 437F and pressures up to 1,100 bar.
Drilling Fluids Using Cesium Formate in HPHT
Wells
This unique brine enhances the economics and
safety of HPHT gas field developments by:
Reducing well delivery time
Reducing HPHT well completion times by an average
of 30 days and eliminating the need for well
stimulation or intervention.
Enabling recovery of gas/condensate reserves in
the shortest time
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Enabling High-angle HPHT well constructions that

can be completed in open-hole with sand screens for
maximum production rates and recovery efficiency.
Several HPHT gas fields drilled and completed with
cesium formate brine show 90% recovery of reserves
within eight years.
Providing improved well security and safety:
Improving HPHT well security and safety by:
Eliminating barite and its sagging problems
Virtually eliminating gas diffusion problems in
high-angle wells
Creating lower ECD and swab/surge pressures
Inhibiting hydrate formation
Rapid surface detection of any gas influx from
kicks or well swabs
Reducing fluid-handling hazards
Minimizing environmental risk
Cesium formate fluids have achieved a record 350plus drilling days in high-angle HPHT gas wells
without a single well control incident.
Improving reservoir evaluation
Very reliable and consistent net reservoir definition
is provided by LWD bulk-density and resistivity
measurements made in HPHT wells drilled with
cesium formate. The highly conductive fluid
environment facilitates generation of high-quality
resistivity image logs (FMI). These provide detailed
reservoir information, including structural dip,
depositional environment, sedimentary features,
facies and geological correlations.
Stuck pipe pill
Aside from its use as an HPHT drilling fluid, cesium
formate brine also has an interesting nice
application as a fast-acting liquid pill for releasing
drill pipes differentially stuck in OBM filter cakes.
Laboratory tests show that cesium formate brine
pills can rapidly destroy OBM filter cakes and aid
pipe release.

Completion Fluids Using Cesium Formate Fluid in

HPHT Wells
Cesium formate brine is a heavy low-viscosity clear
fluid, purpose-designed to provide the oil industry
with a better and safer completion fluid for HPHT
wells.
Cesium formate brines have been used as
completion, well testing and suspension fluids in
more than 80 challenging HPHT wells since 1999
and have demonstrated the following advantages
over traditional high-density completion brines:
Reduced formation damage
Cesium formate is essentially incapable of causing
permanent formation damage. Most users report
that after a few weeks of production their well
productivity indices exceed expectations after
drilling and/or completing in cesium formate brine.
This is true both for perforated liner and open-hole
sand-screen completions.
New improved HSE standards and reduced
liability
No other high-density brines come close to
matching the high HSE standards set by cesium
formate brine. Using cesium formate brine greatly
reduces the risk of creating long-term liability down
the line.
Improved well integrity
The use of buffered cesium formate brine reduces
the risk of catastrophic localized corrosion and
stress corrosion cracking in well tubulars exposed to
HPHT acid gas influxes.
Extreme durability
Cesium formate brine can be safely deployed in
extreme HPHT wells where traditional completion
brines would cause major problems. Field
experience in the Mako-6 well (BHST: 235C/455F)
in Hungary has shown that suspension fluids based
39 | P a g e

P a g e | 40

on buffered cesium formate brine will tolerate

months of exposure to a combination of extreme
temperatures/pressures and acid gas influxes. The
worth of cesium formate brines as HPHT
completion fluids in dynamic underbalance
perforating operations has been clearly shown in
the Visund, Rhum, Braemar and Judy fields. In some
cases, cesium formate brine has been successfully
deployed as the emulsified internal brine phase of
low-solids oil-based completion fluids.
Intervention Fluids Using Cesium Formate Brine in
HPHT Well
Cesium formate brine is a heavy low-viscosity clear
fluid, purpose-designed to provide the oil industry
with a better and safer well control fluid for HPHT
well interventions. Its unique hydrothermal
chemistry ensures its stability and durability over
long periods in HPHT wells.
Furthermore, cesium formate brine protects
common viscosifiers and fluid loss control additives
against thermal degradation allowing the
formulation of very effective well kill pills that can
control fluid loss for several days under HPHT
conditions. Some operators routinely have cesium
formate-based kill pills ready on a stand-by basis at
the rig site.
Cesium formate brine is a powerful suppressant of
gas hydrate formation and can be used in pills to
melt hydrate plugs (e.g. as used in Elgin/Franklin
wells). To date cesium formate brines have been
used as well intervention and suspension fluids in
around 20 challenging HPHT wells and have
demonstrated the following advantages over
traditional high-density intervention fluids:
Reduced formation damage
Cesium formate is essentially incapable of causing
permanent formation damage. Most users report
that after a few weeks of production their well
productivity indices exceed expectations after

exposure to cesium formate brine during well

interventions.
New improved HSE standards and reduced liability
No other high-density brines come close to matching
the high HSE standards set by cesium formate brine.
Using cesium formate brine avoids compromising
safety and greatly reduces the risk of creating longterm liability.
Improved well integrity
The use of buffered cesium formate brine reduces
the risk of catastrophic localised corrosion and
stress corrosion cracking in well tubulars exposed to
HPHT acid gas influxes.
Extreme durability
Cesium formate brine can be safely deployed for
long periods in extreme HPHT wells where
traditional well intervention and well suspension
fluids would cause major problems. Field
experience in the Mako-6 well (BHST: 235C/455F)
in Hungary has shown that suspension fluids based
on buffered cesium formate brine will tolerate
months of exposure to a combination of extreme
temperatures/pressures and acid gas influxes. The
worth of cesium formate brines as HPHT well
intervention fluids has been clearly shown in the
Elgin, Franklin, Rhum, Mako and Kvitebjrn fields.
This has included HPHT well suspensions for up to
two years. Cesium formate brines quickly destroy
OBM filter cakes and have a nice application as
pipe-free pills.
Increased Your HPHT Well Profitability With
Cesium Formate Brines
1) Drill and complete faster and easier.
2) Improve well safety and reduce risk.
3) Reduce need for future interventions.
4) Maximize well performance.
Formate brine have been developed specifically to
provide improved drilling and completing fluids that
40 | P a g e

P a g e | 41

are free of the troublesome components found in

conventional fluids and therefore better suited to
meeting the needs of oil companies involved in
difficult HPHT well construction.

carbonate particles (1-3%) were added for pore

bridging. The wells were all drilled without any
borehole or fluid-related problems. There were no
sticking problems, no build-up of cuttings beds, and
the torque and drag was immediately reduced after
displacing to formate mud.
The fluid costs and maintenance costs were
significantly reduced as a result of using the
potassium formate brine. Other benefits attributed
to the brine included:

First field trials of formate brines in HT wells

In 1996 Mobil conducted the first field trial of a
formate-based drilling fluid in a high temperature
well 16. Mobil reported that the use of potassium
formate brine as a low-solids drill-in fluid provided
the following benefits in this first trial:
Excellent polymer stability at 154C (310F)
Effective hole cleaning
ROP increased by 20%
No formation damage (skin factor=0)
Thin, easily removable filter cake
Good inhibition of formation clays
No corrosion
Reduced incidence of differential sticking
Low treatment costs during drilling
Over the next 3 years Mobil used potassium
formate brine as a drill-in fluid in a further 15 deep
gas wells in Northern Germany. The performance

25% lower pump pressures

25% increased ROP
100% success rate in running production liner
Once the wells had reached TD, the used drilling
fluid was processed through normal solids-control
equipment to remove the majority of bridging
agents and drill solids. The processed fluid was
then used as a completion fluid during the
completion phase. The wells were put on
production with a typical production rate 35%
higher than expected (or higher than previous
17

17

of these fluids was reviewed in 2000 .

The potassium formate brine was used by
Mobil in an attempt to eliminate the drilling
problems that had occurred in offset wells where
bottom hole static temperatures were as high as
155oC (311oF). The problems encountered with
conventional water-based polymer mud included
inadequate solids suspension, poor solids transport,
stuck pipe, and tight holes. Mobils migration to
formate-based fluids eliminated most of their
problems and brought well construction costs
under control.
The drilling fluids were formulated using
potassium formate brines with densities up to
SG 1.55 (12.9 ppg). Xanthan polymer was added
for viscosity control, and PAC or modified starch
was used to provide fluid-loss control. Sized calcium

offset wells). Mobil concluded :

Formate-based fluids have been applied as high
density,
temperature
stable,
low
solids,
environmentally friendly, non-damaging,
noncorrosive drilling and reservoir drilling fluids
The use of formate-based fluids has resulted in a
dramatic increase in drilling performance and
hydraulics.
Since the use of formate-based fluids has
been implemented the productivity of wells has
increased compared to wells drilled with
conventional muds
Stuck-pipe incidents have been significantly
reduced with formate-based fluids due to thinner
filter cakes and the naturally low friction coefficient
of formates.
Despite exposure to temperatures of up to 165C
(329F) BHST the polymers in the formate brine
have retained their stability.
41 | P a g e

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Corrosion has been minimal to negligible.

A decade later potassium formate brines are

continuing to provide the solution to the challenges
posed by drilling deep high-angle gas wells. In SPE
paper 92407 and accompanying slides18,19, Saudi
Aramco have described how they have successfully
used fluids based on potassium formate brine to
drill and complete a series of long horizontal wells
at 13,900 ft to 14,600ft TVD in hard and abrasive
sandstone. Aramco report that one of the first
wells drilled with a low-solids SG 1.44 (12.0 ppg)
formate fluid exhibited greatly improved drill
string/wellbore lubricity and bit performance,
reduced torque and drag, reduced ECDs and lower
pump pressures. Wells Tinat-3 and Hawiyah-201
gave excellent flow test results, the best seen to
date in their respective field
Cesium formate production
By the end-1996 it was clear, from Mobils initial
field trials of potassium formate, that low-solids
fluids based on formate brines with densities up to
SG 1.55 (12.9 ppg) could indeed fulfil their
promise in deep gas well drilling and completion
operations where the BHSTs extended up to 165oC
(329F). The only factor preventing the field testing
of formates under even more extreme conditions
was that there was insufficient cesium formate
brine available to make useful volumes of highdensity formate brines for HPHT drilling and
completion. It was at this critical point that Cabot
Corporation came to the rescue and announced
that it was to build a large-scale cesium
extraction plant, the only one of its kind in the
world, at the TANCO mine site located in
Manitoba,Canada.
Without
this
timely
intervention by Cabot the high-density formate
brines would not now be available in kiloton
quantities to fill the gap left by the failure of

conventional drilling and completion fluids to

perform adequately in HPHT well constructions.
Mining started on the TANCO site in 1929
when Jack Nutt Mines Ltd opened a shaft to extract
tin ore from the pegmatite rock body located under
Bernic Lake. The pegmatite was found to contain
around 80 different minerals within 8 mineralogical
zones, and it was mined intermittently for
lithium and tantalum for the next 60 years. One of
the pegmatite zones is made up of high-quality
pollucite ore (cesium silicate) and contains >80% of
the worlds known reserves of cesium.
Cabot Corporation purchased the mine in 1993
and within 3 years embarked on a $50 million
investment program aimed at creating a mining and
extraction facility capable of producing commercial
quantities of cesium formate from the pollucite ore
body under Bernic Lake. Within a further 2 years
the production plant was producing 700 bbl/month
of SG 2.2 (18.3 ppg) cesium formate brine only for
use in HPHT drilling and completion fluids
To ensure that distribution channels were kept
clear Cabot Corporation established its own
specialist fluid service company, Cabot Specialty
Fluids (CSF), that provides the cesium formate
brines to oil companies on a day-by-day rental
basis. CSF has brine storage and service centres on
the Gulf coast in USA, and at locations in UK,
Norway, Dubai and Egypt. At the time of writing the
company has 30,000 bbl of SG 2.2 cesium formate
brine in stock, or being used in the field.

First cesium formate applications in HPHT wells

Offshore UK
Cesium formate brine first entered service as
an HPHT completion fluid in September 1999. It
was successfully applied as SG 1.80 (15 ppg)
perforating fluid in a BHST 185oC (365oF) well
in the Shearwater field operated by Shell UK.
Just a month later Total UK used SG 1.90
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P a g e | 43

(15.8 ppg) cesium formate brine as an HPHT

completion fluid in the Dunbar field. This was
followed by a further 7 applications of SG 2.19 (18.2
ppg) cesium formate brines as completion and
workover fluids in Totals Elgin/Franklin fields over
the next 12 months. The BHST in one of these
wells was as high as 207oC (405oF) and cesium
formate brine was exposed to this temperature for
18 months during a well suspension operation.
Over a period of 6 years cesium formate brine has
been used 24 times by Total as an HPHT
completion fluid in their Dunbar, Elgin, Franklin
and Glenelg fields.
Offshore Norway
Only 16 months after first field trial as a
completion fluid an SG 1.92 (16 ppg) cesium
formate brine was used with great success as a
drill-in and completion fluid in the first of
statoils Huldra wells (BHST:147 oC or 297 o F) in
the Norwegian sector of the North Sea. Five more
Huldra wells were drilled and completed with the
cesium formate brines between March 2001 and
April 2002.
Statoil went on to drill-in ,core, log and complete 2
high- angle HPHT wells in the Kristin field (BHST:
175oC or 347oF) with a fluid based on SG 2.09
(17.40 ppg) cesium formate brine. In June 2004
Statoil began using SG 2.09 (17.40 ppg) cesium
formate brine as a drill-in and completion fluid for a
series of 7 HPHT wells Kvitebjoern field. Statoil have
used cesium formate brines in 44 HPHT well
operations in the past 5 years.
Offshore USA
In early-2002 BP used SG 2.11 (17.60 ppg) cesium
formate brine for an HPHT well (BHST 176oC or 350
oF) intervention job in the offshore High Island
field. Three years later Walter Oil and Gas used a
17.2 ppg cesium formate brine as a completion

fluid at 215oC (420oF) in a Mobile Area 862 well.

Onshore
In November 2005 the Hungarian operator, MOL,
used SG 1.86 (15.5 ppg) cesium formate brine as
a completion fluid for a perforating and frac-pac
operation in gas well Vetyem-1. This was the first
use of cesium formate brine in an onshore HPHT
well.
Overview of cesium formate use in HPHT wells
The formate brines make perfect drilling and
completion fluids for difficult well construction
projects where extraordinary fluid performance is
critical for economic success. They have been used
in more than 400 wells since their commercial
introduction in 1993 and the demand for formate
brines has been growing steadily at a compound
rate of approximately 30% per year over the past
decade. As an indication of the current dimensions
of the business it is estimated that the annual
revenues generated from the sale and rental of
formate brines to the oil industry in 2005 should
exceed $ 45 million.
Since entering service in 1999 cesium formate
brines have been used in 101 individual HPHT
operations in 21 different fields. In this time they
have passed extensive and rigorous field-testing:
At densities up to SG 2.25 ( 18.7 ppg)
At temperatures up to 215oC (420oF)
For periods up to 18 months down hole
In hole-angles from near-vertical through to
horizontal
In oil, gas and condensate reservoirs (all
Sandstone) with permabilities from < 1mD to 2
Darcy
Figure 1 shows the applicational segmentation of
cesium formate jobs to date (October 2005). The
majority of applications have been completion
jobs, 54 with straight cesium formate brine or
43 | P a g e

P a g e | 44

blended potassium/cesium formate brines and 10

with low-solids oil-based fluids containing cesium
20-22

formate brine as the soluble weighting agent

.
The completions have been of various kinds:

Cased and perforated

With sand control screens

Barefoot (open hole)

Gravel pack
So far only some 20 of the 64 completion
operations have been reported in SPE papers 1,20-24
but the track record of the throughout. Perforating
with the cesium formate brine after drilling-in with
oil-based muds has been a particular success
story22.
Laboratory studies have shown that formate
brines are non-corrosive, and protect carbon
steels and CRA against localized/pitting corrosion
caused by acid gases 8,25,16.Just as importantly,
formate brine do not cause stress corrosion
cracking of CRA tubular at high temperatures, even
in the presence of acid gases27. Field use has
validated the findings of
these
laboratory
corrosion studies. Well productivities appear to
have either met or exceeded expectations, as is
normally the case when formate brines are used as
drill-in or completion fluids 28,29. The risk of
thermal decomposition of formates at high
temperatures is a common concern to new users of
cesium formate. In practice, however, none of
the five major oil companies who regularly use
cesium formate have been able to find any
evidence of thermal decomposition taking place in
their HPHT wells. The cases examined include the
Elgin/Franklin well suspension operations where
cesium formate brines have been exposed to
down hole temperatures of 207oC (405oF) for
30

periods of more than year .

Cesium formate brines have been used 16 times
as HPHT drill-in fluids for difficult high-angle wells,
all so far in the North Sea and almost entirely(15)

23

with Statoil(in the Huldra ,

Kvitebjoern

and

24

Kristin fields ). With the exception of the two

Kristin wells, where Statoil experienced problems
24

with hole enlargement in some shale sections ,

the project managers have all expressed satisfaction
with the field performance of cesium formate
brines as the basis for low- solids HPHT drill-in
fluids. The following list of comments is taken from
the five public domain papers 1,20-24 written by
BP and Statoil engineers on their experiences of
using drill-in and/or completion fluids based on
cesium formate brines:
General
Major operational success for BP
Cesium formate has a niche application in
HPHT wells with open hole completions

Well productivity
Return permeability tests show a substantial
Improvement
Good well flow performance
Resulted in six-fold increase in well production
Use of cesium formate is an important
Contribution to improving well productivity
Target production rates will be easily achieved
Clean-up treatments not necessary
Reduced negative effects from
incompatibilities
between drilling fluid and completion fluid
Reduced risk of screen plugging
High productivity from wells
Fluid stability
Stable fluid properties at high temperatures
Stable mud properties
Well control
No well control or loss situation
Provides an extremely good well control
44 | P a g e

P a g e | 45

Environment
No sag potential
Elimination of barite sag
Low gas solubility
Virtual elimination of gas diffusion into
horizontal wells
Quick thermal stabilization during flow checks
Well stabilizes quickly during flow checks

Hole stability and cleaning

Good hole stability in interbedded sand and
shales
No hole stability problems
Caliper log of 8 hole shows 9 in shale
section above reservoir, and 11 in coal layers
Good hole cleaning
Less mud conditioning and wiper trips than usual
Hydraulics
ECD is generally SG 0.04-0.06 at 4,500 metres
Good correlation between PWD data and
hydraulic calculations
Reduced ECD improved ROP in hard formations
Lower ECDs (SG 0.03-0.05) than with OBMs
Good ROPs
Fast tripping speeds
Fast casing running speeds
ECD is higher when drilling clay than when
drilling sand
Thorough understanding of fluid behavior
Drilled reservoir at 10 metres/hour
Low ROP in shale solved by using PDC bit
with sharp cutters
Differential sticking
Low potential for differential sticking
Successfully drilled long horizontal at only
200 psi overbalance
Lubrication

Torque values indicate friction factors as low as

0.22
Casing wear similar to that observed with OBMs
No need to add lubricants
Materials compatibility
Aflas elastomers used on all plugs and packers
No tool failures or incidents relating to
elastomers
Cementing
Compatible with cement slurries
Very effective casing shoe squeeze on first
attempt
Completion
Transition from drill-in fluid to completion
Fluid was simple, since both systems use same
Base fluid
Less screen plugging risk
Logging
Logging interpretation is manageable
Filtrate can be non-static during data acquisition
Consider acquisition of core data to calibrate log
Response
Problems getting WL-logs past coal layer
Results demonstrate that the effects of
formate
muds on nuclear logs can be accurately
predicated 31
Effect on rig time
Drilling benefits have given rig time savings
Reduced time to complete the well
In addition to normal use
completion fluids the cesium
have applications as stand-by
by stuck-pipe release pills.

as HPHT drill-in and

formate brines also
kill pills and standIn these cases the
45 | P a g e

P a g e | 46

brines are sent offshore, on long-term rental, for

contingency reasons. The brines have one
further important use, namely as solids-free well
suspension fluids, where they have been supplied
on rental terms for up to 18 months. These
assorted applications have so far accounted for 21
field requests for cesium formate brines.
Figure 2 shows the user segmentation of cesium
formate jobs to date. Statoil has been the biggest
user by far, followed by Total/Elf, Norsk Hydro,
Shell and BP. On a regional basis all but 3 of the 100
offshore operations using cesium formate have
been in the North Sea.
Published field case histories Huldra field, offshore
Norway, 200123
Huldra is a gas condensate field in the
Norwegian sector of North Sea operated by Statoil.
During drilling and completion of this field, high
temperature and pressure conditions were
encountered in the reservoir section (675 bar,
150C or 302oF). The difference between the pore
pressure and fracture pressure gradient was small
in the reservoir. The Huldra gas stream contained
3-4% CO2 and 9-14 ppm H2S. The wells were
drilled at a 45 - 55 inclination through the
reservoir and completed with 300-micron singlewire-wrapped screens.
When the first production well was drilled in
this field, with oil-based mud, a severe well kick
was experienced while running the sand screens.
The main reason for the kick was a loss of drillingfluid density due to barite sag during the wiper trip.
A cesium formate-based drill-in fluid was therefore
selected for the following wells to improve well
control. The main benefits identified with the
cesium formate brine compared with the oil-based
fluid were: no sag potential, low ECD, less screen
plugging risk, (low solids), use of solids that could
be acidized (CaCO3), low gas solubility,
environmentally

friendly,

and

quick

thermal

stabilization during flow checks.

Return permeability testing was carried out and
the predicted reduction in formation permeability
after drawdown (due to adherence of residual filter
cake) was in the range 36- 70%. Further testing
showed that incorporating a treatment with dilute
organic acid to remove residual filter cake was
effective in restoring core permeability to its nearnative state. The operator decided to go ahead
and use formate fluid, knowing that any
formation damage would be shallow and could be
removed by a simple dilute acid soak at balance.
The drilling operation itself was characterized by
good hole stability, low ECD and good hole
cleaning. The excellent rheology and thermal
stability of the drilling fluid led to rig-time savings
from faster tripping speeds, faster casing-running
speeds, less mud conditioning and fewer wiper
trips. The ROP was also good, at 10 meters/hour.
The drilling fluid was circulated over a combination
of 250, 300, and 400-mesh shaker screens before
the completion screens were run. After running the
screens, the drilling fluid was replaced with
filtered cesium formate completion brine.
Statoil report that the six Huldra wells drilled
and completed with cesium formate brine are each
producing with excellent average Productivity
Indices of around 1.9 million scf/day/psi. In fact
plateau production rates were achieved from the
first three wells of the six-well project. The Huldra
project manager is quoted as saying: For the
specific conditions of the Huldra field there was no
realistic fluid alternative for successfully drilling and
completing the wells. There were no obvious
signs of formation damage in the wells, and no
acid stimulation was required. This finding casts
some doubt over the the meaning of results
obtained from the reservoir-conditions core-flood
testing at an independent laboratory which had
suggested that the wells would be impaired by
inadequate removal of drilling fluid filter-cake
under drawdown.
46 | P a g e

P a g e | 47

Devenick field, offshore UK,2001

Devenick is a gas condensate field operated by BP
in the UK sector of the North Sea. A SG 1.68 (14
ppg) cesium formate fluid was chosen by the
operator to drill and core a 1,000 metre
horizontal HPHT appraisal /development well in the
field. The low-permeability sandstone matrix of the
Devenick reservoir is very hard and abrasive, and is
deemed to be a significant challenge to drill and
complete. A long horizontal wellbore was required
in order to yield sufficient productivity and to
penetrate the different reservoir segments. The
priority was to minimize reservoir damage by
using a low-solids drilling fluid. With a planned
maximum deviation of 88o, and a BHST of 135oC
(275oF), barite sag and well control issues were a
concern.
Formate brine was believed to offer several
advantages over oil-based mud (OBM), and was
primarily selected on grounds of formation damage
characteristics, low ECD and potential for improving
ROP and well control. Return permeability testing on
Devenick reservoir core samples indicated that the
cesium formate brine would cause minimal
formation damage compared to oil-based mud. This
was an important consideration given that an open
hole completion was programmed.
Also, hydraulic modeling suggested that the
formate brine would reduce the ECD by
approximately 300 psi over an OBM, giving wider
safety margins between pore and fracture pressure.
Equally important for this well was the fact that the
ECD reduction would reduce the apparent rock
strength seen by the bit by 23%, arguably yielding a
similar improvement in ROP. Other horizontal HPHT
wells drilled previously by BP had suffered wellcontrol problems, and the use of formate brine was
believed to offer a much-reduced well-control risk
over an OBM fluid. Elimination of barite sag and no

diffusion of methane into the horizontal wellbore

were the main reasons for this. With the hard
nature of the reservoir sands, slow drilling rates of
2-3 m/hr and short bit life were expected. The 6
interval was programmed for 60 days and 17 round
trips for alternate drilling and coring runs. A
turbine-motor was used instead of a mud-motor.
Significant rig time was saved during drilling
since the fluid was stable and did not require
additional time to circulate and condition mud to
counter sag during trips. Coring was difficult
because the angle of the bedding plane kept
causing the core samples to break. After a
successful logging run the hole was displaced to
clean cesium formate brine for the completion.
The reported results from the completed well were
promising, with good production and zero skin. The
BP project team is quoted as saying that they felt
the well would have been difficult to deliver
without the use of cesium formate brine. In
addition to the advantages discussed above, the
team felt that the fluid brought a number of HSE
advantages such as elimination of the need for skip
& ship, no well-control incidents and better
integration between drilling and completion. The
advantages with the fluid far outweighed the
disadvantages, which were fluid cost and increased
complexity in the reservoir log analysis.
22

Visund field, offshore Norway, 2002

The Visund field is a subsea development offshore
Norway. Norsk Hydro put the field on production
in 1999. The field was taken over by Statoil in
2003. Visund has proven to be a highly complicated
reservoir with a complex geology. Permeabilities
range from 300 to 3,000 mD.The Visund
reservoir was accessed by a series of wells drilled
and completed with long horizontal sections to
reach several targets with one well. The wells have
relatively
high
pressures
and
moderate
temperatures (440 bar, 115C or239oF). Sand
47 | P a g e

P a g e | 48

control was aided by oriented perforating in the

direction of maximum stress.
The wells were drilled at high overbalance with
oil-based mud. The long drilling times under these
conditions resulted in deep mud filtrate invasion
around the wellbore. The first wells were
perforated with standard oriented perforating
system with zinc-cased charges in a SG 1.65 (13.8
ppg) CaCl2/CaBr2 perforating kill fluid. When the
wells were put on stream, the chokes were plugged
by large chunks of zinc oxide.
These wells showed significantly lower
productivities than should be expected from the
reservoir characteristics. A study was carried out to
identify the source of the problem. Several areas of
improvement were identified, including the fluid
system. The CaCl2/CaBr2
brine formulation
proved to be unstable and viscous, making it
difficult to achieve a good cleanup. The brine was
also found to be incompatible with the formation
water. Further laboratory studies showed that
reactions between zinc powder by-products from
the charges and CaCl2/CaBr2 brine caused the kill
pill to lose its fluid-loss- control properties, which
then resulted in formation damage. The idea of
replacing the brine with oil-based mud was
abandoned because of high particle content.
A new perforating system was developed which,
among other changes, replaced the zinc charges.
The CaCl2/CaBr2 perforation fluid was replaced
with a low-solids oil-based fluid weighted up with
cesium formate brine. Five new oil- producing wells
were drilled and perforated with the new system
under
dynamic
underbalanced
conditions.
Productivity Indices for the previous wells were in
the range of 60-90 Sm3 oil /day/bar, whilst the
new wells were ranging from 300 to900 Sm3 oil
/day/bar. It was concluded that the effect of the
changes to the perforating system, combined
with the application of dynamic underbalance and
the new formate- weighted fluid, was responsible

for the 3 - to 6-fold increase in productivity. The

formate-based fluid is believed to be one of
the main contributors to the improved well
productivity.
24

Kristin field, offshore Norway, 2003

Kristin is a HPHT gas condensate field in the
Norwegian sector of North Sea operated by Statoil.
The Kristin Field is located approximately 240 km
west of the mid-Norwegian coast with an average
water depth of 360m. With a reservoir pressure
and temperature of around 900 bar and 170C
(338oF) respectively, Kristin has been labeled a
high pressure,
high temperature (HPHT) field. The Kristin field
development is based on four sub-sea templates
with a total of twelve production wells. All the
wells are completed with 6-5/8 open-hole
screens with a slot width of 350-micron. The
reservoir has a pore pressure equivalent to a mud
weight of SG
1.98. The difference between the pore pressure and
fracture pressure gradient in the reservoir is small,
giving a narrow drilling window.
The reservoir sections (300-400 metres, 3246 inclination) of the first two Kristin wells
were drilled and cored at a 50 bar overbalance
using a fluid based on SG 2.09 (17.40 ppg) cesium
formate brine. Statoil report that the ECD was in
the range SG 0.04-0.06, comparing favorably
against oil-based muds that generally give ECD of
SG 0.09-0.11. The coring runs were successful but
the logging was difficult apparently because of hole
enlargement(16 and occasionally larger) in the
Lange shales above the reservoir. It is understood
that similar hole enlargements were seen in
exploratory wells drilled using oil-based mud.
The Kristin wells were plugged back for temporary
suspension since completion equipment was not
ready. They have since been completed in cesium
48 | P a g e

P a g e | 49

formate brine.
24

Kvitebjorn field, offshore Norway, 2004/5

The Kvitebjorn field is another HPHT (BHST:
145oC or293oF) gas condensate field in the
Norwegia sector of the North Sea. Over the past 18
months the operator has drilled and completed the
300-400 metre reservoir sections (24-30o
deviation) of six Kvitebjorn wells with fluids based
on SG
2.02 cesium formate brine. Statoil report that the
ECD during drilling was low, as previously seen in the
Huldra and Kristin wells.
The first Kvitebjorn well, A-04, was cored to TD
in the cesium formate brine and then logged
successfully on wireline. Unlike the Kristin wells,
the hole sizes and hole condition through the shales
in the Kvitebjorn wells are said to have been good.
The 300-micron sand screens were run without
incident before displacing from cesium formate drillin fluid to cesium formate completion brine.
The 7 production string was also run without
incident. The brine losses for the drilling phase
were 28.5m3 (179 bbl), which compares favorably
with the 35m3 (220 bbl) programmed estimate.
There were 8 round trips for coring, etc., with the
7.56m3 (47 bbl) total tripping loss giving an average
0.95m3 (6 bbl) loss per trip. On the second
Kvitebjorn well, A-05, the formate brine losses for
the drilling phase were 30.7m3 (193 bbl), which
compares favorably with the 36m3 (226
bbl)programmed estimate. There were 7 round
trips, with the 3.02m3 (19 bbl) total tripping loss
giving an average 0.43m3 (2.70 bbl) loss per trip.
Conclusions
The many papers written by operators, over a period
of 10 years, on their experiences of using formate
brines have indicated that these fluids can add

significant value to difficult

well construction projects by:
Improving well control
Reducing NPT
Improving well productivity
Improving well integrity and lifetime
Enabling complex well constructions
Facilitating access to difficult reserves
Reducing waste disposal costs
Reducing waste liability
The development of cesium formate brine began
15 years ago as Shells response to demands for a
solution to the performance shortcomings of
conventional drilling and completion fluids that
were being exposed by the demands of HPHT well
construction operations. The view of the original
development team back in the early-1990s was
that HPHT well control, integrity and productivity
could be improved by the use of a novel drilling
and completion fluid, such as cesium formate
brine, that was a free of solid weighting agents,
12-15

.
halides and hydrocarbons
It was fortunate that
the management of Cabot Corporation embraced
this view at an early stage and was willing to invest
very large sums of money in making sufficient
cesium formate brine and fluid engineering
resources readily available to the oil industry.
After 100 field applications of cesium formate
brine in HPHT wells it seems that its original
promise as a drill-in and completion fluid has been
largely fulfilled. By using this low- solids non-halide
brine, operators have been able to drill and
complete challenging HPHT wells with a degree of
success, economy and security that would have
been difficult to achieve using conventional fluids.
Published field test results indicate that cesium
formate brines have been meeting expectations in
terms of providing the hydraulics, well control, well
integrity and well productivity required to safely
and economically deliver a high-quality HPHT
well.Cesium formate has proven to be an excellent

49 | P a g e

P a g e | 50

replacement for the highdensity halide brines, and

has just about completely displaced zinc bromide
brine as a completion fluid in the North Sea
arena.
Formates have a good reputation as shale
drilling fluids 32-36, and cesium formate brine
itself
has
clearly
provided
good shale
stabilization in 14 out of the 16 HPHT wells
where it has been used as a drill-in fluid. The hole
enlargement through cap-rock shale sections that
have been reported in the two Kristin wells are
therefore anomalous and need further investigation
With the recent movement towards Maximum
Reservoir Contact well geometries, and the
discovery of further examples of incompatibilities
between halide brines and CRA, it now seems
that the schedule for the development and
commercial production of cesium formate brine has
been both timely and fortuitous.
Acknowledgments
This paper is dedicated to Cabot Specialty Fluids
and the development of cesium formate brine as a
HPHT drilling and completion fluid.
Nomenclature
CRA
=
ECD
=
=
OBM
=
ROP
=
SG
=

Corrosion Resistant Alloy

Equivalent Circulating Density HPHT
High Pressure, High Temperature
Oil-Based Mud
Drilling Rate of Penetration
Specific Gravity

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Low, E. and Schwartz, H.: HPHT Well Control;
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Oil
Recovery
Conference, Kuala Lumpur, 20-21
October 2003.
23. Saasen, A., Jordal, O.H., Burkhead, D., Berg,
P.C., Lklingholm, G., Pedersen, E.S., Turner, J.
and Harris, M.J.: Drilling HT/HP Wells Using
51 | P a g e

P a g e | 52

a Cesium Formate Based Drilling Fluid,

IADC/SPE 74541, IADC/SPE Drilling Conference,
Dallas, 26- 28 February 2002.
24. Aase, M.: What to Take Into Account When
Planning Your HPHT Project, presentation by
Statoil to HPHT Well Drilling, Completing and
Monitoring Conference arranged by IQPC,
Aberdeen, UK, 6-7 December 2005.
25. Leth-Olsen, H.: CO2 Corrosion of Steel in
Formate Brines for Well Applications.
Corrosion 2004 NACE, Paper No. 04357, New
Orleans, USA, March 28 April 1 (2004).
26. Downs, J.D., Benton, W., Carnegie, A. and
Leth-Olsen,
H.: Inhibition
of
CO2
Corrosion by Formate Fluids in High
Temperature Environments, Proceedings of
the RSC Chemistry in the Oil Industry IX
Symposium, Manchester, UK, 31 Oct-2
Nov 2005.
27. Downs, J.D. and Leth-Olsen, H.: Effect of
Environmental Contamination on Susceptibility
of Corrosion Resistant Alloys to
Stress
Corrosion
Cracking
in
High-Density
Completion Brines, SPE 100438, SPE 2006
Oilfield Corrosion Symposium, Aberdeen, UK,
30 May 2006.
28. Byrne, M., Patey, I., George, E., Downs, J.D.
and Turner, M.: Formate
Brines:
A
Comprehensive
Evaluation
of
Their
Formation DamageControl PropertiesUnder
Realistic ReservoirConditions,SPE
73766,
SPE International Symposium on Formation
Damage Control, Lafayette, 20-21 February
2002.
29. Downs, J.D., Howard, S.K. and Carnegie, A.:
Improving Hydrocarbon Production Rates
Through the Use of Formate Fluids, SPE
97694, presented at
SPE International
Improved Oil Recovery Conference in Asia
Pacific,
Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia, 5-6
December 2005.

30. Benton, W., Harris, M., Magri, N., Downs, J.D.

and Braaten, J.: Chemistry of Formate Based
Fluids, SPE 80212, presented at SPE
International Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry,
Houston, Texas, 5-8 February 2003.
31. Guo, P., Gilchrist, W.A., page., G, Wills, P. and
Brown, A.M. : Interpretation of Nuclear
Logs in Formate-Based Drilling Fluids in a
North Sea Well , presented at SPWLA 43rd
Annual Logging Symposium, June 2-5, 2002
32. Chenevert, M.E.: Drilling Fluid
Optimization in Shales.Swelling Pressure and
Compressive Strength of Shale, Topical
Report, Prepared for Gas Research Institute,
Contract No. 5093-210-2898, December 1998.
33. Hallman, J.H., Mackey, R., and Swartz, K.:
Enhanced Shale Stabilization
With
Very
Low
Concentration
Potassium
Formate/Polymer Additives, SPE 73731, SPE
International Symposium and Exhibition on
Formation Damage Control, Lafayette, 20-21
February 2002.
34. Mackey, R. and Hallman, J.: Low
Concentration Formate Fluids Improve Drilling
in Water-Based Muds in Difficult Shale
Environments in Western Canada, IV SEFLU
(Seminarion de Fluidos de Perforacion y
Terminacion de Pozos), Isla de Margarita,
Venezuela, 5-8 June 2001.
35. Hallman, J. and Bellinger, C.: Potassium
Formate
Improves Shale
Stability
and
Productivity in
Underbalanced Drilling
Operations, CADE/CAODC Drilling Conference,
Calgary, 20- 22 October 2003.
36. Zuvo, M., Bjornbom, E., Ellingsen, B., Buffagni,
M., Kelley, A. and Trannum, H.C.: High
Resolution Environmental Survey around an
Exploration WellDrilled with Formate Brine in
the Barents Sea, Norway, SPE 94477, 2005
SPE/EPA/DOE Exploration and Production
EnvironmentalConference,
Galveston, Texas, USA, 7-9 March 2005.
52 | P a g e

P a g e | 53

Figure 1 Segmentation of cesium formate brine use by operator, 1999-2005

2 1 11 1

Statoil
Total

Hydro
44

Shell
BP

13

Walter
COP Dong
Marathon
MOL
24

53 | P a g e

P a g e | 54

54 | P a g e

P a g e | 55

A REPRESENTATIVE FLUID MODEL

Author: Muhammad Shoaib (Petroleum Engineer, NEDUET)
Cell: +92-334-3410650; email: shoaibakhter_786@hotmail.com
Co-authors: Faizan Ali (Lecturer, PED, NEDUET), Muzammil Hussain Rammay (Lecturer, PED,
NEDUET), Mustahsan Hussain (Lecturer, PED, NEDUET), Hafiz M. Bilal (Petroleum Engineer,
NEDUET), Wasif Shaukat (Petroleum Engineer, NEDUET), Abdul-Ahad (Petroleum Engineer,
NEDUET), Talha Shakil (Petroleum Engineer, NEDUET)
system that changes as it is being depleted.
Experiments that are conducted in PVT labs
are; Constant Composition Expansion (CCE),
Differential Vaporization Analysis (DVA),
Constant Volume Depletion (CVD), Flash
Separation, Viscosity Measurement, DCAT
Analysis and Relative density measurement.
Paper provides brief introduction of flow
process to obtain fluid properties of retrograde
gas condensate fluid in PVT lab. Material
balance calculations using Whitson Torp
Method are performed on CVD experiments to
investigate potential data problems.

ABSTRACT
A representative fluid model is necessary for
accurate simulation of retrograde gas
condensate reservoirs. Three steps are involved
in generating representative fluid model;
1. Obtaining representative fluid sample
from field
2. Measuring fluid properties in PVT lab
3. Construction of fluid model using PVT
software
Fluid sample should be representative of
reservoir to be studied. Improper well
conditioning and sample contamination can
lead to false results. Paper discusses how a
representative sample can be obtained from
field and the procedure that should be adopted
while sampling. Paper also discusses how to
quality check the sample before going for PVT
experiments.

EOS modeling of data obtained from PVT lab is

performed on PVTP software of IPM suite and
PVTi of eclipse and results are shown in paper.
Simulation of gas condensate reservoirs is very
complex. Obviously, a key component in the
modeling is to develop a representative fluid
model.
REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE

Phase behavior of a hydrocarbon reservoir is a

dynamic event that is controlled by pressure,
temperature and composition. So, PVT
experiments are performed on the quality
checked sample to predict the physical
properties of the reservoir fluid that will exist
and govern the production of a hydrocarbon

In order to study the phase behavior of gas

condensate reservoir, a sample should be the
true representative of reservoir fluid.
Optimum conditions for sampling are:

55

P a g e | 56

reservoir fluid enters as shown in figure 2(b).

Once the sample chamber fills with reservoir
fluid, floating piston acts on closure device. The
fixed piston moves into the sample chamber to
isolate the sample. A mechanical locking device
ensures that the tool cannot re-open as shown
in figure 2(c). Since the closure is completed, a
spool valve opens and releases pressure
compensating fluid as shown in figure 2(d).

Sampling early in life of reservoir

Collect sample before bottomhole
pressure drop below dew point
pressure.

If the bottomhole pressure drops below dew

point pressure, sample will not be
representative of reservoir fluid as shown in
figure 1. Condensate drops out near wellbore
and original reservoir fluid cant be collected
during sampling.

Formation testers can collect sample directly

from the reservoir. It involves probe and seal
assembly. It is not recommended for well
drilled with oil based mud.

WELL PREPARATION FOR SAMPLING

Flow the well until non-representative fluid is
replaced with fresh unaltered fluid. Flow well at
normal producing rate for approximately 24
hours. After that reduce the flow in steps and
observe the GOR, API, etc. change in each step.

Sub Surface Sampling

Subsurface sampling can be done either from

bottom-hole samplers or formation testers.

Surface Sampling

In surface sampling, oil and gas samples are

taken from the outlet streams of separator.
Accurate measurement of oil and gas rate can
be achieved from measurement system.
Separator oil and gas samples are combined in
the laboratory at measured GOR to obtain
reservoir fluid. Large volumes of oil and gas can
be collected in case of surface sampling.
Surface sampling avoids loss of production
during required shut-in period for subsurface
sampling and it also avoids tool stuck risk.

TYPES OF SAMPLING

Formation tester

Bottom-hole samplers

Bottom-hole samplers collect reservoir fluid

from borehole. Limited volume can be collected
in case of bottom-hole samplers. During
running of bottom-hole sampler on slick line,
nitrogen charge on the surface primes the
pressure compensating fluid. Sample ports are
closed while mechanical clock sets opening
time of regulator valve as shown in figure 2(a).
When the bottom-hole sampler reaches
sampling point, regulator valve is opened by
the clock. Buffer fluid passes to the air chamber
while floating piston is moved as single phase

Conventional oil and gas sampling bottles are

shown in figure 3.

Wellhead Sampling

Wellhead sampling is the least common but the

easiest and reliable method if only one phase is
flowing from reservoir to surface sampling. It is
typically used for highly under-saturated oil.

56

P a g e | 57

PARAMETERS CALCULATION

= 6852

0.728 0.983
= 6903 /

Oil flow rate

Liquid flow rate required by lab is the flow rate

at separator conditions. Liquid flow rate were
measured at the tank during sampling which
has an average value of 383.5 STB/day. To be
used in the lab, this tank flow rate must be
converted to separator flow rate using a
shrinkage factor. The shrinkage measured in
the field conditions by the shrinkage tester
show a value of 0.958 STB/bbl. The final
condensate flow rate at separator conditions
was
=

383.5
= 400.3 /
0.958

Gas bottles

Oil bottles

SAMPLE QUALITY CHECK

Liquid and gas samples quality check are
performed as shown in table 1 and 2
respectively. One example of bubble point
determination of liquid sample is shown in
figure 4.
After validity check of the samples the
separator liquid sample from bottle X was
selected as the most representative as it shows
a bubble point pressure of 97psia at separator
temperature, which is very close to the
separator
pressure
of
100psia.
The
corresponding gas bottle A has molecular
composition similar to other samples and no air
content was detected and hence selected from
the gases. The two bottles were used for
physical recombination to obtain reservoir fluid
using a separator lab GLR of 6903scf/bbl.

=
= 22897 100 143.5
= 2742815 /

1
2

Three samples of oil and gas were taken.

Sample bottles were given following names;

Gas flow rate

Field GOR

1
2

SAMPLE BOTTLES

During the sampling the static pressure has the

value of 100psia while the differential pressure
has an average value of 143.5 inches of water.
Gas flow rate calculated is as follows;

0.742 0.979

2742815
= 6852 /
400.3

Lab GOR

=
1/2

1/2

Composition of gas sample was determined

using gas chromatograph while oil composition
was determined using oil chromatograph. After
57

P a g e | 58

physical combination, resultant gas condensate

fluid composition was determined using gas
chromatograph. For verification, resultant fluid
composition was also determined using PVTP
software by defining GOR and other properties.
Compositions are shown in table 3.

Process diagram of Fluid Eval (PVT cell) is

shown in figure 5. After transferring oil and gas,
pressure of PVT cell was increased to reservoir
pressure or above reservoir pressure. CCE
(Constant Composition Expansion) and CVD
(Constant Volume Depletion) experiments were
performed on the pressurized sample.

To physically recombine the oil and gas samples

in lab, following calculations are performed.
= 6903

Experimental procedure of CCE is;

= 1229.3

= 12293

10

With 10cc oil, gas volume required is

= 12293 = 0.43415 3
Number of moles of gas is calculated by;
=

Measure the total cell volume at

reservoir pressure or above reservoir
pressure.
Decrease the cell pressure and allow the
cell to come to equilibrium. Note the
cell volume at decreased pressure.
Continue the procedure until the
minimum desired pressure is reached.
Calculate relative volume from cell
volumes.

CCE results are shown in table 4. Pressure was

plotted against cell volume and dew point of
4952psi was obtained at the break of curve.

14.7 0.43415
=
= 0.00114

10.732 520

Fluid Eval (PVT cell) volume was set to 2000cc

using computer interface APPILAB software.
Pressure corresponding to 2000cc volume of
PVT cell, reservoir temperature of 1750F and
0.00114 moles of gas comes out to be

CVD experiment was performed after CCE and

the procedure of CVD is as follows;

0.00114 10.732 635

=
=

2000
= 110.3 = 95.6

Now, gas was entered in the Fluid Eval using

Automatic Pump at constant pressure of
95.6psig. When equilibrium pressure was
achieved, oil volume of 10cc was transferred
into Fluid Eval using Automatic Pump.

58

Pressurized the sample till dew point

pressure and reservoir temperature
Decrease the pressure and allow the
fluid to equilibrate.
Remove a portion of the gas phase so
that the cell volume is equal to the
original cell volume.
Decrease the pressure and repeat the
process
At each pressure step, determine the
composition of flashed gas using gas
chromatograph while at the last

P a g e | 59

abandonment pressure, oil composition

is determined using oil chromatograph.
Table 5 shows the results.
Note the retrograde liquid volume at
each step and calculate the % of
retrograde
liquid
volume
in
hydrocarbon pore space (or cell
volume). Along with that, also calculate
Z-factor. Table 6 shows the results.

Quality check of PVT Data

CVD data should be of good quality and should

have minimum errors in the mass balance
results. The mass balance was performed using
Whitson-Torp Algorithm on a spreadsheet
model. The Whitson-Torp algorithm was used
to calculate the liquid composition of different
components at the abandonment pressure and
molecular weight and specific gravity of the C7+
component in the liquid at that pressure.
Calculated results of liquid composition,
molecular weight and specific gravity of the C7+
component were matched with the reported
liquid composition, molecular weight and
specific gravity of the C7+ in the liquid and
percentage error was then calculated.
Minimum percentage difference shows
excellent quality check of PVT data as shown in
table 7.

RESULTS FROM EOS MODEL

EOS model was developed and the comparison
of calculated experimental parameters and
measured values are shown in figure 6 (a, b, c.
d).
CONCLUSION
To have a representative fluid model, it is
necessary that sample should be representative
of reservoir fluid, accurate sampling procedure
should be adopted, PVT laboratory experiments
should be performed adequately and EOS
modeling should be performed correctly. If
every step is performed in correct manner then
fluid model will predict the physical properties
of the reservoir fluid correctly that will exist
and govern the production of a hydrocarbon
system that changes as it is being depleted.

GENERAL PROCEDURE ADOPTED FOR EOS

MODELING:

Pseudo component is split and binary

interaction coefficient is used to match
saturation pressure.
Lab data is entered and deviation
between calculated values from EOS
and measured experimental values are
checked.
If deviation is found then Binary
Interaction Coefficients and critical
properties of pseudo components are
regressed.
After regression, EOS model is lumped
for use in Simulation Model to reduce
the simulation time.

From the available composition at

reference pressure, temperature and
depth; EOS model is built using PengRobinson EOS.

REFERENCES
*1+ L. P. Dake, Fundamentals of Reservoir
Engineering
59

P a g e | 60

*2+ Mark P. Walsh & Larry W. Lake, A

Generalized Approach to Primary Hydrocarbon
Recovery
[3] Tarek Ahmed,
Handbook

Reservoir

Shandrygin, Curtis Hays Whitson, Ed. Andersen,

Understanding Gas Condensate Reservoirs
*7+ SPE 38855, EOS Simulation and GRNN
Modeling of the Behavior of Retrograde-Gas
Condensate Reservoirs

Engineering

*4+ William D. McCain, Properties of Petroleum

Fluids

*8+ SPE 133258, Quality Check of GasCondensate PVT Studies and EOS Modeling
Under Input Data Uncertainty

*5+ API, Sampling Petroleum Reservoir Fluids

second edition April 2003
[6] Li Fan, Billy W. Harris, A. Jamaluddin, Jairam
Kamath, Robert Mott, Gary A. Pope, Alexander

60

P a g e | 61

Figure 1: Non-representative sample condition

Figure 2: Sub surface sampling schematic

61

P a g e | 62

Figure 3: Conventional oil and gas sampling bottles

Figure 4: Bubble point determination of sample X at 730F

62

P a g e | 63

Figure 5: Process diagram of Fluid Eval (PVT Cell)

63

P a g e | 64

Fig. 6(a): Comparison of calculated and observed values of CCE Relative Volume after regression

Fig. 6(b): Comparison of calculated and observed values of CCE Z-factor after regression

64

P a g e | 65

Fig. 6(c): Comparison of calculated and observed values of CVD Liquid dropout after regression

Fig. 6(d): Comparison of calculated and observed values of CVDZ-factor after regression

65

P a g e | 66

Table 1: Liquid samples quality check

Oil bottles No.

Bubble point pressure (psia)

97

113

96

@ Temperature (deg F)

73

73

73

Table 2: Gas samples quality check

Gas bottles No.

Air content (mole %)

0.00

0.00

0.00

Cylinder opening pressure (psia)

95

100

100

@ Temperature (deg F)

71.6

71.6

73.4

Table 3: Separator liquid separator gas and reservoir fluid compositions

N2
CO2
H2S
C1
C2
C3
i-C4
n-C4
i-C5
n-C5
C6
C7+

Separator liquid
0.03
0.03
0
2.33
1.65
3.15
1.86
4.77
4.54
5.98
10.65
65.01
100

Separator gas
1.73
0.42
0
79.67
9.47
4.46
1.02
1.55
0.56
0.53
0.35
0.24
100

66

Reservoir fluid
1.54
0.37
0
70.79
8.57
4.31
1.12
1.92
1.02
1.16
1.53
7.67
100

P a g e | 67
Pressure Measurement
(psig)

Temperature
Measurement (F)

Total Cell Volume (cc)

Relative Volume

6500.0
6000.0
5500.0
5200.0
5000.0
4952.0
4932.0
4850.0
4750.0
4600.0
4400.0
4150.0
3850.0
3500.0
3000.0
2500.0
2150.0
1800.0
1090.0

175.0
175.0
175.0
175.0
175.0
175.0
175.0
175.0
175.0
175.0
175.0
175.0
175.0
175.0
175.0
175.0
175.0
175.0
175.0

2733.704
2807.392
2896.482
2959.298
3007.618
3020.000
3025.134
3048.992
3080.098
3132.948
3209.958
3322.302
3490.214
3730.304
4211.692
4942.230
5706.592
6803.758
11472.376

0.9052
0.9296
0.9591
0.9799
0.9959
1.0000
1.0017
1.0096
1.0199
1.0374
1.0629
1.1001
1.1557
1.2352
1.3946
1.6365
1.8896
2.2529
3.7988

Tabl
e 4: CCE results
Table 5: Flashed Gas composition at different pressures and liquid composition at Pa

PRESSURE, psig
Nitrogen
CO2
H2S
C1
C2
C3
i-C4
n-C4
i-C5
n-C5
C6
C7+
TOTAL yjk

700
0.33%
2.60%
0.00%
77.80%
8.70%
3.91%
0.78%
1.56%
0.64%
0.66%
0.90%
2.12%

Eq. liq,
mole%
700
0.02%
0.59%
0.00%
12.42%
3.36%
2.92%
0.91%
2.09%
1.40%
1.60%
3.68%
71.01%

100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%

100.00%

4952
0.31%
2.37%
0.00%
73.19%
7.80%
3.55%
0.71%
1.45%
0.64%
0.68%
1.09%
8.21%

4300
0.32%
2.40%
0.00%
75.56%
7.83%
3.47%
0.67%
1.37%
0.59%
0.62%
0.97%
6.20%

Equilibrium vapor, mole%

3500
2800
2000
0.33%
0.34%
0.34%
2.45%
2.50%
2.53%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
77.89% 79.33%
79.62%
7.87%
7.92%
8.04%
3.40%
3.41%
3.53%
0.65%
0.64%
0.66%
1.31%
1.30%
1.33%
0.55%
0.53%
0.54%
0.58%
0.56%
0.57%
0.88%
0.83%
0.82%
4.09%
2.64%
2.02%

67

1300
0.34%
2.57%
0.00%
78.90%
8.40%
3.74%
0.72%
1.44%
0.59%
0.61%
0.85%
1.84%

P a g e | 68

Table 6: CVD Results

Pressure
Measurement
(psig)
4952.0
4300.0
3500.0
2800.0
2000.0
1300.0
700.0

Retrograde Liquid
volume (% of
hydrocarbon pore
space)
0.0
13.0
19.9
21.1
20.5
19.3
17.9

Z - factor

1.003
0.942
0.894
0.875
0.879
0.906
0.943

Table 7: Mass Balance using Whitson Torp Algorithm

Equilibrium liquid, mole%
Calculated
PRESSURE,
psia

6764.7

5514.7

4314.7

3114.7

2114.7

1214.7

714.7

Experimental

% Difference
w.r.t
experimental

714.7

Compj

Nitrogen

#N/A

-0.14%

0.54%

0.64%

0.59%

0.37%

0.110%

0.11%

0.41%

CO2

#N/A

0.40%

0.32%

0.33%

0.28%

0.21%

0.130%

0.13%

0.15%

H2S

#N/A

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

0.00%

0.000%

0.00%

0.00%

C1

#N/A

40.38%

39.57%

36.40%

30.08%

21.63%

12.577%

12.58%

0.03%

C2

#N/A

8.34%

8.35%

8.09%

7.69%

6.53%

4.577%

4.59%

0.28%

C3

#N/A

5.06%

5.24%

5.54%

5.73%

5.30%

4.717%

4.72%

0.06%

i-C4

#N/A

1.67%

1.73%

1.90%

2.10%

2.15%

1.959%

1.96%

0.06%

n-C4

#N/A

3.16%

3.05%

3.15%

3.39%

3.51%

3.552%

3.55%

0.06%

i-C5

#N/A

1.85%

1.94%

2.08%

2.31%

2.64%

2.679%

2.68%

0.03%

10

n-C5

#N/A

2.61%

2.60%

2.76%

3.03%

3.47%

3.619%

3.62%

0.01%

11

C6

#N/A

0.98%

2.45%

3.13%

3.85%

4.75%

5.576%

5.58%

0.06%

12

C7+

#N/A

35.69%

34.21%

35.99%

40.95%

49.42%

60.504%

60.48%

0.04%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

100%

Mwc7+k, lb/lb-mol

162.57

162

0.35%

Specific gravity, C7+

0.801

0.801

0.06%

TOTAL xjk

68

P a g e | 69

Modelling Transient Behaviour of Shale Gas Reservoir Using Analytical Model to

Evaluate Shale Gas Price in Pakistan's Environment
Author: Aelia Hussain, NED UET
E-mail: aeliahussain90@gmail.com Cell: 0343-2216386

ABSTRACT

(2) Fracture network with low total porosity and

high permeability.

Technological advances and improved gas prices

have made Shale Gas extraction more feasible in
the present era. Horizontal drilling and hydraulic
fracturing are the two techniques which have
enabled operators in all over the world and
especially in North America to produce the
previously untapped shale gas reservoirs.
Pakistans economy has suffered immensely
over the years due to the chronic shortage of
electricity for the industrial sector. With
estimated 50-200 TCF of shale gas reserves in
Pakistan, it has become a necessity to exploit
the indigenous resources to fulfill the energy
requirements of the country instead of relying
on foreign crude for the purpose of power
generation.

Owing to the very low permeability values

(typically in nano-Darcies), a shale gas well is in
the transient state for most of its life.
The approach adopted, based on previous
studies (Wattenbarger et. al., 2010), models the
transient linear flow regime through a
horizontal well with 20 fractures in a dual
porosity system. The data is forecasted until the
economic limit of 500 Mscfd for two plateau
periods (25 and 50 MMscfd) and incorporated
with the Power-Law Loss Ratio method to
calculate the shale gas price in Pakistans
environment for the two cases. For the plateau
rate of 50 MMscfd, the shale gas price was
calculated to be 14.90 $/MMBTU for the case
study
field.

Shale gas reservoirs are usually modeled as dual

porosity and triple porosity. Gas is stored as
both free gas and adsorbed gas. In dual porosity
models, the reservoir is divided into two media:
-

INTRODUCTION
Shale Gas is classified as an unconventional gas
resource because it cannot be produced without
modern stimulation techniques. In the
exploratory phase, the vertical pilot wells are
drilled to delineate the reservoir by finding the

(1) The matrix blocks with high total porosity

and low permeability.

69

P a g e | 70

zones of interest based on geo-mechanical

properties. Then in development phase, gas
shale wells are completed horizontally to expose
a large area to the wellbore followed by multistage hydraulic fracturing to induce fractures
that propagate deep into the formation and
create a complex network by connecting the
adjacent natural fractures.

performed by the leading E&P companies in

Pakistan. Thus the feasibility of the project will
be determined by the Shale gas price that will
be calculated at the end of the paper.

MODELLING A HORIZONTAL SHALE GAS WELL

USING AN ANALYTICAL MODEL
An analytical model has been used for the
analysis of production data and forecasting. The
model is based on SPE paper 126754: Multistage Hydraulically Fractured Shale Gas Rate
Transient Analysis.
Methods of analyzing production data were
investigated by different authors and different
models were developed. In this paper, a linear
dual porosity model is used to approximate the
shale gas completions with multiple hydraulic
fractures. The dual porosity model for shale gas
reservoirs comprising matrix blocks separated
by fractures was first proposed by Warren and
Root; and El-Banbi presented the linear
solutions of the diffusivity equation which are
used to model linear transient behavior of shale
gas reservoirs.

The most important thing to understand in shale

gas reservoirs is that we are basically creating
the reservoir since shales are not actually the
conventional reservoirs due to their very low
permeability. Gas is essentially stored in the
pores or natural fractures as free gas and is
adsorbed on the organic matter. During
production, the pores essentially feed and
charge the fractures with gas therefore a dual
porosity model is used to simulate the
phenomena.
This paper uses a developed dual porosity linear
analytical model based on the paper: Multistage Hydraulically Fractured Shale Gas Rate
Transient Analysis (SPE 126754). Although many
models exist for modeling Shale Gas, this model
was chosen owing to its simplicity. The model
was used to generate a forecast till the
economic limit of 500 Mscfd. The data
generated was then used to forecast the well
flow-rates for an extended period of time with
the help of the Power-Law Loss Ratio method up
to an economic limit of 200 Mscfd.

A hydraulically fractured horizontal well will be

modeled as a horizontal well draining a
rectangular geometry containing a network of
fractures separated by matrix blocks (Figure 1).
Its the dual porosity- a slab matrix linear dual
porosity model is used to show this concept.
The methodology is based upon creating a
mathematical model using the reservoir,
geological and fracture parameters. The input
parameters for the analytical model are listed in
Table 1. The model output is then matched with

Since Pakistan is currently in its initial phase of

Shale Gas exploitation; the Governments policy
for Shale Gas is also in the development phase.
The price is expected to be in the range of $ 1416/MMBTU according to the calculations
70

P a g e | 71

the production history by altering the

parameters. After obtaining a suitable match
(Figure 2), the flow rates are then forecasted up
to an economic limit of 500 Mscfd.

The Power Law equation is as follows:-

Where,
Qi
n
D
t
D1

BUILDING ON THE ANALYTICAL MODEL THE

POWER LAW LOSS RATIO
The analytical model discussed above neglects
the effects of diffusion and desorption. This is
due to the fact that at higher pressures (above
1000 psia), gas storage occurs as free gas in the
matrix porosity and adsorbed gas doesnt
contribute significantly.
When pressure drops below 1000 psia,
desorption becomes important and adsorbed
gas accounts for 50 to 60% of total gas stored
(Wattenbarger et. al., 2011),
however
desorption isotherm can guide us further in this
regard. Desorption is responsible for longer life
of any shale gas well and it continues to produce
at a low but constant flow rate for an extended
period of time.

=
=
=
=
=

Initial rate at time t=0

Time exponent
Decline rate at infinite time
Time factor
Instantaneous time t=1
(assuming D=0)

An adequate match is obtained between the

historical data from the analytical model and the
flow-rates projected by the Power Law Loss
Ratio (Figure 3).
By incorporating the Power Law method, the life
of the well has been increased from 4.77 to
12.37 years and the cumulative gas production
is approximated to be around 2.5 Bcf as
illustrated by the well production profile (Figure
4).
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

The analytical model used in the paper does not

take account of the desorption phenomena;
hence to model it, a history matching approach
based upon the decline curve analysis has been
used. Power Law is used when we have
insufficient boundary dominated data and very
long transient period- It models the transient
region of production data. The flow rates are
calculated using the Power Law Loss Ratio
method with the input parameters listed in
Table 2.

Two plateau rates 25 and 50 MMscfd were

chosen to sensitize the life of the field. The field
production profile was determined for both
cases and the field life was found to be 37 and
26 years for the 25 and 50 MMscfd plateau
periods respectively (Figure 5 & Figure 6). The
undiscounted net cash flows for the scenarios
are illustrated in Figure 7 & Figure 8.
The shale gas price was calculated at different
interest rates of 10, 12.5 and 15 % (Table 3,
Table 4 & Table 5). The most optimum scenario
71

P a g e | 72

in Pakistan was concluded to be 14.90

$/MMBTU at an interest rate of 12.5 % for the
50 MMscfd plateau rate (Table 6).

generation sector and protecting the

environment are the needs of the time. Shale
Gas offers these benefits and hence it has a
promising future and can contribute a significant
portion in Pakistans energy pie in the near
future.

CONCLUSION
In the present conditions, shale gas exploitation
seems unfeasible due to the high cost involved.
Never the less this project even with the very
small present value would be feasible in the
long run because of local jobs being created, lot
of investments in Pakistan, and substantial
decrease in carbon emissions.

NOMENCLATURE

The improvement in technology for instance

drilling with Pad multi laterals, optimizing the
fracs and overall cost optimization over the
period of time will lead to decrease in well costThe well cost can be gradually decreased to USD
11,000,000 over the period of field. This will
further lower the gas price.

TCF
MMscfd

=
=

MMBTU

Trillion cubic feet

Million standard cubic
feet per day
Million British thermal
unit

REFERENCES
Bello, R. O. and Wattenbarger, R.A., 2010. Multistage hydraulically Fractured Shale Gas Rate
Transient Analysis. Paper SPE 126754
presented at the SPE North Africa Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Cairo, Egypt, 14-17
February.

Developing the indigenous resources at an

affordable cost, achieving energy security,
cutting the independence on foreign imports by
exploiting the indigenous resources to replace
HSFO or Arab Light Oil as fuel for the power
FIGURES

Application of the Power Law Loss-Ratio Method

of Decline Analysis, CIPC Paper 2009-159

72

P a g e | 73

Figure 1: Schematic of slab matrix linear model of hydraulically fractured well

Xe
Ye
h

=
=
=

Length of horizontal leg

Fracture half-length
Reservoir thickness

Figure 2: The matched model

73

P a g e | 74

Figure 3: Comparison of Power Law and the Analytical Model

Figure 4: Production profile of a single horizontal well

74

P a g e | 75

Figure 5 - Field production profile for 25 MMscfd plateau rate

Figure 6 - Field production profile for 50 MMscfd plateau rate

75

P a g e | 76

Figure 7 - Undiscounted net cash flow for 25 MMscfd plateau period

Figure 8 - Undiscounted net cash flow profile for 50 MMscfd plateau rate

76

P a g e | 77

TABLES
Reservoir Properties
h, ft
, %
T, F
A, mi2
Cr, psi-1
Cw, psi-1
Pi, psia
Sw, %

Pay zone thickness

Porosity
Reservoir Temperature
Field Size
Formation
Compressibility
Water Compressibility
Initial Reservoir Pressure
Water Saturation

200
4.25
210
6
3.5 x 10-6
4.0 x 10-6
3850
38

Well and Stimulated Fracture Properties

Xe, ft
n
fw, ft
Ye, ft
Kf, mD

Well Length
Number of Fracture
Fracture Width
Half Length of fractures
Fracture Permeability

3200
20
0.01
250
4

PVT Properties
g

Gas Specific Gravity

Forecast
Economic Limit

Mscfd

0.62
200

Table 1: Model input parameters for the Analytical Model

qi

2100

1.00E-03

D1

0.44

Di

0.78

Table 2 - Model input parameters for Power Law Loss Ratio

77

P a g e | 78

Table 3 - Shale gas price at i = 10 %

Table 4 - Shale gas price at i = 12.5 %

Table 5 - Shale gas price at i = 15 %

Economic Limit

200 Mscfd

Abandonment Pwh

500 psi

Optimum Plateau Rate

50 MMscfd

Number of wells drilled

108

Well life

12 years

Field life

26 years

Interest Rate

12.50%

NPV

$10,000,000

IRR

13%
$14.93/MMscf
or
$14.9/MMBTU

Shale gas price

Table 6 - Optimum scenario

EFFECTS OF WATER BLOCKING ON PRODUCTIVITY IN TIGHT GAS RESERVOIRS

78

P a g e | 79

Author: Muhammad Younis Jagirani

Cell: 0334-2787749; email: sunny.khan40@gmail.com

clean-up period. The simulation results describe

how water blocking reduces near wellbore
permeability and affects well productivity and
gas recovery from tight gas reservoirs.

ABSTRACT
Tight gas reservoirs normally have production
problems due to very low matrix permeability
and significant damage during well drilling,
completion, stimulation and production.
Therefore, they might not flow gas at optimum
rates
without
advanced
production
improvement
techniques.

Introduction
Tight gas reservoirs normally have production
problems due to very low matrix permeability
and different damage mechanisms during well
drilling,
completion,
stimulation
and
production. In term of reservoir geometry, the
tight sand formations are normally stacks of
isolated lenses of sand bodies that are
separated by shale layers. Producing gas at
commercial rates from tight reservoirs is a
challenge due to the low deliverability of tight
formations and the geometry and lack of
connectivity between the sand bodies.

The main damage mechanisms and the factors

that have significant influence on total skin
factor in tight gas reservoirs include mechanical
damage to formation rock, water blocking,
relative permeability reduction around wellbore
as a result of filtrate invasion and liquid leak-off
into the formation during fracturing operations.
Drilling and fracturing fluids invasion mostly
occurs through permeable zones or natural
fractures and might also lead to serious
permeability reduction in the rock matrix that
surrounds the wellbore, natural fractures, or
hydraulic
fracture
wings.

The tight sand matrix is primarily composed of

micro-pores where average pore throat
aperture might be less than 1 micron in
diameter. In such formations, the initial water
saturation (Sw,i) might be significantly less than
irreducible water saturation (Sw,irr) due to
water phase vaporization into the gas phase.
The sub-normal saturation and small pore size
create a tremendous amount of potential
capillary pressure energy suction, which can
potentially imbibe and hold a liquid saturation
in the porous media. The low initial water
saturation provides a relative permeability for a
gas phase close to absolute permeability.
Presence of liquid in such a pore system can

This paper represents evaluation of water

blocking damage in tight gas formations, and
the influence on well productivity. And involves
case study of core scale reservoir simulations
based on a typical tight gas reservoir in order to
numerically model liquid invasion during
overbalanced, balanced and underbalanced
drilling, and the effect on gas production in

79

P a g e | 80

significantly
reduce
permeability.

the

gas

relative
Tight

gas reservoirs are very susceptible to

formation damage. This is due to the generally
unforgiving nature of low penneability rock in
that can tolerate only a minimal amount of
damage,due to the already inherently low
penneability, and to the fact that low
permeability formations generally experience
much more severe damage than their higher
counterparts due to a high degree of sensitivity
to capillary retentive effects, rock-fluid and
fluid-fluid compatibility concerns. In general the
degree of significance of formation Damage
associated with a tightgas reservoir during the
drilling process will be relatedt o the nature of
the final completion contemplated. Due to the
low permeability nature of the matrix, unless
huge losses of clear fluid to the mabix occur,
due to poor fluid rheology and high hydrostatic
overbalance pressures, the zone of extreme
permeability impairment is generally contained
in a fairly localized region adjacent to the
wellbore. If hydraulic fracturing is the
contemplated final completion technique,
which is often the case in many low perm
vertical gas wells, shallow invasive damage
induced by drilling, cementing and perforating
may not be significant as a well propagateda nd
placed frac will penetrate far beyond the zone
of drilling induced invasion and damage during
the fracturing treatment will become the major
issue of importance Exceptions would include
failed or small frac treatments where short
fracture half length does not effectively
penetrate the zone of drilling induced damage,
a high concentration of invaded fines which may
subsequentlyb e produced into and plug the
high Conductivity fracture directly adjacent to

Low permeability gas reservoirs can be subject

to a number of different damage mechanisms
during drilling, completion and production
operations. Filtrate invasion is one of the main
damage mechanisms during drilling and
fracturing operations that can have significant
influence on total skin factor in tight gas
reservoirs which reduces relative permeability
around wellbore as a result of water blocking.
Migration of fines can also be a damaging
source in case of large pores with small throats.
Drilling and fracturing fluids invasion might
occur through natural fractures and lead to
serious permeability reduction in tight
reservoirs.
Hence,due to the skin damage caused by the
water blocking caused during different pre
prodyction operatios the gas productivity from
a low permeability reservoir is reduced upto
high extent and in some cases due to high
filtrate invasion and pore blockage the
production becomes relatively zero. Laboratory
based simulations are carried out to study and
understand the effect and skin damage caused
by water blocking and necessary measures are
taken to overcome the damage and resume gas
production from low permeability reservoirs.

Damage induced during drilling

Damage Mechanisms

Near well bore damage causing reduction in

skin factor and reducing gas productivity ratio in
low permeability reservoir is caused by many
damage mechanisms few of them are:

80

P a g e | 81

the well bore, or simple mechanical problems

initially propagating
the frac due to high near wellbore tortuosity
induced by formation damage (a problem often
addressed with a small pre-frac HCI or HCI/HF
acid squeeze to reduce tortuosity). Drilling
induced formation damage becomes more of an
issue when open hole non-fractured
completions
are contemplated. When considering low
permeability gas reservoirs,the completionsare
generally only successful if a large surface area
of the formation can be accessed.

less than what would be considered to be the

"irreducible" liquid saturation. This, in fact, is
the major reason why many tight gas reservoirs
are
exploitation
candidates
as
this
subirreducible saturation condition creates
significant in-situ reserves and reduces the
adverse relative permeability effects present in
the system, thereby significantly increasing the
productivity of the wells if they can be
completed in a non damaging fashion. Most gas
reservoirs of this type exhibit mgh log
resistivities, produce no free water (other than
fresh water of condensation from the produced
gas), are not in direct communication with
active aquifers or mgh water saturation zones
and have a distinct propensity to retain the
majority of any introduced water based fluid,
much like a very large sponge.

Fluid Retention Effects

The single greatest enemy of tight gas, whether
during drilling, completion, fracturing or
workover operations, is fluid retention effects.
These can consist of the permanent retention of
both water or hydrocarbon based fluids or the
trapping of hydrocarbon fluids retrograded in
the formation during the production of the gas
itself. This phenomena is commonly referred to
as aqueous or Hydrocarbon phase trapping,
Capillary pressure forces which exist in the
porous media are the dominating factor behind
fluid retention. Capillary pressure forces, are
defned as the Difference in pressure between
the wetting (generally water in most gas
reservoirs) and non-wetting (gas) phases that
exist in the porous media. A large number of
tight gas bearing formtions are susceptible to
phase trapping and fluid retention effects due
to the fact that many of the economically
producible formations would be considered to
be "subirreducibly saturated" where the initial
water saturation is at some value considerably

CountercurrentI mbibition
Underbalanced drilling, while touted as a means
of minimizing fonnation damage, may actually
increase the severity of near weUbore aqueous
phase trap problems when it is used with water
based fluids in horizontal wells which will be
completed open hole in tight gas fonnations.
Due to the "initial" and "irreducible"
saturations, one can see that there is a
tremendous capillary force that exists between
the initial water saturation level and the
irreducible saturation level. In a properly
designed overbalanced operation the use of
appropriate bridging and filter cake building
agents can establish a near zero permeability
filter cake on the face of the fonnation which
may impede spontaneous imbibition effects. In
an underbalanced drilling operation, if any free
81

P a g e | 82

water saturation is present in the circulating

fluid system, this is similar to establishing a gaswater contact directly adjacent to the wellbore
face and continuous countercurrent imbibition
effects into the formation can occur, even when
a continuously underbalanced condition is

order to obtain economically viable production

rates.Although it has been suggested by various
authors that fracture faces can tolerate a huge
amount of damage and that the productivity of
the treatment is still limited by the amount of
fracture conductivity present, there is
significant lab and field evidence present to
indicate that formation damage occurring
during fracturing treatments is still a major
issue. If we consider factors which may impair
the productivity of a fracture treatment, these
would include;

maintained. The problem with aqueous invasion

is attenuated if the underbalanced condition is
lost or periodically compromised, or if a well
drilled underbalanced is hydrostatically killed
for completion, due to the fact that there is no
protective filter cake to impede the large scale
invasion of fluids into theformation in an
overbalanced condition.

- Physical mechanical problems with the

fracture treatment
- Formation damage to the high conductivity
fracture itself

Mud Solids Invasion

- Formation damage to the fracture face

Physical problems with the fracture treatment
.These would include such problems as poor
mechanical propagation of the frac, sandoffs,
fracturing out of zone or channelling behind
casing, etc. .

The physical invasion of natural and artificial

solids may occur during drilling, completion,
workover or kill treatments if operating in
hydrostatically overbalanced conditions. Due to
the very small pore throats normally associated
with low permeability gas reservoirs any
significant depth of invasion of mud solids into
the rock is not normally observed (unless
fractures or extremely small solids, which can
sometimes be generated by PDC bits, are
present).
Once again, this is usually only a concern in
situations where open hole completions are
contemplatedd ue to the shallow nature of the
damage.

No matter how large the treatment, if a very

high conductivity fracture channel is not
maintained, particularly if penneability is lost in
the portion of the fracture directly adjacent to
the well, the benefit of hydraulic ftacturing is
severely compromised. A variety of mechanisms
can result in impairment of the permeability of
fractures in propped or acid fracture
treatments, including
- improper breaking of linear or crosslinked gels

Damage induced during Fracturing

- polymer adsorption and entrainment
The majority of tight gas formations, by their
nature, require hydraulic or acid fracturing in
82

P a g e | 83

- entrainment of produced fonnation

fines/solids in the fractures - emulsion blocks in
the fractures

quality pay with the only variable being the

break time and rheology of the cross linked
water based fracture fluid used. When the
crosslink was

- compaction of the fracture and embedment

affects associated with plastic fonnations and
increasing overburden pressures during the
depletion process

preserved to propagate the frac, followed by

subsequent breaking, lab tests indicated a
fracture face invasion depth into this 0.01 mO,
12% SWI fonnation of less than 2 mm with over
80% fluid recovery in the field and 7,000,000
scf/day flow rates. Wells in which premature
breaking of the frac fluid occurred exhibited
over 6 cm of invasion in the lab, less than
100/0fl uid recoveries in the field and
uneconomic post frac flow rates of less than
50,000 scf/day.

- physical production of proppant from the high

conductivity fracture causing a loss in fracture
conductivity.
A common misconception is that fracture
treatments are impervious to formation
damage on the fracture face itself during the
fracture treatment and it is only the fracture
conductivity which must be maintained.
Mathematical modelling, plus considerable field
experience, has indicated that this is not the
case in many reservoir situations. The smaller
the size and effective cross sectional area of the
fracture treatment, the more significant the
damage occurring on the frac face in impairing
the ultimate productivity of the frac treatment.
Large, (100-200 tonne for example) fracs, can
tolerate a significant amount of permeability
impainnent on the fracture face, perhaps in
excess of 95%, without appreciably reducing the
productivity of the frac. A permeability
reduction of 10001., however, cannot be
tolerated. Some of the damage mechanisms
mentioned previously, particularly fluid
retention, are capable of causing 1000/0
penneability reductions in tight gas formations
and have been the result of significant
reductions in well productivity. Companion tight
gas well fracs of identical size (150 tonnes) have
been placed in tight formations in identical

Laboratorical Analysis of core sample to

measure water blocking effect on productivity:
The experiments consisted of humid methane
injection into preserved core samples. Gas flow
rate is measured as a function of injected gas
pore volume for several liquid systems and
saturation states. The liquid systems comprised
of brine, methanol, toluene, and brinemethanol mixtures. We injected over 10 000 PV
of gas in each test to mimic near well bore
conditions. The data showed that the liquid
displacement regime was followed by a mass
transfer regime, where evaporation causes the
gas flow rate to slowly increase. It is in this
regime that adding volatile fluids, such as
methanol, to the completion brines has
advantages. The experimental data are analyzed
to generate gas relative permeability curves
using a model that accounted for both viscous
83

P a g e | 84

displacement and evaporation effects. In the

modeling of the evaporation process we clearly
demonstrate that evaporation is driven by the
pressure gradient across the sample. Even
though the injected gas is humid, gas expansion
causes water inside the core to be vaporized.
This phenomena is very important in the near
well bore environment where there are big
pressure gradients and large volumes of gas
flow.

temperature in a humidification cell by flowing

it through brine. The humidification cell allows
adjustment of the upstream pressure required
to deliver an increasing gas flow rate while
keeping the pressure drop across the core
constant. The outlet is open to the atmosphere,
except for high-pressure experiments where a
backpressure valve is used. Upstream, inlet and
outlet pressures are constantly read with highly
accurate piezoelectric transducers. A gas flow
meter is placed between the reservoir cell and
the inlet face of the core cell. The gas rate is recalibrated to account for the deviation due to
humid gas caused by higher resistance across a
wet fritt. The liquid expelled at the outlet face
is collected and its weight is monitored
continuously. It is noted that liquid expulsion
stops after a few pore volumes of gas injected,
but the measured gas rate continues on
increasing slowly. The flow test is stopped when
the gas rate reached a maximum, and this is
typically after about 1 to 3 weeks.
The core is then flooded with the same liquid at
low rate so that significant trapped gas
saturation remains. A new flow test is then
conducted, by injecting humid methane into the
core containing liquid at trapped gas saturation.
Before saturating the core with a new liquid, it
is cleaned by methanol flushes followed by flow
through air drying. Typical Measured data The
measured data consists of gas flow rate, pore
volumes gas injected, liquid expelled, and
change in weight of the core at the end of each
flood. Experiment presents a typical data set,
where we have plotted the reduced gas flow
rate (with respect to the maximum gas flow rate
achieved in a dry core) and the liquid expelled
as a function of gas PV , the number of pore

laboratory experiments Were conducted on a

preserved, composite (3 plugs) sandstone
sample with the following properties: f = 16%, k
= 14 md, = 28% wi S , L = 16 cm, Vp = 30 cc. The
experiments consisted of a series of room
condition, constant pressuredrop humidified
methane floods of the core sample containing
various liquids (of brine methanol, toluene, and
brine-methanol mixtures) at two saturation
states fully saturated with liquid, and containing
liquid and trapped gas. Experimental procedure
presents a schematic of the experimental setup.
The preserved core sample was flushed with
toluene under backpressure, and the tests with
toluene @Swi were conducted first. All the
other sequence of tests using the different
liquids
(brine,
methanol,
iso-propanol,
brine/methanol mixtures) began after flushing
with cold methanol, flow through drying, and
establishment of a 100% liquid state by flushing
several pore volumes of the liquid under back
pressure. Weight change of the core and
absolute permeability are used to confirm the
saturation state of the core. The gas floods are
all conducted by injecting humid methane from
the top maintaining a constant pressure drop
across the core sample of 10 psi. Dry methane
out of the tank is humidified at ambient
84

P a g e | 85

volumes of gas injected. The gas flow rate

shows a rapid increase in the gas rate,
corresponding to the liquid producing period,
followed by a slow but continuous increase. The
first period lasts at most 100-200 gas PV and is
referred to as the displacement regime. The
second period, after liquid production has
stopped but gas flow rate keeps increasing,
corresponds to the evaporation regime, where
nondisplaced liquid is vaporized and carried out
by the flowing gas Model for calculating gas
saturation We require gas relative permeability
data for modeling well performance. The
interpretation of the gas flow tests is based on
successive displacement-evaporation regimes.
For the displacement regime, the quantity of
liquid displaced is measured, and the average
gas saturation can be calculated. In contrast,
the evaporation regime requires a model to
predict the evolution of the gas saturation as
function of number of pore volumes of gas
injected. The evolution of saturation due to
liquid displacement and evaporation is obtained
by a combination of the mass balances over the
condensable
and
the
non-condensable
components. Determination of gas relative
permeability curves We applied our model to
the different gas/liquid data sets. Injected gas in
all cases is humid methane, whereas liquid
initially in place in the sample is one of the
following:
aqueous liquids: brine (3% KCl), mixtures of
brine and methanol (30% and 50% volume of
methanol, referred to as KCl-MeOH 3:1 and KClMeOH 1:1 respectively).
other liquids: toluene (in presence / absence
of Swi), methanol, isopropanol.

The humidity ratio relative to non-aqueous

component is always zero since the injected gas
is only saturated with water. The humidity ratio
relative to the water component departs from
unity as experiment progresses. This is because
the gas flow rate increases and the pressure of
the humidification cell becomes increasingly
higher than the core inlet pressure. Sample fully
saturated with liquid Figure plots the relative
permeability curves do not collapse and there is
significant residual liquid saturation at the end
of the displacement regime. We show below
that viscosity ratio, local versus average curves,
capillary end effects or core level viscous
fingering do not explain these features. This
leaves us with the hypothesis that this may be
due to pore-level bypassing of liquid during gasliquid displacements, or gas wetting features
present in the reservoir rock. This hypothesis is
supported by the heterogeneous nature of the
rock facies and the presence of bitumen in
some of the pores of this rock type.

85

P a g e | 86

is whether capillary end effects are not the

cause of these high residual values (i) the
dimensionless ratio of viscous to capillary forces
at the core level and this is below the value that
should effect end point saturation values; 7 (ii)
indicating no strong predominance of the
capillary forces at the core scale.

CONCLUSION
1.The reservoir properties such as capillary
pressure,change of capillary pressure in
damaged zone and relative permeability inlow
permeability reservoir are extremely important.

Viscosity ratio effects:

The curves in figure do not collapse, although
the gas permeability curve is typically expected
to be independent of the fluid system. The
conducted two experiments with methanol, one
with toluene @ Swi , and one with toluene, and
these curves overlay each other. This
observation could suggest a dependence of the
Krg curves with the viscosities of the liquid,
since toluene and methanol have the same
viscosity. The other liquids have higher viscosity
and shows lower values of g Kr for a given gas
saturation. However, if we consider the same
set of relative permeabilities for each fluid
systems, an analysis based on Buckley-Leverett
displacement does not show any effect of the
viscosity ratio M (where M ranges between 50
and 230) on the average gas flow rate vs. Gs
curve. The reported data is an average curve,
but the average curve is the same as the local
Krg - g S curve, if we assume a Buckley-Leverett
displacement. This assumption is correct
provided that capillary end effects are
negligible. Large Residual Saturation There is a
large residual liquid saturation ~ 65% PV at the
end of the displacement regime. The main issue

2.If the reservoir rock permeability is not

damaged by fracture fluid invasion no serious
water block to gas flow will occur when the
pressure draw down is much gretae rthan the
capillary pressure and water mobility are large
enough to rapidly embibe the fractur water into
the formation.
3.If reservoir rock permeability is not damaged
by fluid invasion no serious water block to gas
flow will occur;however gas production can be
severly curtailed if pressure drawdown does not
exceed the formation capillary pressure.
4.If the permeability near well bore is damaged
due to invasion of fracture fluid and capillary
pressure in the damaged zone is increased,the
water pressure in damaged zone then acts as a
water pressure sink drawing water towards the
damaged zone. Unless the pressure drawdown
is large enough to overcome the capillary end
effect of the damaged zone. Severe reduction in
gas production will occur when the degree of
86

P a g e | 87

damage or the level of capilary pressure is

increased.

(e) The evaporation regime is long and can

require more than 10 000 PV of injected gas.
Our model of the evaporation process clearly
demonstrates that evaporation is driven by the
pressure gradient across the sample.

5.If the reservoir rovk permeability next to

fracture is not damaged by the fracture fluid
invasion and the pressure drawdown greatly
exceeds the capillary and effect the comulative
gas produced is independent of capilary
pressure.

(f) The data suggest a conceptual model where

gas floods into saturated liquid cores bypasses
liquid blobs, leading to high residual liquid
saturation that are then slowly volatilized in the
evaporation regime. In the trapped gas case,
evaporation of the thin liquid rings separate the
flowing and trapped gas phases lead to sharp
increase in flowing gas saturation.

6.The more acurate and appropreate study can

be carried out on the basis of fresh core
samples carefully examined in laboratory.
7.The core sample test conducted in laboratory
as a case study exhibits following results;
(a). The gas flow rate exhibits a two region
behavior,rapid increase during the liquid
producing period (displacement regime) and
then a slow but continuous increase
(evaporation regime).

REFERENCES
1. Kamath J., Laroche C., and Nakagawa F., "
Laboratory Based Evaluation of Gas Well
Deliverability Loss Due to Waterblocking," paper
SPE 63161 to be presented at the 2000 SPE
Annual Technical Conference, Dallas, TX,
October.

.(b) The displacement regime is completed after

10 to 50 PV of gas are injected. Here the flow
rate increases to about 20-30% of the gas rate
in clean, dry samples.

2. Bennion, D. B. et. al., "Reductions in the

Productivity of Oil and Gas Reservoirs due to
Aqueous Phase Trapping, " paper CIM93-24
presented at the CIM 1993 Annual Technical
Conference, Calgary, May 9-12

(c) The residual liquid saturation at the end of

the displacement regime is high (65-70%).
Uniform liquid saturation profile observed by
NMR together with a theoretical analysis prove
that this is not due to capillary end effects or
viscous fingering.

3. Cimolai, M. P. et. al., " Mitigating Horizontal

Well Formation Damage in a Low-Permeability
Conglomerate Gas Reservoir," paper SPE 26166
presented at the 1993 SPE Gas Technology
Symposium, Calgary, June 28-30

(d) The gas relative permeability curves in the

displacement regime are identical for saturated
methanol, toluene, and toluene @ Swi systems.
These data are different from the gas relative
permeability curves for the aqueous systems.

4. Methven, N. B. "Effects of Drilling Fluids on

Gas Well Productivity," paper SPE 3504
87

P a g e | 88

presented at the 1971 SPE Annual Fall Meeting,

New Orleans, Oct. 3-6
5. Abrams, A. and Vinegar, H. J.
Mechanisms in Vicksburg Tight
paper SPE/DOE 13883 presented
SPE/DOE Joint Low Permeability
Denver.

7. Kamath, J., deZabala, E.F. and Boyer, R.E."

Water/Oil Relative Permeability Endpoints of
Intermediate-Wet,
Low
Permeability
Rocks,"SPEFE, March 1995

"Impairment
Gas Sands,"
at the 1985
Symposium,

8. Laroche C., Yortsos Y.C. and Kamath J., " Time

Scaling of Produced Fluid Rates in Laboratory
Displacements," to be presented at the 2000
European Conference on Mathematics for Oil
Recovery,Italy, October.

6. Holditch, S. A., " Factors Affecting Water

Blocking and Gas Flow From Hydraulically
Fractured Gas Wells," Journal of Petroleum
Technology, Dec 1979, pp 1515-1524

88

P a g e | 89
A STUDY FOR THE OPTIMIZATION OF WATER INJECTION CLUSTERS
USING NETWORK MODELING
BY
MUZAMIL HUSSAIN MEMON

________________________________________________________________________
ABSTRACT

Like many mature oil fields, one of U.A.E onshore oil field have 350 injectors and 53 water
supply wells linked as separate clusters. Water injection clusters provide peripheral and pattern
injection and support pressure to the field to maintain production. The field is producing at the
capacity based on injection, but the water injection clusters are not connected to each other.
Hence, each clusters current potential is not exploited and is not being fully utilized. This
bottleneck lies in the existing network, which has not been properly modeled. This led to study
and identify the bottlenecks in clusters network and to derive a methodology to exploit the full
potential to avoid or minimize further expenditure in clusters. This report presents a
methodological development of technical work which leads to set up a new network model of
the clusters. During creating the network model, data availability, data quality and screening
were the big challenges to overcome. The model analyzes the full capacity of each cluster and
optimizes their use while all injection wells are in full operation. Model also identifies the extra
water supply capacity from each cluster, which can be utilized in the existing water injectors in
the network. The correct potential of clusters adds value to the network, which helps avoid
structural changes or drill additional injectors, saving huge capital expenditure. The validity and
reliability of the model have been cross-checked by calibrating them with real field data,
including water injection rate, wellhead injection pressure and reservoir pressure maintenance.
89

P a g e | 90
This model also provides a tool for reliable decision making to carry out surface tie-ins and pipeline looping; same as evaluation of potential actions to minimize pressure losses or improve
injectivity.
INTRODUCTION
This study is performed on one of the largest onshore oilfield in the world located in U.A.E. This
field operates on 53 water injection clusters for reservoir pressure maintenance. These clusters
cover and provide peripheral pressure support, while there are water alternate gas and gas
injection schemes as well in certain parts of the reservoir. The water injection requirement of
the field is estimated to increase from the current ~ 800 to 1000, 000 BWPD in next few years.
Hence, a study was needed to identify opportunities within the existing system of clusters to
avoid capital expenditures and optimize use of existing facilities. This project will discuss only
the water injection cluster design, operation, optimization challenges, and the network
modeling methodology. A typical cluster facility includes water supply well equipped with a
downhole ESP, surface pressure boosting pump and the injection lines to the injection wells. The
water injection clusters are not connected to each other. Hence, each clusters current potential
is not fully exploited and utilized. For instance, if a cluster is down for a longer time, its injectors
can be supported by a nearby cluster if both are looped together through a pipeline. Such
optimizations and other improvements including lowering suction pressures at surface pumps,
identifying under size ESP unit, removing excessive pressure drop across chokes and flow lines
can be investigated and corrected. Currently, there are no network models which can predict
the overall benefits if these bottlenecks are removed. As a main objective of this project, all the
components of a cluster including subsurface completion, reservoir data, and surface facilities

90

P a g e | 91
have been modeled using one of the softwares called PipeSim. All 53 water injection clusters
have been modeled in the field.
After modeling, a real case studies and applications were run to identify individual well injection
potential and whether the well is exceeding the formation frac pressures. These cases are also
presented in this study
OVERVIEW OF NETWORK MODELING

The term network is commonly used to build and connect wellbore, reservoir data, and surface
facilities to generate and optimize the production and injection solution. The network model
employs a sophisticated general purpose network solution algorithm which can efficiently solve
large and complex problem. Pipsim model used in this project was chosen due to its legal
availability in the company. There are many SPE papers and literature available which covers all
the surface and sub surface challenges in the of the water injection systems. Whether it is a
cluster type facility as is the case on our or a huge water plants like Saudi Aramco upplying many
hundred thousands of barrels of water to the field for injection purposes. There are common
issues in the industry related to corrosion control, metering, and stimulating the formation for
enhanced injectivity. However, this report is focused only on the network model construction,
its critical validation process, and applications to enable optimization of water injection clusters
to gain extra injection capacities. Network model is commonly used for decision making on the
potential opportunities for cost saving and system improvements, and production and injection
gains. Nodal analysis modeling is considered one of the benchmark and important decision
making tool for the production engineering operations starting from basic analysis of tubing
sensitivity to a complex system of hundreds of wells and flowlines in a single network model. In

91

P a g e | 92
a developed field by having available data of the wells it becomes easier to select the
correlations and IPR model type. In our project, out of available 9 models, We selected Well
P.I model due to the fact that PIs and IIs were available in the data base.
For the new and exploratory fields, there are different model types which can be chosen to run
either well inflow out flow or network solutions.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The work performed through Pipesim modeling exhibited multidirectional benefits to maintain
and debottleneck the water cluster facilities and equipment. In one case, drilling of four
injectors was avoided by determining the maximum safe injection capacity of the clusters in a
particular area. In another case two wells were identified being fractured at the current
injection pressures. These engineering evaluations are very important to operate the injection
wells and optimize them under desirable scenarios. The success lies in developing and matching
the cluster models with valid engineering data and best available assumptions if data is not
accurate. The process of developing the models in this field took about 6 months. This intense
effort was spent to ensure quality of the models and run some sensitivity. During this work, data
was collected in the field which was not available in the data base e.g. choke sizes, pressure
drop across choke valves etc.
DISCUSSION ON REAL CASE OF MODELING & CALIBRATION
It is obvious that the amount of data required building the model, carrying out validation
process, and matching range of ESP and surface pump efficiency factors are highly necessary for
the accuracy of the network model. Understanding of the equipment and their efficiency range
for this single phase well and network application is important and applied systematically. If an
ESP is installed in a water supply well for few years, its performance combined with possible

92

P a g e | 93
reservoir parameters changes may deteriorate. This needs to identified and discussed with
reservoir engineers and field operations for verifications in order to alter the ESP efficiency or
change the reservoir pressure in the model. Another important factor is performing the
surveillance work to monitor the wells. Hence, echo meter surveys, II, PI, and other surveillance
work are key to successfully and economically operate these water injection cluster facilities.
With the data challenges, this model took about 5 days to complete it. One of the
recommendations generated out of this project was to appoint a single focal point to handle the
operations, reservoir, ESP and surface pumps. Prior to starting this work a gap analysis on data is
recommended to be done. Accordingly a format shall be developed for the missing data. This
missing or required data needs to be collected from reliable sources prior to commencing the
modeling work on the software. It is required to visit the field to collect the required data,
explain the field colleagues about the modeling work scope and importance for continued
support on the data availability. In the absence of the measured and real data, technical
assumptions were made by back calculating the PI and II values. This did not impact the overall
results in most of the network models created for this field. However, an acceptable variation
range for this project was 10% with respect to the measured or expected values in the field.
CONCLUSION
The pipesim model runs concluded that by reducing the back pressure of the well to 150 psig,
water production of 26800 BWPD shall be achieved. The pump surface pump trip setting is 170
psig, while existing ESP unit can not deliver the higher wellhead pressure.
Therefore, bottle neck in the system is the ESP pump in this case, where a stronger ESP and/or
power and speed is required to allow higher production rate, generating surface pump suction
pressure not lower than 200 psig.

93

P a g e | 94
Up-gradation of the ESP in terms of number of stages or pump motor to run at higher horse
power and higher speed are also required. Cleaning of strainer is required to reduce pressure
drop across the strainers.
DISCUSSION ON DETERMINING EXTRA INJECTION CAPACITY ILLUSTRATING APPLICATION AND
BENEFITS
Determining extra capacity in the injectors in the targeted area of the reservoir, without
modeling, was done before using by making engineering judgments. This guess work is prone to
inaccuracy in the results, in addition to going for no options to run sensitivity for optimizations
in injection capacity later on. Hence, it was required to create a methodology. Accordingly, after
brain storming, it was found to isolate the injection wells from their clusters and run nodal
system analysis to check its capacity. Then all the applicable limits can be applied for example, in
this case, the pressure limit at which the models were developed was 2000 psig and a frac
gradient of 0.7 psi/ft. These limits were discussed and agreed with the drilling and reservoir
engineering requirements of this area as a safe limit. All 58 injectors were assessed under these
criteria and only 9 were found to be promising with extra potential of 2300 BWPD. The low
capacity margin < 1000 BWPD injectors were not considered simply because of the accuracy
range of the models. This kind of conservative and calculated approach would save cost for the
tie-in of these wells with surplus injection capacity. For these 9 injectors, two new clusters have
been recommended to be installed which will inject these extra capacity volumes.
CONCLUSION
Out of 58 wells, 9 injectors were found having extra injection capacity of 23000 BWPD. This
simple approach provides an effective and timely decision making for pressing scenarios for
reservoir pressure maintenance and optimum utilization of the water injection facilities.

94

P a g e | 95
DISCUSSION ON WATER INJECTIONS FRACTURE ANOMALY ANALYSIS
The subsurface conditions of the injectors wells change with time sometimes unexpectedly.
There could be different reasons for that e.g. change in buttonhole pressures, thermal cracking
of the rock inducing fractures, and unexpected higher pressures for the discharge pump. Lack of
regular surveillance and a large number of injectors make it difficult to analyze and pick such
changes and anomalies in these wells. The impact of fracturing the formation of injectors
unintentionally is not an acceptable practice in order to avoid water breakthrough into the
producers and maintain good sweep efficiency in the reservoir. In this case, availability of the
model straight away indicated an anomaly, which was cross checked by changing the choke
settings in the field. This is a substantial benefit to use the model for even picking up the
abnormal water injection operating conditions, improve them after verification for better
reservoir management. The trust in the net work model increased after field testing the
scenario of fracturing. By reducing 50 psi,

CONCLUSION
The two wells were identified taking being fractured at the injection pressure of 1800 and 1700
psig. This analysis and observation was verified by reducing injection pressures gradually at both
the wells. Base on this analysis, all the injectors particularly in the pressure range of 1700 1800
psig to be reviewed to ensure for ensuring water injection below the frac conditions.

FUTURE WORK
Future work and sensitivities would be run either for looping or interconnecting different
clusters, optimizing the equipment ESP and surface pumps, estimating the skin effects in the
water supply and injection wells. How to use these models in future would require updating the
pressure and PI values and run the models to calculate new capacity and conditions. Generally,
it is expected that the bottom hole pressures would rise in the injectors, first at the periphery

95

P a g e | 96
and then in the swept parts of the reservoir where injection water reaches. At these expected
high bottom hole pressures injectivity would decline. At this time, the cluster equipment either
needs to be upgraded or may not be needed in certain areas of the reservoir. The equipment
such as surface pumps and ESP panels may be shifted to another areas where needed. Hence, a
huge cost saving and procurement lead time can be avoided to construct the new clusters.
REFERENCES

1. Dynamic and Static Study (classified document of the Abu Dhabi on Shore
company)
2. Oil and Gas data management website
http://ezinearticles.com/?Oil-and-Gas-Data-Management&id=353042
3. FMC

website

http://www.maximizerecovery.com/Brownfield-

Recovery/solutions
4. Produced water re-injection opportunities and challenges by Professor Mukul M
sharma University of Texas A&M.
http://www.rpsea.org/forums/produced_sharma.pdf
5. Avdullah M. Al Qahtani, A New Approach For Estimating Well Productivity And
Reservoir Pressure Using Surface Performance Data, SPE paper 81520.
6. ach, Joe, Proao, Eduardo, and Brown, Kermit E.: A Nodal Approach for
Applying Systems Analysis to the Flowing and Artificial Lift Oil or Gas Well,
paper SPE 8025, 1979.
7. Beggs, D., Production Optimization Using NODAL Analysis, OGCI, Tulsa,
Oklahoma, 1991. , P.59.

96

P a g e | 97

8. Babu, D. K. and Odeh, A. S. "Productivity of a Horizontal Well", SPE Reservoir

Engineering (November 1989) 417-421.
9. Oil and Gas data management website
http://ezinearticles.com/?Oil-and-Gas-Data-Management&id=353042
10. Operation Manual of the field, preserved as a classified document in the
company.
11. Pump system curves website http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/pumpsystem-curves-_635. Shtml
12. Sclumberger report submitted to ADCO on Water Injection Cluster, Modeling,
and sensitivity Analysis - April 2012
13. Echo meter website
http://www.echometer.com/images/product_photos/lg/modelm_lg.jpg
14. Pressure loss correlations
http://www.fekete.com/software/piper/media/webhelp/c-te-pressure.htm
15. Vogel, J.F.: Inflow Performance Relationships for Solution-Gas Drive Wells, JPT
(Jan. 1968) 83-92.
16. Moody, L. "An approximate Formula for Pipe Friction Factors", Transactions
ASME, vol 69, pp. 1005 (1947)
17. References: Chen, N. H., "An Explicit Equation for Friction Factor in Pipe," Ind.
Eng. Chem. Fund. (1979).
18. PipeSim user guide
19. Propagation of a System of Cracks Under Thermal Stress
97

P a g e | 98

http://www.onepetro.org/mslib/servlet/onepetropreview?id=ARMA-11-558
endakhlia,

98

P a g e | 99

Figure Pump Performance Curve Flow

Rate Vs Head

Network Model General

Work Flow
Water Supply Well Input
Data (WSW)

Data Quality Check

Obtain a Valid
WsW model

WiW Input Data

Data Quality Check

Obtain a Valid
WiW models

Figure IPR & TP Curve

Network Input Data

Bottle neck
identification & system
analysis

Figure Water Injection Cluster Model

General Workflow

Figure Single Phase and Two Phase IPR

99

Obtain a Valid
WiW models

P a g e | 100

Water Supply Well Pr Quality Check Process

WsW-Pr provided
form Test (BHCIP
& GRAD & PBU)

WsW Pr computed
from Echo - sFL

Is Echo date
newer than
Test?

Water Supply Well PI Quality Che

Process

WsW-PI provided
WsW PI computed
formNo
Test (PBU &
from Echo - dFL
BHFP Input Pr form Test in
to the Model

No

Yes

Yes

Compare dates and

values

Is Echo date
newer than
Test?

Is Echo value
less than
Test?

Compare dates and

values
Input Pr form Test in
to the Model

No

Yes

Is Echo value
less than
Test?

No

Yes

RE Dept. confirm
the values?

Input Pr form Echo in

to the Model

Input PI form Echo in

to the Model

Yes

Pr value is Valid
to use in Model

Input RE estimate in
the Model

Yes
No

PI value is Valid
to use in Model

Compute PI in the
Model with the
Q&WHP & Pr

Figure WSW Pr Quality Check Process

Figure WSW PI Quality Check Process

100

P a g e | 101

Water Injection Well Pr Quality Check

Process
WiW Pr provided
form Test (BHCIP &
GRAD & PFO)

WiW II Quality Check Process

WiW II Pr provided
form Test (PFO)

Input Q&WHIP & Valid

Pr to WiW model

Co

No

Is the date of
test newer
than 2008?

No

Get better Pr estimate

form RE Dept.

Yes

Input
theofPr
Is the
date
estimate
form RE
test value
as
validthan
to WiW
newer
model
2008?

Yes

Input Q&WHIP & Valid PI

to WiW model

Is the
computed II
value valid
with RE
Dept.?

Input Q&WHIP & Valid

Pr to WiW model

No
No

Can the WiW

model Flow
using the pr
selected?

No

Get better Pr estimate

form RE Dept.

Yes

Can
the WiW
Input
the Pr
model Flow
estimate
form RE
using
as
validthe
to IIWiW
selected?
model

Get better II estimate

form RE Dept.

Yes

Input Pr
form test

Input the
selected II form
test as valid to
WiW model

Figure WiW Pr Quality Check Process

Figure WIW II Quality Check Process

101

Yes

P a g e | 102

Matching and Quality Check Network Model

Run the Network Match

Use the valid WsW

model

Use the valid WiW

models

Compare model
with Field
measurement
Q. WHIP

Tune the SP Eff.

Head factor, is
the factor > 0.6
provided by
Tech. Center

No

No

Figure CL B Surface Pump

Yes

Yes

Tune the strainer

and HCV
pressure drop

Yes

Confirm the matching

values with Rigless Team

Cluster Network is
matched and ready

Yes

Check the
Network match
with other op.
conditions in
time
No

Figure CLB Surface Flow Line

Figure Matching and Quality Check
Network Model

Figure - WSW CL B Pipesim Well Model

102

P a g e | 103

Figure CL-B Surface Valves (Strainer and

HCV)

Figure Inflow / Outflow Curve Sensitivity

Figure Water Injection Well Model B

145LS - CL B

SPE 200
103

P a g e | 104

normally oil and water do not mix, the

addition of soap allows oils to disperse in
water and be rinsed away.
If an injection line is not part of the
completion string, an external injection
line can be installed either with a rig
workover or a rig less through-tubing
installation. The first requires significant
rig expense, and the second can cause
loss
of
downhole
safety-valve
functionality. A more cost effective, safer
problem resolution was needed. To
overcome this challenge, one of the
solutions is the capillary de-liquification
safety system that can be retrofitted into
existing wells with rig less intervention to
quickly reinstate production. This method
maintains safety valve functionality and

De-Liquefaction Of Loaded Up Wells Through Capillary String Soap Injection

Author:Agha Ali Ahmed Pathan, Mehran university of engineering and Technology Jamshoro
Cell # 03453595811 ; Email: alijawedpathan@hotmail.com

Abstract

eliminates an expensive well workover.

The capillary stainless steel 1/4-3/8
tubing is snubbed into the well inside the
tubing. A downhole injection/check valve
assembly is run on the end of the capillary
tubing. Soap is then injected or siphoned
from a chemical storage tank through
filters to maintain solids-free fluids for
injection. Injection can be easily
maintained on a continuous basis to
ensure consistent foaming action for
unloading efficiency. The production

Many mature gas wells worldwide

have had to be shut-in due to water
loading in the production string, which
occurs when the liquids hydrostatic
column pressure equals that of the
reservoir pressure, stopping production.
Periodically injecting surfactant chemicals
from surface has been tried. Soap acts as
an emulsifying agent. An emulsifier is
capable of dispersing one liquid into
another immiscible liquid. Whereas
104

P a g e | 105

increases will impact both well life and

reserve recovery.

as to the mechanism that defines the way

that the fluid is lifted near the critical rate,
the resulting critical velocities predictions
appear to be relatively accurate.

The whole cycle of candidate

selection,
job
design,
execution
challenges, post job evaluation, lessons
learned and the experience gained to
optimize the similar future jobs are
covered in this paper.

The typical result of production

below the critical velocity is unstable
slugging production leading to decreased
daily rate and possibly leading to the well
dyeing completely (see figure 1). The
production decrease requires solutions in
order to fully realize the value of the well.
The rates that these occur at can generally
be estimated by the above mentioned
research and then displayed by graph
(Figure 2). There is a very large list of
potential solutions to improve and unload
liquid loaded gas wells. Of these solutions
the most commonly supplied are
Compression (reduction in surface
pressure), Reduced ID of tubing, and
addition of foamers through continuous
injection of liquid foam or by surfactant
sticks, plunger lift, gas lift, hydraulic jet
pump, and rod pump. Compression is
generally determined on a field wide
decision with economics considered for
optimizing multiple wells by reducing
flowing bottom hole pressure and
realizing the increase in production.

Introduction
Liquid loading of as gas well has
been described as the inability of the
produced gas to remove the Produce
Liquids from the wellbore.1 Liquid loading
occurs when the velocity of the produced
gas decreases to a velocity below what is
necessary for the fluids to be lifted. The
velocity at which liquids would have the
tendency to fall instead of rise is
described as the Critical Velocity of a
well. There have been numerous studies
completed including those done by
Turner, R.G., Hubbard, M.G and Dukler
A.E. in their Journal of Petroleum
Technology
Paper
Analysis
and
Prediction of Minimum Flow Rate for the
Continuous Removal of Liquids from Gas
Wells and by Coleman, S. B., Clay, H.B.
and McCurdy D.G. in follow up papers
including A New Look at Predicting GasWell Load Up also in the Journal of
Petroleum Technology and more recently
some very effective modeling has been
done in Europe in conjunction with NAM
in establishing predictable Liquid Loading
rates. Generally there is an agreement
that a critical velocity is tied to the
pressure, along with the gas quality, and
surface tensions of the fluids to be lifted
and although there is some disagreement

Signs of Liquid Loading

Typically the condition of liquid
loading can be identified by numerous
commons signs of liquid loading.
Tubing and Casing pressure differential
In wells with open ended completions
when the wells begin to liquid load we
will see a decrease in tubing pressure
and an increase in casing pressure. The
increase in casing pressure is in
105

P a g e | 106

indication of the increased FBHP due to

the accumulated fluids in the tubing.
Orifice Pressure Spikes If the gas
measurement device shows increases
and decreases in differential pressure
across the orifice indicating unstable
flow.
Liquid Slugging Liquid production does
not arrive to surface in a steady
continuous flow but instead in slugs of
fluid or heading.
Fluctuating Gas Production Daily gas
production is dramatically different with
no changes to the flowline pressure.
Variance from Decline Curve Typical
Gas Production wells will follow an
exponential type curve, as the liquid
loading occurs there will generally be
deviation from the curve with a lower
than predicted production rate.
Liquid Production Stops all together
Pressure Survey reveals a heavier
gradient in the tubing pressure.

tool for further analysis of that lift

selection. (Figure 3)
Graphical comparisons of various artificial
lift techniques and the capillary soap
injection technology are presented as
follows. Please note that in Figure 4 only
general relative comparison is made,
without showing the exact percentages.
This is because the exact percentages vary
from conditions to conditions, & hence
from field to field.
Background to Chemical Deliquification
There are several different classes
of chemical that can be used to deliquify a
well by generating foam they all have a
commonality however, insofar as they can
all be broadly classified as surfactants.
They work through a combination of
reducing the surface tension of a liquid,
reducing the density of a liquid, and
reducing the size of the droplets (Jelinek
and Schramm, 2005). Deliquification
products can be classed into 4 types of
surfactant chemistry (Lea et al., 2003):

Unloading Selector
The unloading selector is a logical
artificial-lift application selection process
for gas well deliquification. The unloading
selector works by assigning a high or low
value to each of only four readily available
surface-gathered data points; liquid rate,
flowing tubing pressure, water cut
percentage and gas liquid ratio. Start in
the middle of the selection tool and match
your high or low answers to these four
variables. Then view inside the outer most
ring of the tool to see an artificial-lift-type
selection has been made. Once the lift
selection has been identified, move to the
corresponding outer four quadrants of the

Comparisons To Justify Usage Of

Capillary Soap Injection

Anionic these are amongst the

most popular class of surfactant used for
deliquification applications. They are
typically sulfonated non-ionic chemistries
such as lauryl ether sulfonates, alkyl ether
sulfonates, and -olefin sulfonates
ranging from C10-12 up to C14-16. These
tend to be very polar molecules which
gives a high water solubility and therefore
excellent aqueous foaming properties.
These products are also relatively easy to
winterize for use in cold climate areas
such as Canada (where products need to
be stable down to <-40C) however can
suffer with compatibility challenges in
106

P a g e | 107

high TDS brines and breakdown at high

temperature (sometime as low at 90 to
100C).

interaction of water with the alkoxylated

components and hydrocarbon backbone.
Two general types of application of
deliquification chemistries exist: solidstate chemical applications and liquidstate applications. These are further
elaborated below:

Cationic these are not commonly

used compared to some of the other
classes of foamer because they are
typically quaternary amine based
products usually toxic and therefore
environmentally hazardous. They do
however have application niches,
particularly in high TDS brines and where
combination foamer / corrosion inhibitors
are employed. These products also have
application with high condensate /
hydrocarbon scenarios, where higher
molecular weight compounds tend to be
used. The drawback however is that they
can cause tight emulsion challenges when
over-injected.

Solid Deliquification Products

These are commonly known as
soap sticks. Their chemical make-up and
manufacturing procedure has been
summarized in Figure 5 The primary
foaming compound (typically alkyl ether
sulfonates or coco-betaines) is reacted
with melted high molecular weight
polyethylene glycol (>8,000 D) flakes and
then anionic, ethoxylated components
(such as nonyl phenol ethoxylate) are
added and this mixture is poured into
moulds to the required stick shape.

Amphoteric this class of

compound include betaines and are
arguably the most ubiquitous type of
foaming product. They exhibit anionic or
cationic behavior depending on the pH of
the matrix they are contained in. They
exhibit a very high aqueous foaming
tendency and are more thermally tolerant
that other classes of deliquification
surfactants with a high TDS brine
compatibility.

The primary foaming component

provides the active foaming compounds
of the soap stick. The polyethylene glycol
renders the overall product a solid and to
a certain extent controls the dissolution
speed (the higher the molecular weight
the slower the dissolution). The non-ionic
components also controls the dissolution
speed and relative water / oil solubility
(the higher the molecular weight, or
degree of ethoxylation, the slower the
dissolution speed). Second generation
soap sticks are also now available on the
open market that incorporate secondary
functionality such as scale inhibition,
corrosion inhibition, and acid dissolution.

Non-ionic this class of chemical

still has application but tend to be higher
cost than their anionic and cationic
counterparts. This is because they tend to
be alkoxylated compounds of alcohols,
phenols (nonyl and octyl) and amines.
These products tend to cloud out at
higher temperatures due to the

Advantages of soap sticks include their

ease of application combined with the
107

P a g e | 108

lowest initial cost. They tend to be

dropped down the tubing to dissolve in
the bottom of the well to release their
constituent components, thus relying on
the density of the stick to ensure passage
down to the water level in the tubing.
They can often be combined with gas
generation sticks (typically mixtures of
sulfamic acid and sodium carbonate
when reacted in water generate CO2 gas)
to help generate foam when a well is
completely dead. Automatic soap stick
launchers can also be employed where
sticks are deployed on a time or volume
proportionate basis.

placement and would be unable to get

poast the heel of a well.
Liquid Deliquification Products
Liquid surfactant products can be
continuously injected down the backside
of the tubing or through capillary strings
to the liquid column at the bottom of a
well. Batch treatment can also be
performed by bullheading product down
the tubing. The chemical make-up and
manufacturing procedure for liquid based
products has been summarized in Figure
6. The primary foaming compound can be
any of the four classes of product
described above with sulfonates and
betaines being the most common. These
primary foaming compounds are then
blended into a matrix which can be as
simple as water or into complex freeze
proof blends of methanol, other alcohols,
glycols, glycol ethers, or aromatic solvent
components. Secondary functionality can
also be blended into the product and
there is a wide variety of components that
can be used such as scale inhibitors,
corrosion inhibitors, H2S scavengers,
acids, wax and asphaltene inhibitors,
solvents, dyes, and tracers. Several
publications are available on combination
product chemistry and make-up (e.g.
Pakulski and Martin, 2001; Campbell and
Bartrip, 2001; Campbell et al., 2001).

Disadvantages of soap sticks include

limited control of the dissolution rate and
therefore foaming severity of the fluids.
This can have the effect of not enough
foam generation (no deliquification and
therefore
non-optimum
production
enhancement) or too much foam (foam
carry over into process equipment, e.g.
damage to compressors). Furthermore,
with combined products this control is
exacerbated and it can be very challenging
to deliver, for example, the right
concentration of scale inhibitor to a given
scenario. There is also little ability to tailor
products for an individual wells needs as
the concentrations and types of
component in the soap stick are fixed and
turnaround time on developing unique
soap stick products is relatively long.
There are also just a limited number of
different sized sticks which may not be
suitable for all tubing types, especially for
deviated wells. For horizontal wells soap
sticks are wholly unsuitable as they rely
on their density and gravity for correct

Advantages of liquid deliquification

chemicals include the ability to fully
optimize any given product for any given
scenario to which it is applied thus
balancing the foam formation to one that
optimizes production yet does not upset
processes downstream. This is especially
108

P a g e | 109

applicable to combination application, e.g.

corrosion inhibition, where discrete levels
of corrosion inhibitor can be tailor
blended into a product to balance the
required foam generation efficacy.
Products can be quickly optimized and
developed to counter the evolution of
production and physical parameters that a
well endures during typical life cycles due
to the simplicity of blending and ease of
manufacture compared to soap stick
products.

can be conveyed while the well is

producing. Average installation time is
three to four hours. For added safety,
Weatherford truck-mounted units are
equipped with a hydraulically controlled
BOP instead of a conventional single
element packoff. And safety is further
enhanced with an extended reach crane
that permits working safely above even
the tallest wellhead.

Disadvantages include the necessity to

install more expensive application
equipment such as chemical tanks and
pumps as well as capillary strings.
Continuous application also tends to use
more chemical compared to using solid
products, however the efficiency and
production enhancement benefits tend to
counter this.

Weatherford Capillary Technologies offers

solutions for a wide range of well
problems:

Capillary System Applications

Well Problem: Loading

Capillary Solution: Pinpoint delivery of
foaming agents and surfactants to unload
fluids
Well Problem: Corrosion and scale
Capillary Solution: Injection of precisely
engineered corrosion inhibitors controls
corrosion and scale at the source

Capillary System
Overview

Well Problem: Salt build-up

Capillary Solution: Targeted, customized
production chemical solutions stop salt
build-up right at the perfs

Weatherford Capillary Technologies is the

only provider combining internally
developed capillary injection equipment
technologies with proprietary and
patented Engineered Chemistry solutions.
Weatherford systems maximize well
production while protecting tubulars. Our
cap strings provide safe, economical and
reliable performance with the precise and
continuous application of chemical
treatments. This reduces chemical costs
and the need for workovers due to scale,
paraffin, corrosion and salting. Using
either a string of 1/4 or 3/8-in. OD
stainless steel alloy tubing, our systems

Well Problem: Paraffin Build-up

Capillary Solution: Chemicals delivered to
the precise depth just beneath where
paraffin begins to form
Well Problem: H2S and CO2
Capillary Solution: Specialized design and
proper chemical and alloy selections
control H2S and CO2

109

P a g e | 110

The capillary string used for this

application
has
the
following
characteristics:
-in. OD
Material TP: 316 Ti
Wall Thickness: 0.049-in.
Working Pressure: 8744 psi
Hydraulic Pressure Test: 12.000 psi
Burst Pressure: 34976 psi
Collapse Pressure: 10400 psi
Tensile strength: 1184 Kgf
Linear weight: 0.1585 kg/m
Linear capacity: 0.023 Lt/m

Description of the Equipment

The capillary strings are installed
with a patented custom designed
snubbing apparatus shown in Figure 7.
The design of the unit allows the capillary
tubing to be installed concentricity
through the tubing without shutting in the
well. The installation equipment is
mounted on a trailer which holds the reel
of capillary tubing, a crane and the
snubbing unit assembly. The simplicity
and completeness of this setup eliminates
the need for a workover rig. The system is
rated to handle a maximum wellhead
pressure of 5000 psi. A downhole
injection/check valve assembly (Figure 8)
is connected to the bottom of the
capillary tubing and ensures that a steady
flow of chemical or brine is continuously
delivered and mixed with the well fluids. A
316 SS packoff assembly and tubing clamp
are used to secure the capillary tubing. A
suction line chemical filter with a 90-100
mesh Monel cartridge and stainless steel
body is attached to the base of the
chemical storage tank and provides for
the injection of solidsfree chemicals. The
downhole injection system configuration
is shown schematically in Figure 5 for
concentric applications. In this example,
the tubing is run to a depth significantly
below the packer and into the
perforations to yield the optimal mixing of
injected chemicals with produced well
fluids for efficient unloading.

Conclusions and Summary

The use of concentric downhole
capillary strings has proven to be an
economical approach to solving a variety
of production problems. Sustained
production increases result in short
payout times, increased well life, and
improved reserve recovery. In some cases,
wells that have been shut-in or
temporarily abandoned have been
restored to productive capacity. Although
not applicable in every situation, the
capillary tubing provides a good means of
dealing with liquid loading in hard to
operate wells. Results in the 51 East Texas
wells have increased production by 26%,
provided for steady, long term
production, and decreased the amount of
labor required. Other applications for this
technique include the delivery of
corrosion and scale inhibitors in precise
amounts to the exact location in the well
where they are needed and paraffin
treating.

Capillary String

References

110

P a g e | 111

Silverman, S. A., Butler, W., Ashby, T., and

Snyder, K.:
Concentric Capillary Tubing Boosts
Production of Low Pressure Gas Wells,
Petroleum Engineer International, Vol. 70,
No. 10, pp. 71-73 , 1997
Lea, J. F.., How to Tell if Plunger Lift Will
Work in Your Well, Amoco Production
Company
Research
Department
Technology Paper, F93-P-83, pp. 1-5,
November 1993
ASTM D3519 - 88(2007) Standard Test
Method for Foam in Aqueous Media
(Blender Test).
ASTM D892 - 06e1 Standard Test Method
for Foaming Characteristics of Lubricating
Oils
Bolding, J.L, Hartman, L.E., and Szymczak,
S.J. Resurrecting a Low Volume Gas Well
A
Specialized
Surface-Controlled
Subsurface Safety
Valve Integrated with a Capillary Tubing
System for the Continuous Application of
Production Chemical in an Offshore Well.
SPE 110086. Presented at SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Anaheim, CA, November 11 14, 2007.
Lea, J. (2003). Gas Well Deliquification:
Solution to Gas Well Liquid Loading
Problems. (Lea, J, Nickens, H, and Wells,
M).
Elsevier
(USA),
Gulf
Professional
Publishing.
D. Klompsma (2010) The Development of
a Complete System to Allow Continuous
Downhole Chemical Injection Without
Affecting the Subsurface and Surface
Safety Systems (D. Klompsma, B. Lugtmeier,
R. Lacy, W. Hearn, S. Dennistoun, E.
Clazoncinth, J.L. Jacob).

111

P a g e | 112

Figure 1 Decreasing Gas Rate with Decreasing Rese

Figure 2 Critical rate Chart

Figures

112

P a g e | 113

Figure 3 Unloading Selector

Figure 5 Chemical Make Up And Manufacturing P

113

P a g e | 114

Figure 6 Chemical Make Up And Manufacturing Pr

DELIQUIFICATIONM PRODUCTS

114

P a g e | 115

Figure 8 Capillary Injector Head and Chemical I

Figure 7 Capillary Installation Schematic

115

P a g e | 116

As being a Part of era which is

highly burdenised by economic crisis
and at the same time a desperate
need for new reserves to be explored
for future generations so, as to
minimize this load from our future.
To make the both ends meet
the engineers are demanded for
tools and techniques that require
minimum operational cost. The main
area of economic concern, while
exploratory

Conventional Rigless
Total
ExploratoryT ExploratoryT
Vertical
Depthinmete echnique
echnique
rs

upto 1000m 3

3000+m

10

drilling is that of rig and its associated

facility. Which occupy almost 70% of
the total drilling budget.

A new technology
known as
RiglessExplorationTool (Ret)AMuch Better Option Economically,
Environmentally
And
Rigless
Exploration
Tool(RET)
can
Data Acquisition Wise As Compare To Conventional Drilling Technique For Exploration
be a game changer as confronted by
And Appraisal Purpose.
Rigless Explorer Company and that
Author:Aadil Panhwar, Mehran university of engineering
and Technology Jamshoro
statement can be understood by
Cell # 03142875531 ; Email: aadil_panhwar@hotmail.com
comparing the total drilling cost of
both exploration techniques against
total depth drilled.

Abstract:

116

P a g e | 117

The main concept of the

provider is to create a new formation
and reservoir evaluation tool, which
drills into the underground without
the risk, cost and complexity of rig
use. The company describes this
concept as a non-reusable rigless,
Fly by wire exploration tool, which
drills into the underground andburies
itself and remain underground when
the exploration job is complete.
ThisExploration technique not only
removes the misery of rig but also is
beneficent
ecologically
and
operationally.

and drilling of wells is utilized, in

which measurements of physical
parameters are undertaken while
drilling and after completion of the
drilling. The seismic and other
related
investigations
techniques(Electromagnetic
technique etc.) provide information
about where to find the oil or the
gas. Well measurements provide
information about properties of the
formation and the fluids within it.
The subsequent production tests
provide information about expected
production rate, discovery size and
properties of the fluid.

Such type of new technique

proves to be an answer as a
developing possibility for present
demanding era.

As mentioned above, the

seismic and other related methods
have improved substantially, but
they still do not provide sufficient
information about the oil and gas
occurrences for resource exploitation
to be planned and decided on. Costly
exploration and delineation wells
must be drilled in order to confirm an
assumed discovery, and in order to
evaluate the properties of the
reservoir. So in order to confirm that,
presently
conventional
drilling
technique is the only method used
throughout the world to serve the
purpose. And a new technology that
currently is in pre-commercial phase,
is about to penetrate in the market.
This futuristic technology oriented
tool is known as Rigless Explorer
(RE). This technology would prove to
be a Game Changer.

Introduction:
Exploration for oil and gas and
the mapping of resources is
substantially limited by the cost
associated with the drilling of
exploration wells and particularly for
offshore projects. As the petroleum
activity is moved into deeper waters,
the cost of exploration, delineation
and mapping increases. Large
advances within the fields of seismic
methods and improved exploration
models have provided increased
knowledge about the petroleum
occurrences, but the need to
penetrate the earth's crust to further
explore potential occurrences, still
exists. In today's exploration for oil
and gas in the earth's crust, a
combination of seismic investigations

The overallconcept:

117

P a g e | 118

The RET, a new formation and

reservoir evaluation tool which drills
into the subsurface without the risks,
cost and complexity of drilling an
exploration well with a rig. RET, an
autonomous drilling machine, which
is a Rigless, fly by wire exploration
tool. Drills into the underground and
buries itself. A slim electrically
powered drilling system that carries
sensors, which continuously record
data. The closed cavity drilling
technique makes RET one of a kind.

4) A steering and direction

control equipment.
5) Anti spin and weight on bit
control equipment.
Technical details
The target specifications of
the long-term development efforts of
the tool are to achieve a total vertical
penetration depth of 3000 m + and
the time required to drill 3000 m is 2
to 6 months at an average ROP (Rate
of Penetration) of 2 meters/hour
which greatly depends upon rock
hardness, by drilling a borehole of 6
inches. The power requirement for
this operation is of 10 kW which is
provided by an electric generator.

So as to get familiarize with

this tool following tool following
points are descriptively defined:
Tool specification
The RET consists of the following
assembly inside closed cavity (Starting
from the bottom upto the tail as
shown in figure 1):

Formation evaluation parameters

Thefollowingreservoir
parameters
shouldbemeasured,so as to
beableto estimatethe
potentialfor
producingoiland/or gas
fromthe prospects being
explored:

1) Drill
bit(Poly
crystalline
diamond bit) driven by an
electro-motor and gear.
2) Cutting transportation by
screw motor, separation of
cuttings from formation water,
deposition of cuttings in
collecting
chamber,
compression of cuttings and
fracture injection of cuttings
into the borehole wall inorder
to overcome the need of
casing.
3) Spooled cable through which
power is supplied to the tool
and data transferred to
surface.

Compartmentalization
information can be obtained by
gamma ray or by down hole
seismic
Pore pressure and fracturing
pressure
Saturation of hydrocarbons by
resistivity
measurements
in
118

P a g e | 119

combination with a neutron

porosity sensor
Temperature of the formation
can be estimated from decay
curves of the tool temperature if
drilling is halted
Sonic velocity (p-wave and swave) within the reservoir, will
require a transmitter/receiver
pair
Porosity can be obtained from a
neutron porosity sensor in
combination with a gamma
density tool
Permeability can be obtained
from RFT flow tests or from NMR
Measurements.

to contribute
improvements:

to

the

following

No use of large drilling rigs and

all the related logistics, which will
reduce the impact and disturbances to
the wild life, fisheries and the
surrounding environment.

No emission to air or sea, either

of polluted drill cuttings or CO2
emission from power generation, since
the RET buries itself in the
underground

A self-contained operation with

no vessel assistance necessary, which
will reduce the safety hazard for
personnel and avoid fuel consumption
during operations

Minimized risk for uncontrolled

blow-out and thats because of the

continuous
plugging
of
borehole behind the tool while drilling.

An advantage with the RET method is

that the formations will be drilled in
gauge hole, with no drilling fluid and
without overbalance. This means there
will be neither formation invasion nor
measurement
errors
due
to

Economics

washedouthole sections. Accordingly,

themeasurement of representative
formation petrophysical properties is
simplified and hence the toolstring
requirements are simpler than
compared to conventional drilling. This
will reduce the cost related to the
measurement sensor package in the
tool and increase the quality of the
data. Since RET is hardwired to surface,
the
data
sampling
rate
and
transmission volume is much higher
than traditional MWD/LWD.

The rate for an exploration well

through conventional technique could
easily be US $450,000 a day, so a 30day exploration well could cost $44
million. With much smaller equipment
spread to obtain reservoir data, RET
offers immense savings i.e. 10-20
MUSD per operation. Reduces the
initial investment for each find, which
means lifting more projects and
develop more discoveries. This will
increase the amount of proven and
recoverable reserves and allow for
better
long-term
planning.
Dramatically shortens the time from
discovery to development (3-4 years),
i.e. faster return on investment which

Health safety environment

consideration
The future ambition of the concept is
119

P a g e | 120

will attract more funding. Provides a

low cost method to map the area in
the vicinity of existing infrastructures.
This can lead to initiatives and
investments which increases the field
recovery rates. The cost on drilling a
well in water upto 1000 m is 3
timeslesser
as
compare
to
conventional drilling technique and
with the increasing depth the cost
further reduces i.e. for 3000 m and
greater depth of water the cost
becomes 10 times lesser. According to
the data which is collected by
AAPG(American
association
of
petroleum geologists), which tells that
for every 10 wells drilled throughout
the world only 2 wells contribute in
productions and remaining 8 wells
does not contain sufficient amount of
hydrocarbons. Now looking forward to
these statistics it can be easily
concluded that which method proves
to be better for exploration purpose.

A 50 meter long, five inch wide

autonomous pipe with a drill bit
attached to the end. Its meant to be
lowered to the seabed, supported by
cables and precisely adjusted by the
helping hands of a ROV(Remote
operated vehicle) and ROV also helps
the tool by connecting the cable to the
subsurface power cell. The pipe, being
driven by electric propulsion, will drill
itself downward, storing the cuttings,
first inside the collecting tank, as the
bit drills 5 meters the cutting from
collecting tank moves higher in the
tool with the help of screw and
cuttings are transported to another
compartment where formation water
and cuttings are separated and then
cuttings are compacted inorder to plug
the borehole from the top and the
remaining cuttings are hydraulically
injected into the formation, thus in this
way drilling is done with zero emission
and borehole does not needs casing.
Traditional elements like rigs, drill
pipes and drilling fluids are things of
the past. At the starting of the drilling
the 6 inch bit drills with the weight of
the stem as the force driving it to drill
along with the anchors associated with
the tool balance it inorder to drill in
correct direction while the cable is
continuously spooled out from 20m
long cable drum as the RET progresses
deeper.

Seasonal Aspects:
During the winter months, experienced
delays due to low temperatures at
some parts of the world (below -30C)
and it is because of hydraulic pump
failures due to which operation has to
be stopped in conventional drilling
technique inorder to demobilize tool
to inspect and pre-commission in
heated work shop for several times.
But operation at low temperatures
variations is not a big deal for RET but
it has an upper temperature limit of
150 degree Celsius.
Job

The motion of the tool in the wellbore

is illustrated below:
1)
As you can see in figure 2aThe
RET is shown, at this moment drilling
has just initiated. Borehole anchor 1 is

design
120

P a g e | 121

Formation
drillability
(rock
mechanics)
Formation temperature
Availability of formation water
Drill bit specification and durability
Weight on bit (WOB) and tool
rotational control
Drilling module/motor specification
Directional control
Cutting size and shape
Cutting transport
Data acquisition and signal
communication
Cable,
cable
storage
and
deployment
Power generation and power
transfer
Cuttings deposition and formation
fracturing control
Formation compaction and sealing
System design, interfacing and
power distribution logic

in open condition inorder to suspend

the front part of the tool above, the
bottom of the borehole so that with
the sufficient application of weight on
bit the drilling could be started.
2)
The figure 2b shows, the drilling
conditions when 5 meters of drilling is
about to complete. And compartment
1 which collects cuttings is about to get
full which operates hydraulically.
3)
The figure 2c represents the
scenario at which drilling has stopped
for a while, and borehole anchor 2
clamps
against
the
borehole
andborehole anchor 1 leaves the grip
and comes in a closed condition.
4)
The figure 2d represents the
exchange of cuttings by means of
screw motor and hydraulic power
supply to compartment 2 and
compartment1 contracts again. And
now borehole anchor 1 clamps the
borehole again and borehole anchor 2
comes in closed condition. And in this
way drilling process repeats itself.

Testresults
Two different Tests were carried out
inorder to check compatibility of tool.

Well data will be continuously

transmitted through a single cable to
the surface, where they will be
transmitted via satellite to onshore
analysis rooms. Through the very same
wire, the RET will receive the necessary
voltage to continue its downward
journey.

a) 1st test

Scope of work
Drilling and compaction operations in
clay and shale at the Sola test site May
2011

Design criteria
The following areas are identified as
critical elements and challenges that
are being addressed as part of the
ongoing development activities:

Test Successfully Executed:

Drilled 13 m until anchor landed
on safety
clamp as planned
121

P a g e | 122

Hydraulic system stable during

test
Clay and shale accumulated on
compactor as shown in figure 3
on the right side.

2)
3)
4)

The
Results

nd

test

About 100% of prospects nowadays

utilize seismic survey inorder identify
potential traps(folds and faults) but
unable to identify the presence of
hydrocarbons. And it is able to cover
large areas at relatively low cost.

Deeper drilling and compacting,

building a plug under water in open
hole in a closed cavity system at
Brumunddal on July 2011

b. EM(Electromagnetic survey):

Test successfully executed

Amongst
the
all
survey
techniques(except seismic) EM has
proved to be a better

Drilled, anchored, separated and

compacted under water in open
hole
Drilled 237 m (25 cycles)
Compacted 216 m plug as shown
in figure 4
Abandoned test due to high
torque on motor
Most likely caused by a damaged
bearing
When running in hole, the tool fell
about 1.5 m to bottom of hole due
to powerloss.

option for correct identification of

hydrocarbon having 90% of success
ratio, thou having problems with
resistors reading when coming in
contact with volcanic stone, coal beds
and salt layers which makes it suitable
for 60-80% of area, world wide. . EM
survey proves to be need for this tool
as EM survey reveals useful
information regarding presence of
water beneath the surface inorder to
contribute into drilling in the form of
drilling fluid.

Limitations:
1)

process:

a. Seismicsurvey:

Scope of work

exploration

The exploration process includes the

steps taken in order confirm the
presence of hydrocarbon and the steps
those are mostly perceived includes:

Separation and compaction function

needs to be refined in order to
properly treatthe fine grained clay and
shale.
b)2

The high temperature limit is

currently set to 150 degree Celsius.
Formation water availability.
Stability of tool inside borehole.

The down side of the RET is that it

could not get any physical samples
tothe surface.

c) Rigless Exploration Tool:

The most cost efficient comprehensive
122

P a g e | 123

data collection method. Suitable for

large

References:
1)www.bxpl.com

range of targets (exploration, appraisal

+ brown fields). Provides detailed
formation data and verifies the
presence
of
hydrocarbons.
Complementary to seismic and EM
survey.

2) US patent
3) Oilinfonews magazineeditionno.3
4) Internet
5) In curtsies to Badger Exploration
Company

d) Conventional drilling:
It is currently the only available drilling
technology and Cost up to USD 700
millionand 120 man crew required to
drill a well. The Tight supply of rig from
market with all time high day rates.
Exploration wells are rarely used for
production. Mostvalue in development
drilling.
Conclusion:
In todays challenging oil and gas
market where a number of problems
are at hikesuch as:
Decreasing oil production in mature
petroleum provinces.
Strong focus on environmental
impact.
Need to expand seasonal and
weather exploration window.
Shortage of competent personnel
and suitable rigs.
And looking forward to these
discrepancies, a need of better option
is much needed especially in a sense of
economics and feasibility. And Rigless
Exploratory Tool proves itself being
one of a kind to serve these purposes
robustly.
123

P a g e | 124

F
I
G
U
R
E
S

124

P a g e | 125

Figure: 1 Different Compartments

Figure: 2 Motion of the tool inside the

Figure:3 clay and shale accumulated o

125

P a g e | 126

Figure:4 Drilled Depth

126

P a g e | 127

Environmental Aspects of Shale

Gas Exploitation
Muhammad Hasan
Co-author:Hasan Javed Khan
smh.hasan@gmail.com
ABSTRACT:
Due to ever increasing energy demands
and depleting conventional reservoirs,
world is focusing towards the exploitation
of unconventional reservoirs with the help
of advance technology that has been
developed over the period of time.
Exploitation of shale is one such
development among others that has
recently been witnessed, although the
exploitation of shale has posed certain
environmental challenges that need to be
known and properly addressed.
The technology that has been employed
for the development of shale is hydraulic
fracturing, horizontal drilling, multi
fracking etc that are the most significant
sources of environmental destruction
along with some others. This has posed a
significant challenge to the companies
that are involved in these operations. Civil
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P a g e | 128

society is reacting pretty sharply to the

consequences of such operations and the
effects they are going to generate on
environment. Different environmental
laws have been breached and due to
which certain areas are banned for the
shale hydraulic fracturing like New York,
Vermont states etc in America. Different
documentaries on the subject had been
made like Gas land by Josh fox that
certainly shows the level of concern it has
generated among the civil society who is
at stake.

increasingly limited to meet demand,

world is now turning to exploring
unconventional natural gas resources,
such as coalbed methane, tight gas and in
particular shale gas. These are termed
unconventional resources because the
porosity, permeability, fluid trapping
mechanism, or other characteristics of the
reservoir or rock formation from which
the gas is extracted differ greatly from
conventional sandstone and carbonate
reservoirs. In order to extract these
unconventional gases, the characteristics
of the reservoir need to be altered using
techniques such as hydraulic fracturing.

Hence a comprehensive study has been

performed on the potential threats on
environment due to shale gas exploitation
and what could be done to minimize such
adverse effects. Some of the findings of
the study are that, the environmental
threats may be reduced with the help of
careful planning of operations that needs
to be carried out and the employment of
technology that has been developed
specially for the minimization of adverse
environmental
aspects
of
shale
exploitation. Further there is a need of a
further research into this matter to make
it as environment friendly as possible.

Due
to
extensive
amount
of
unconventional reservoirs present , world
is focusing towards the development of
shale reservoirs which has posed certain
environmental hazards as well that needs
to be addressed and controlled.
This study sets out the key environmental
and health risk issues associated with the
potential development and growth of high
volume hydraulic fracturing
ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS:
The main risks were assessed at each
stage of a project (well-pad) development,
and also covered the cumulative
environmental effects of multiple
installations.(Ref:
AEA/ED57281/Issue
Number 17) . The results are shown in
table 1.

INTRODUCTION:
Exploration and production of natural gas
and oil in the past has been mainly
focused on conventional resources that
are readily available and relatively easy to
develop.

The main environmental hazards are :

Ground and surface water
contamination.
Depletion of water resources.
Emissions In air.
Landtake.
Risk to biodiversity.
Noise impacts.

This type of fuel is typically found in

sandstone, siltstone and limestone
reservoirs.
Conventional
extraction
enables oil or gas to flow readily into
boreholes. As opportunities for this type
of domestic extraction are becoming
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P a g e | 129

Visual impacts.
Seismicity.
Traffic.

SHALE GAS PROCESS

WATER USAGE

It can take two to five million gallons (7-19

million liters) of water to frac a well, and a
well may be fracked multiple times. Even
if some of the water can be recycled, the
process requires a major withdrawal from
the aquifer or other water resources. As
shale development continues to grow in
the Marcellus, water usage for well
fracking could reach 650 million barrels
per year in Pennsylvania, New York and
West Virginia, according to a report done
earlier this year for the U.S. Department
of Energy and state authorities. It sounds
like a lot until its compared to the other
water uses in the three states. Water used
in shale development is a fraction of total
water usage for agricultural, industrial and
recreational purposes. In the states In the
Marcellus, for example, the total volume
of water needed to meet estimated peak
shale gas development would be about
0.65 billion barrels per year, which
represents about 0.8 percent of the 85
billion barrels per year that are currently
consumed in the Marcellus basin states.

Horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing

are the two technologies that, in
combination, deliver the potential to
unlock tighter shale gas formations.
Hydraulic fracturing (also known as
fracking) is a well stimulation technique
which consists of pumping a fluid and a
propping agent (proppant) such as sand
down the wellbore under high pressure to
create fractures in the hydrocarbonbearing rock. These fractures start at the
horizontal wellbore and extend as much
as a few hundred meters into the
reservoir rock. The proppant holds the
fractures open, allowing hydrocarbons to
flow into the wellbore. Recovery of the
injected fluids is highly variable, ranging
between 15% and 80% (US EPA, 2010).

Horizontal drilling allows the well to

penetrate along the hydrocarbon bearing
rock seam, which may be less than 90m
thick in most major US shale plays.
Horizontal drilling maximizes the rock
area that, once fractured, is in contact
with the wellbore and, therein, maximizes
well production in terms of the flow and
volume of gas that can be obtained from
the well. Figure 1 illustrates a hydraulically
fractured horizontal well.

Access to sufficient water is critical to

shale gas development, but cumulative
effects on the sources of large water
withdrawals must be managed. Industry is
making tremendous progress in managing
water withdrawals and learning to treat
and use produced water, reducing the
water demands of shale gas drilling. Many
environmentalists have severely criticized
the handling of wastewater, claiming it
results in toxic waste and surface water
contamination. They also argue that
fracking fluids could migrate from the gas129

P a g e | 130

bearing layers, which are over 5,000 feet

below the surface, up to water tables
often less than 500 feet from the surface
and contaminate drinking supplies.

through stream erosion, sediment buildup, water degradation and flooding.

Mitigation measures, such as managed
drainage and controls on certain
contaminants,
arewell
understood.
Therefore the hazard is considered minor
for individual installations with a low risk
ranking and moderate hazard for
cumulative effects with a moderate risk
ranking.

Environmental community documentaries

like "Gasland," assert that hydraulic
fracturing has been responsible for water
pollution and the presence of methane in
water supplies. Although much of the
water used in fracking is collected from
the well and processed, there are
concerns that potentially carcinogenic
chemicals can sometimes escape and find
their way into drinking water sources.
Gasland promoted the idea that shale
gas leaking into drinking supplies allowed
tap water to ignite.
SURFACE
&
GROUND
CONTAMINATION:

The study considered the water

contamination risks of sequential as well
as simultaneous
(i)
well-drilling and
(ii)
hydraulic fracturing.

(i). Poor well design or construction can

lead
to
subsurface
groundwater
contamination arising from aquifer
penetration by the well, the flow of fluids
into, or from rock formations, or the
migration of combustible natural gas to
water supplies. In a properly constructed
well, where there is a large distance
between drinking water sources and the
gas producing zone and geological
conditions are adequate, the risks are
considered low for both single and
multiple installations. Natural gas well
drilling operations use compressed air or
muds as the drilling fluid. During the
drilling stage, contamination can arise as a
result of a failure to maintain storm water
controls, ineffective site management,
inadequate surface and subsurface
containment, poor casing construction,
well blowout or component failure. If
engineering controls are insufficient, the
risk of accidental release increases with
multiple shale gas wells. Cuttings
produced from wells also need to be
properly handled to avoid for instance
the risk of radioactive contamination.
Exposure to these could pose a small risk

WATER

The study found that there is a high risk of

surface and groundwater contamination
at various stages of the well-pad
construction, hydraulic fracturing and gas
production processes, and during well
abandonment. Cumulative developments
could further increase this risk.
Runoff and erosion during early site
construction, particularly from storm
water, may lead to silt accumulation in
surface waters and contaminants entering
water bodies, streams and groundwater.
This is a problem common to all largescale mining and extraction activities.
However, unconventional gas extraction
carries a higher risk because it requires
high-volume processes per installation
and the risks increase with multiple
installations. Shale gas installations are
likely to generate greater storm water
runoff, which could affect natural habitats
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P a g e | 131

to health, but the study concluded that

this would only happen in the event of a
major failure of established control
systems. No evidence was found that
spillage of drilling muds could have a
significant effect on surface waters.
However, in view of the potential
significance of spillages on sensitive water
resources, the risks for surface waters
were considered to be of moderate
significance.

inadequate design or failure of well

casing, leading to potential aquifer
contamination. Substances of potential
concern include naturally occurring heavy
metals, natural gas, naturally occurring
radioactive material and technologically
enhanced radioactive material from
drilling operations. The risks to
groundwater are considered to be
moderate-high for individual sites, and
high for development of multiple sites.
Inadequate sealing of a well after
abandonment could potentially lead to
both groundwater and surface water
contamination, although there is currently
insufficient information available on the
risks posed by the movement of hydraulic
fracturing fluid to the surface over the
long term to allow these risks to be
characterised. The presence of highsalinity fluids in shale gas formations
indicates that there is usually no pathway
for release of fluids to other formations
under the geological conditions typically
prevailing in these formations, although
recently published research indicates that
pathways may potentially exist in certain
geological areas such
as those
encountered in parts of Pennsylvania,
emphasising the need for a high standard
of characterisation of these conditions.

(ii). The risks of surface water and

groundwater contamination during the
technical hydraulic fracturing stage are
considered moderate to high. The
likelihood of properly injected fracturing
liquid reaching underground sources of
drinking water through fractures is
remote where there is more than 600
metres separation between the drinking
water sources and the producing zone.
However, the potential of natural and
manmade geological features to increase
hydraulic connectivity between deep
strata and more shallow formations and
to constitute a risk of migration or
seepage needs to be duly considered.
Where there is no such large depth
separation, the risks are greater. If
wastewater is used to make up fracturing
fluid, this would reduce the water
requirement, but increase the risk of
introducing naturally occurring chemical
contaminants and radioactive materials
into aquifers in the event of well failure or
of fractures extending out of the
production zone. The potential wearing
effects of repeated fracturing on well
construction components such as casings
and cement are not sufficiently
understood and more research is needed.

AIR EMISSIONS:

A paper by Cornells Robert Howarth

(Methane and the greenhouse-gas
footprint of natural gas from shale
formations, March 13, 2011, Climatic
Change) argues that natural gas from
fracking operations can be worse for the
atmosphere than coal because of
methane seepage into the atmosphere.
The Cornell study suggests that life cycle
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from

In the production phase, there are a

number of potential effects on
groundwater associated however with the
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P a g e | 132

shale gas are 20%-100% higher than coal

on a 20-year timeframe basis. This
contradicts a National Technology Energy
Laboratory (NETL) study (Life Cycle
Greenhouse Gas Analysis of Natural Gas
Extraction & Delivery in the United
States, May 2011) which, on an
electricity generation comparison basis,
shows that natural gas base load has 50%
lower GHG emissions than coal on a 20
year timeframe basis.

the fracturing and completion phases,

compared to 1.9 hectares per pad for
conventional drilling. Land-take by shale
gas developments would be higher if the
comparison is made per unit of energy
extracted. Additional land is also required
during re-fracturing operations (each well
can typically be re-fractured up to four
times during a 40 years well lifetime).
Consequently, approximately 1.4% of the
land above a productive shale gas well
may need to be used to exploit the
reservoir fully.

Any sources of so-called greenhouse gases

are important and every effort to reducing
those methane emissions should be a
priority for the natural gas industry.

The evidence suggests that it may not be

possible fully to restore sites in sensitive
areas following well completion or
abandonment, particularly in areas of high
agricultural, natural or cultural value. Over
a wider area, with multiple installations,
this could result in a significant loss or
fragmentation
of
amenities
or
recreational facilities, valuable farmland
or natural habitats.

Other air quality impacts from shale gas

operations also include emissions of
carbon dioxide stripped from the gas,
sulphur dioxide and/or hydrogen sulphide
from treating sour water for use as
hydraulic fracture fluid, and NOX and
other emissions from compressors,
pollution from diesel engines; and ground
level ozone. EPA has identified these
emissions as one of the largest sources of
air pollution from the energy industry.

NOISE POLLUTION:

Noise from excavation, earth moving,

plant and vehicle transport during site
preparation has a potential impact on
both residents and local wildlife,
particularly in sensitive areas. The site
preparation phase would typically last up
to four weeks but is not considered to
differ greatly in nature from other
comparable
large-scale
construction
activity.

LAND-TAKE:

The American experience shows there is a

significant risk of impacts due to the
amount of
land used in shale gas extraction. The land
use requirement is greatest during the
actual
hydraulic fracturing stage, and lower
during the production stage. Surface
installations require an area of
approximately 3.6 hectares per pad for
high volume hydraulic fracturing during

Noise levels vary during the different

stages in the preparation and production
cycle. Well drilling and the hydraulic
fracturing process itself are the most
significant sources of noise.
Flaring of gas can also be noisy. For an
individual well the time span of the
drilling phase will be quite short (around
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P a g e | 133

four weeks in duration) but will be

continuous 24 hours a day. The effect of
noise on local residents and wildlife will
be significantly higher where multiple
wells are drilled in a single pad, which
typically lasts over a five-month period.
Noise during hydraulic fracturing also has
the potential to temporarily disrupt and
disturb local residents and wildlife.

Well drilling could potentially affect

biodiversity through noise, vehicle
movements and site operations. The
treatment and disposal of well drilling
fluids also need to be adequately handled
to avoid damaging natural habitats.
However, these risks are lower than
during
other stages of shale drilling.

Effective noise abatement measures will

reduce the impact in most cases, although
the risk is considered moderate in
locations where proximity to residential
areas or wildlife habitats is a
consideration.

During hydraulic fracturing, the impacts

on ecosystems and wildlife will depend on
the location of the well-pad and its
proximity to endangered or threatened
species. Sediment runoff into streams,
reductions in stream flow, contamination
through accidental spills and inadequate
treatment of recovered waste-waters are
all seen as realistic threats as is water
depletion. However, the study found that
the occurrence of such effects was rare
and cumulatively the risks could be
classified as moderate.

It is estimated that each well-pad

(assuming 10 wells per pad) would require
800 to 2,500 days of noisy activity during
pre-production, covering ground works
and road construction as well as the
hydraulic fracturing process. These noise
levels would need to be carefully
controlled to avoid risks to health for
members of the public.

Effects on natural ecosystems during the

gas production phase may arise due to
human activity, traffic, land-take, habitat
degradation and fragmentation, and the
introduction of invasive species. Pipeline
construction could affect sensitive
ecosystems and re-fracturing would also
cause continuing impacts on biodiversity.
The possibility of land not being suitable
for return to its former use after well
abandonment is another factor potentially
affecting local ecosystems. Biodiversity
risks during the production phase were
considered to be potentially high for
multiple installations.

BIODIVERSITY IMPACTS:

Unconventional gas extraction can affect

biodiversity in a number of ways. It may
result in the degradation or complete
removal of a natural habitat through
excessive water abstraction, or the
splitting up of a habitat as a result of road
construction or fencing being erected, or
for the construction of the well-pad itself.
New, invasive species such as plants,
animals or micro-organisms may be
introduced during the development and
operation of the well, affecting both land
and water ecosystems. This is an area of
plausible concern but there is as yet no
clear evidence base to enable the
significance to be assessed.

TRAFFIC:

Total truck movements during the

construction and development phases of
a well are estimated at between 7,000
and 11,000 for a single ten-well pad.
These movements are temporary in
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P a g e | 134

duration but would adversely affect both

local and national roads and may have a
significant effect in densely populated
areas. These movements can be reduced
by the use of temporary pipelines for
transportation of water.

The risk of visual effects associated with

hydraulic fracturing itself is less
significant, with the main changes to the
landscape consisting of less visually
intrusive features.
For multiple installations, the risk is
considered to be moderate from the site
preparation to the fracturing phases.
During the post-abandonment phase, it
may not be possible to remove all
wellhead equipment from the site;
however, this is considered to pose a low
risk of significant visual intrusion, in view
of the small scale of equipment remaining
on site.

During the most intensive phases of

development, it is estimated that there
could be around 250 truck trips per day
onto an individual site noticeable by
local residents but sustained at these
levels for a few days. The effects may
include increased traffic on public
roadways (affecting traffic flows and
causing congestion), road safety issues,
damage to roads, bridges and other
infrastructure, and increased risk of
spillages
and
accidents
involving
hazardous materials. The risk is
considered to be moderate for an
individual installation, and high for
multiple installations.

SEIMICITY:

There are two types of induced seismic

events
associated
with
hydraulic
fracturing. The hydraulic fracturing
process
itself
can
under
some
circumstances give rise to minor earth
Tremors up to a magnitude of 3 on the
Richter scale, which would not be
detectable by the public. An effective
monitoring programme can be used to
manage the potential for these events
and identify any damage to the wellbore
itself. The risk of significant induced
seismic activity was considered to be low.

VISUAL IMPACTS:

The risk of significant visual effects during

well-pad
site
identification
and
preparation are considered to be low
given that the new landscape features
introduced during the well pad
construction stage are temporary and
common to many other construction
projects.

The second type of event results from the

injection of waste water reaching existing
geological faults. This could lead to more
significant underground movements,
which can potentially be felt by humans at
ground level. This would not take place at
the shale gas extraction site.

The use of large well drilling rigs could

potentially be unsightly during the fourweek construction period, especially in
sensitive high-value agricultural or
residential areas. Local people are not
likely to be familiar with the size and scale
of these drills, and the risk of significant
effects was considered to be moderate in
situations where multiple pads are
developed in a given area.

CONTROL

134

Fracture Monitoring

P a g e | 135

which gas and liquid hydrocarbons are

separated from flowback, would need to
be employed during completions and
recompletions of hydraulically fractured
gas wells.

Additional
advances
in
hydraulic
fracturing design target analysis of
hydraulic fracture treatments is done
through
monitoring
technologies.
Monitoring technologies are used to map
where fracturing occurs during a
stimulation treatment and includes such
techniques as microseismic fracture
mapping, and tilt meter measurements.
These technologies can be used to define
the success and orientation of the
fractures created during a stimulation
process.

Compressors (used to move natural gas

through pipelines). Centrifugal units
would need to be equipped with dry seal
systems; the rod packing in reciprocating
compressors would need to be replaced
every 26,000 hours of operation.
Pneumatic controllers (used at gas
processing plants and compressor stations
to maintain liquid levels, pressures, and
temperatures). At gas processing plants,
use of controllers that are not gas- driven
would eliminate VOC emissions. At
compressor station and other locations,
the controller bleed limit would be 6 cubic
feet of gas per hour. The Agency would
classify each individual controller as an
"affected facility" so that the standards
would apply to each newly installed or
replaced device.

Microseismic monitoring is the process by

which the seismic waves generated during
the fracturing of a rock formation are
monitored and used to map the locations
of the fractures generated (Exhibit 6).
Monitoring is done using a similar
technology to that used to monitor larger
naturally occurring seismic events
associated with earthquakes and other
natural
processes.
Microseismic
monitoring is an active monitoring
process performed during a hydraulic
fracture treatment. As an active
monitoring
process
microseismic
monitoring can be used to develop real
time changes to a fracture program.
Microseismic
monitoring
provides
engineers the ability to manage the
resource through intelligent placement of
additional wells to take advantage of the
natural conditions of the reservoir and
expected fracture results in new wells

Condensate and crude oil storage tanks.

A 95 percent reduction in VOC emissions
would be required for tanks with a
throughput of at least 1 barrel per day of
condensate or 20 barrels per day of crude
oil.
CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS:
As highlighted above, the risks posed by
high volume hydraulic fracturing for
unconventional hydrocarbon extraction
are greater than those of conventional
extraction. A number of recent reports
have looked at opportunities and
challenges of unconventional fossil fuels

Change in Standard

Hydraulic
Fracturing.
"Green"
or
"Reduced Emissions Completions," in
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P a g e | 136

and shale gas developments, and found

that developing unconventional fossil fuel
resources generally poses greater
environmental
challenges
than
conventional
developments.
Robust
regulatory regimes would be required to
mitigate risks and to improve general
public confidence (e.g. the "Golden Rules
for a Golden Age of Gas" special report
from the
International Energy Agency, or an
independent German study on shale gas
entitled Empfehlungen des Neutralen
Expertenkreis (Recommendations of the
neutral expert group).

Measures and approaches to reduce land

disturbance and land-take
Measures to address releases to air and to
effectively reduce noise during drilling,
fracturing and completion
Measures to address water resource
depletion
Measures to reduce the negative effects
caused by increased traffic movements
Measures to improve well integrity and to
reduce the risk of ground and surface
water Contamination

A number of the recommendations made

by the US Department of Energy (SEAB
2011 NPR) are relevant for regulatory
authorities.

Measures to reduce the pressure on

biodiversity
A number of recommendations for further
consideration and research are made with
regard to current areas of uncertainty.
These include:

In particular, it is recommended that one

should take a strategic overview of
potential risks. This will require
consideration of aspects such as:
Undertaking
science-based
characterization of important landscapes,
habitats and corridors to inform planning,
prevention, mitigation and reclamation of
surface effects.

Consideration and further research over

relevant provisions of the Carbon Capture
and Storage Directive covering aspects
such as: site characterization and risk
assessment, permitting arrangements,
monitoring provisions, transboundary cooperation, and liability.

Establishing effective field monitoring and

enforcement
to
inform
on-going
assessment of cumulative community and
land use effects.

The use of micro-seismic monitoring in

relation to hydraulic fracturing
Determination of chemical interactions
between fracturing fluids and different
shale rocks, and displacement of
formation fluids

Restricting or preventing development in

areas of high value or sensitivity with
regard to biodiversity, water resources,
community effects etc.

Induced seismicity triggered by hydraulic

fracturing

The appropriate sitting of developments,

to reduce above and below-ground risks
for
specified projects.

Development of less environmentally

hazardous drilling and fracturing fluids

136

P a g e | 137

Methods to improve well integrity

through development of better casing and
cementing methods and practices

Consulting; Mark Layne, Ph.D., P.E., ALL

Consulting
Report for European Commission
DG Environment
AEA/R/ED57281
Issue Number 11
Date 28/05/2012

Development of a searchable European

database of hydraulic fracturing fluid
composition
Research into the risks and causes of
methane migration to groundwater from
shale gas extraction.
The development of a system of voluntary
ecological initiatives within sensitive
habitats to generate mitigation credits
which could be used for offsetting future
development.

REFERENCES:
Shale Gas: Energy and Environmental
Issues by Ian Duncan , Gulf Coast Carbon
Center ,Bureau of Economic Geology.
Environmental Issues Surrounding
Shale Gas Production
The U.S. Experience
A Primer.

Report for European Commission DG

CLIMA
AEA/R/ED57412 Date 30/07/2012
Issue 2

Evaluating the Environmental

Implications of Hydraulic Fracturing in
Shale Gas Reservoirs
Authors: J. Daniel Arthur, P.E., ALL
Consulting; Brian Bohm, P.G., ALL
Consulting; Bobbi Jo Coughlin, EIT, ALL
137

P a g e | 138

Figure 1

138

P a g e | 139

Table 1

139

P a g e | 140

Decline Curve Analysis for Tight Gas Reservoirs

Author: Syed Saddam Alvi
Cell No: 0333-3161343, E-mail: syed_alvi700@hotmail.com
Abstract
Decline-Curve Analysis is a method used widely for production forecasting and estimating
remaining reserves for oil and gas reservoirs. Decline curve analysis is based on assumption i.e.
the past performance trends in the production can be characterized mathematically and can be
used to predict future performance with a level of certainty.
Decline curve analysis one of the oldest and the most practical tools used by a reservoir
engineer to predict the future performance of a reservoir. The method is deterministic and the
estimation of the remaining reserves is based on known historical data.
In tight gas reservoir the production is commingled from multilayered formations that are
hydraulically fractured with multiple stages. Because of variations in formation permeability
and fracture half-length, different flow regimes may coexist in different layers. Lowerpermeability zones may be in transient flow, while higher-permeability zones have established
stabilized, boundary-dominated flow. The profile of production contribution by individual layers
change constantly with time. Given these complications, decline-curve analysis of tight gas
wells is especially difficult, particularly with regard to estimating long-term production and
reserves.
The objective of paper will be to develop method to improve reserves estimates from declinecurve analysis of tight and multilayer gas wells, particularly those dominated by

transient flow. I will propose a new, improved technique to analyze the transient-flowdominated production data. The distinctions of our method from other methods currently in
use are that we determine the b value for stabilized (boundary-dominated) flow a priori, history
match multiple periods of late production data in a backward fashion to determine a set of
decline parameters qi and Di , and then extrapolate these parameters to qi and Di corresponding
to the end of history for use in projecting future production.
Introduction

140

P a g e | 141

Tight gas reservoirs are characterized by permeability less than 0.1 md. Gas wells in tight
formations usually require hydraulic fracturing of multiple layers to be viable commercially.
Therefore, analysis of decline behavior in tight gas wells presents unique technical challenges. It
is often very difficult, if not impossible, to estimate reserves accurately in a timely and
consistent fashion with decline-curve analysis. Long times often years are required to reach so
called pseudo steady-state flow (actually, boundary-dominated flow because the term "pseudo
steady state" strictly applies only to constant-rate production). The production data available
for decline-curve analysis are, therefore, typically not stabilized. As a result, it is not uncommon
for tight gas wells to exhibit Arps' decline constants, b that exceeds 1.0. With b-values greater
than 1.0 (Super-hyperbolic condition), future performance and remaining reserves will be
greatly overestimated. In conventional practice, some analysts simply use the b value obtained
from matching of production data, while others force the b value to be 1.0. Still others use the
hyperbolic decline and the matched value of b, but, when the decline rate reaches a
predetermined limit, they switch to exponential decline for the remainder of the forecast.
However, this latter procedure has no physical basis. This type of decline behavior is highly
unlikely in nature.
Decline Curve Analysis
Decline analysis is a reservoir engineering technique that has been around for more than a
century. The method has not significantly changed since the refined form proposed by J.J. Arps
in 1945. Owing to its simplicity and reliability, it has been a popular method to forecast
production and estimate reserves. The purpose of decline analysis is to forecast the cumulative
production of a well up to the point it reaches a defined abandonment criteria. The amount
produced is known as its expected ultimate recovery (EUR).There are two forms of the Arps
equation that are commonly used to model rate decline. The exponential form is usually used
for single phase liquid production or high pressure gas wells.
q=qi e-Di t (1)
q=qi (1+bDit)-1/b .. (2)
Although Arps should be limited to the boundary-dominated flow portion of the production
history where operating conditions (back-pressure) are relatively constant, practitioners
regularly attempt to utilize Arps in the transient flow region. But in tight gas reservoirs we
cannot see boundary effect (as shown in figure1) due to less permeability due to this reason the
transient period for tight gas much longer than conventional reservoirs. Production data may
still be in the transition region between transient and boundary dominated flow for a period of
months or even years. As a consequence, practitioners are regularly pushing the limitation of
b being less than or equal to 1 and use b-values much greater than 1. These higher b values
141

P a g e | 142

make better-looking matches of the production history data possible but often produce
remaining reserve estimates that are obviously ridiculous. As shown in figure 1.
Power Law-Loss Ratio Method:
A new methodology that could be applied to tight gas wells was recently introduced by Ilk et al.
In this method, the exponential relation presented by Arps was modified to model the transient
region of production data. The power-law exponential rate relation which is given as:
1
]

= [

................ (3)

Equation (3) can be reduced to the power law loss-ratio rate decline relation as defined by Ilk et
al.

= ` [`` ] . (4)
The focus of this work will be to explore methods for solving the power law loss-ratio equation
to determine a consistent and reliable set of forecast parameters.
Wells used for Study
The wells chosen for the study are producing from tight formation from lower Indus basin in
Pakistan.

Analysis Procedure
Filter the Production Data
Both Arps and the power law method are limited by the quality of data being analyzed. The goal
of filtering was to take publicly available monthly production data and highlight a reasonable
trend.
Any points that suggested different production strategies or changing operational conditions
were ignored. Dramatic changes in production profile were ignored as they were assumed to be
influences that originated outside the reservoir.
In addition, points deemed to be low were ignored as they were suspected to be producing
below capacity or for only a portion of that month.
Estimate a Value For q`i
q`i represents the instantaneous initial production rate of the well. It can be determined by
extrapolating production data back to the start date. This value serves as an anchor point for
the analysis line, and as a result it must be carefully determined.
142

P a g e | 143

Fit a Analysis to the Production Data

An analysis line can be created by using the parameters in equation (4). Modifying the
parameters by trial and error tended to be tedious because matching n and D at the same
time tends to be time consuming. The use of an iterative multi-variable solution method to fit
the analysis line is the recommended approach. Estimation of reserves by power law-loss ratio
is shown in figure 3.
Extrapolate Analysis Line to Abandonment
Typically production continues until a defined abandonment criterion has been met. This is
usually the economic minimum rate. Once a limit has been specified, the EUR can be calculated.
Conclusions
Use of the power law is preferred over the Arps method for cases where there is insufficient
boundary dominated data or a very long transient period.
The power law seems provide consistently reasonable results for the EUR.
More studies are needed to determine if there is physical significance of the n
parameter.

NOMENCLATURE
b = Arps method decline exponent
D = decline rate, % per year
D1 = Decline constant "intercept" at 1 time unit, D(t=1 day)
Di = initial decline rate, % per year
D`i = decline constant D`i = D1/n , 1/(year)n
D = decline rate at infinite time, D(t=), 1/year
n = time exponent
qi = initial rate, Mscfd or 103m3/d
q`i = Rate "intercept", q(t=0), Mscfd or 103m3/d
t = cumulative time, days
R = ratio of D`i and D terms
REFERENCES
1. ARPS, J.J., Analysis of Decline Curves; Trans., AIME,160, pp. 228-247, 1945.
2. MATTAR, L., GAULT, B., MORAD, K., CLARKSON,C.R., FREEMAN, C.M., ILK, D., and
BLASINGAME,T.A., Production Analysis and Forecasting of Shale Gas Reservoirs: Case HistoryBased Approach; paper SPE
143

P a g e | 144

119897 presented at the 2008 SPE Shale Gas Production Conference, Fort Worth, 16-18
November.
3. ILK, D., RUSHING, J.A., PEREGO, A.D. and
BLASINGAME, T.A., Exponential vs. Hyperbolic Decline in Tight Gas Sands Understanding the
Origin
and Implications for Reserve Estimates Using Arps' Decline Curves; paper SPE 116731 presented
at the 2008 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Denver, 21-24 September.
4. RUSHING, J.A., PEREGO, A.D., SULLIVAN, R.B. and BLASINGAME, T.A., Estimating Reserves in
Tight Gas Sands at HP/HT Reservoir Conditions: Use and
Misuse of an Arps Decline Curve Methodology; paper
SPE 109625 presented at the 2007 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Anaheim,
11-14
November.
5. KUPCHENKO, C.L., GAULT, B.W. and MATTAR, L., Tight Gas Production Performance Using
Decline Curves; paper SPE 114991 presented at the 2008
CIPC/SPE Gas Technology Symposium 2008 Joint Conference, Calgary, 1619 June.
6. OKUSZKO, K.E., GAULT, B.W. and MATTAR, L.,
Production Decline Performance of CBM Wells;
Canadian International Petroleum Conference (58th Annual Technical Meeting), Calgary,
Alberta, Canada,

Table 1: Well start year and Production data

144

P a g e | 145

Table 2: Calculated and measured Flow rates

145

Figure 2: Ridiculous estimation of reserves by using Arps equation in tight gas

reservoir

Figure 1: Neither middle time nor late time effect seen on log-log plot

146

P a g e | 146

P a g e | 147

Figure3: Estimation of reserves by using Power law-loss ratio equation in tight gas
reservoir

PAPER TILLE

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Addition of Nano Particles, An Advancement In drilling Fluids

Author: HAIWAD AHMAD
Cell: +92-3159953538; email: haiwadahmad@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
During well drilling, problems associated with
well mostly contain lost circulation, pipe
stucking, formation damage, high torque and
thermal instability, can be caused of adverse
environmental
and
economic
impact.
Nanoparticles based drilling fluids are used
which design and develops smart drilling fluids
for efficient drilling operations at significantly
low cost.

INTRODUCTION
In rotary drilling operations for oil or natural gas
wells drilling fluids are very essential. For a
drilling uid to function in an effective manner,
it must have the correct heat transfer and uidow characteristics. Furthermore, it must be
environmentally benign. Over the years, these
requirements have been satised by both
water-based and oil-based muds. For high
temperature and high pressure (HTHP) deep
drilling operations, where temperatures can
approach 316oC (600oF) and pressures can reach
40,000 psi, drilling fluids can undergo loss in
properties and functionality due to degradation
of polymeric additives. Thus, it is desirable to
replace some of these polymeric additives with
materials that can withstand high temperature
and high pressure (HTHP) operating conditions
over an extended period of time.

Nanoparticles of different types are used for

their specified functions. The optimum sized
nanoparticles for a given formation can be
selected in combination with drilling fluid to
obtain frequent and significant results. The
nanoparticles improve the fluids rheological,
mechanical, optical and thermal properties.
Nanoparticles size can vary between 5 and 100
nanometers.
Mentioning one of the application of
nanoparticles is using carbon black particles,
which reduces the thickness of mud cake,
widely used in Iran oil Industry Ahwaz & AbbTaymoor to decrease the probability of pipe
stucking, cost and time while drilling.

Nanoparticles of various shapes, sizes and

surface characteristics are available, and these
can be employed for this purpose.
Nanoparticles can be used to stabilize water-inoil emulsions in place of polymeric surfactants.
In order to decrease the probability of different
problems in deep drilling systems, researchers
are working on improving the efficiency and
extending the life of drilling fluids by
establishing a new class of nanoparticle-based
drilling fluids and a new class of nanoparticle
additives for conventional fluids. The proposed

Key Words:
Nanoparticles, drilling fluids, lost circulation,
Rheological properties, pipe stucking

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P a g e | 149

nanomaterials are less susceptible to

degradation at HPHT (high temperature and
high pressure) conditions. Suspensions of
nanosized particles may provide the following
advantages: (1) Nanosized particles can have
enhanced stability against sedimentation since
surface forces easily balance the gravity force,
and (2) Thermal, optical, mechanical, electrical,
rheological, and magnetic properties of
nanoparticles, which depend signicantly on
size and shape, can be customized during
manufacture and are often superior to the base
material.

nanoparticles to suit any particular situation,

discourage use of other expensive additives,
and improved functionality. The use of
nanoparticles synthesized from different
materials has been used to achieve certain
targets and are reported in the literature. In
addition to the superior performance the most
attractive feature of nanoparticles enhanced
drilling fluids (NEDF) is their low cost. The
technical and economic benefits associated with
nanoparticled
are
also
favourable.
Rheology
Measurements
and
High
Temperature Aging

Recent experiments have demonstrated that

nanouids have attractive properties for
applications where heat transfer, drag
reduction, binding ability for sand consolidation,
gel formation, wettability alteration, and
corrosive control is of interest.

The rheological properties of the different fluids

were measured using a Carri-Med CSL100
controlled stress rheometer. Parallel plate fixture
with 4cm diameter flat plates and a 1mm gap was
employed to make the measurements. After
loading the samples and adjusting the gap, the
fluids were sheared at a constant shear stress of
2000 dynes/cm2 for 1 hr. to impart a uniform
shear history to all samples. After this pre-shearing
step, the samples were allowed to rest for 10
minutes. Finally, stress ramp up and ramp down
measurements were made. All measurements
were carried out at 25oC (77oF).

NANO ENHANCED DRILLING FLUIDS (NEDF)

PROSPECTS
The onset of nanotechnology has revolutionized
the science and engineering faction, and due to
its huge domain of applicability, like every other
industry, the drilling industry can also pull out
terrific benefits from nanotechnology out of
which one of the most promising prospects is
yhe use of nanoparticles in drilling muds in
order to have a definite operational
performance, stability and suitability to adopt
well with a wide range of operating conditions
with minor changes in composition and sizes.
The use of nanoparticles in drilling fluids will
enable the drilling technologists to swiftly
modify the drilling fluid rheology by changing
the composition, type or size distribution of

To study the effect of high temperature aging,

these drilling fluids were placed in a tightly sealed
tubing reactor. The reactor was then kept in an
oven at 175oC (347oF) for periods of up to 96 hours
for static aging. After this, the reactor was quench
cooled in a water bath, and the aged drilling fluid
sample
was
withdrawn
for
rheology
measurements.
Results and Discussion

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P a g e | 150

For this study, the various drilling fluids were

prepared using poly1-decene as the oil base
(viscosity = 0.69 poise, density = 0.833 gm/cc).
Other components were 4wt% Cloisite20A, an
organically-modified clay, and 20%v deionized
water. This formed the benchmark fluid for
comparison with nanoparticle-containing fluids.
Figure 1 shows the viscosity versus shear rate
curve for the base fluid and for the fluids
containing nanoparticles. Presented in this figure
are the effects of adding 0.4wt% nanoalumina or
nano CuO or 2wt% nano alumina to the base fluid.

100000

4wt%Cloisite (base)
4wt%Cloisite(base)-96hrs
High T
10000

viscosity (Poise)

nano Al2O3-24hr HighT

viscosity (Poise)

nanoAl2O3(2wt%)

100

10

1.00E+01

1.00E+02

1.00E+00

1.00E+01

1.00E+02

1.00E+03

In order to better understand the effect of adding

nanoparticles and thermal aging on the rheological
properties, especially the plastic viscosity and the
yield point, of the base fluid, various models, such
as Bingham, Casson and Herschel Bulkeley models,
were fitted to these data. It was found that the
Casson model provided the best fit to the data;
this model is given by

1000

1.00E+00

1.00E-01

Figure 2. Effect of aging at 175oC on the viscosity of

the base fluid and on the fluid containing 0.4wt%
nano alumina.

nanoAl2O3 (0.4wt%)

1.00E-01

1.00E-02

shear rate (1/s)

nanoCuO (0.4wt%)

1.00E-02

nanoAl2O3-96hr HighT

100

1
1.00E-03

4wt%Cloisite (base)

1
1.00E-03

1000

10

100000

10000

nanoAl2O3-fresh

1.00E+03

y p

shear rate (1/s)

Figure 1. Shear viscosity versus shear rate for the

base fluid and with the addition of nanoparticles.

(1)

where, is the shear stress (dynes/cm2),

y is the
2
yield strength (dynes/cm ),
p is the plastic
viscosity (poise) and is the shear rate (1/s). By

Clearly a shear thinning behavior is observed.

Though there is very little increase in viscosity at
the 0.4wt% level, a significant increase is observed
at the 2wt% nano alumina loading level. Figure 2
shows the viscosity as a function of time of aging
at 175oC for fluids containing 0.4wt% nanoalumina
and also for the base fluid.

fitting experimental results for the flow curves to

the model, the yield strength and the plastic
viscosity were obtained for these fluids. These
results are displayed in Table 1.
Table 1. Effect of adding nanoparticles on
rheological properties of base fluid.
Polydecene+4wt%Cloisite20A Plastic
+20%v water +
viscosi
ty

150

Yield
strength
(dyne/c

P a g e | 151

(poise) m2)
0 wt% nano particles

1.47

86.5

0.4wt% nano alumina

1.65

111.79

0.4wt% nano CuO

1.58

126.5

2wt % nano alumina

1.73

194.3

is also seen that samples with nano CuO show a

much larger enhancement in flow properties, but
the reason for this behavior is not clear.
Nonetheless, we can conclude that the addition of
nanoparticles to drilling fluids has a positive effect
on the properties. Work is continuing to further
study the effect of adding nanomaterials at more
severe HTHP conditions.
Causes of stuck pipe in ahwaz and abb-taymoor
oil fields

Both the viscosity and yield strength increase on

adding nanoparticles. However, there seems to be
a larger enhancement in yield strength than in the
viscosity, and this is actually desirable. Table 2
shows the effect of high temperature aging on
these properties.
Table 2. Effect of aging at 175oC on rheological
properties of various fluids
0.4wt% nano alumina 0.4wt% nano CuO
Hours Plastic
Yield
Plastic
Yield
at
viscosity strength
viscosity strength
o
2
175 C (poise) (dyne/cm ) (poise) (dyne/cm2)
(347oF)
0

1.65

111.8

1.58

126.5

24

1.75

134.0

1.85

272.6

96

1.76

125.9

Daily reports of drilling operations and

experienced drillers say that most of the stuck drill
pipes in formations of Asmari, Sravak and Ilam in
Ahwaz and Abb-Taymoor oil fields have happened
during Pull Out of Hole, Run in Hole, while drilling,
survey and connection. Among mentioned causes
of stuck pipe, the worst case is stuck pipe while
drilling. This type of stuck pipe happens while
drilling in fractured and faulted formations. Bit or
bit cones get stuck in these fractures and become
unable to move, or in differential pressure
environment this kind of sticking is initiated by
differential sticking.
Solution of pipe stucking
It is known that when two surfaces are in contact
with a perpendicular side force acting between
them, any attempt to move one surface relative to
the other will result in a friction force resisting the
motion. So in the case that drill string rests against
wellbore, there is a contact between mud cake on
wellbore and outer surface area of drill string.
More contact area between drill string and mud
cake causes more friction force resisting the
motion and more difficulty to free stuck string.
Therefore we assume that two job can be done in

From the table above, it can be seen that viscosity

and yield strength both increase slightly on aging.
This may be due to better dispersion of Nano clays
and nanoparticles upon high temperature aging. It
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P a g e | 152

order to reduce friction force resisting the motion.

More contact area between drill string and mud
cake causes more friction force resisting the
motion and more difficulty to free stuck string.
Therefore we assume that two job can be done in
order to reduce friction force resisting the motion.
Reducing outer surface area of drill string: this job
requires using spiral drill collars which have less
outer surface area and is beneficent to some
extent. Reducing thickness of mud cake.

Table 2 Show experimental data pertinent to using

nanoparticles (In this case carbon black) in drilling
fluid. Important point is that carbon black particles
have thermal stability up to 3000 degree
Fahrenheit.
(Table 2) Effect of nanoparticles on reduction of
mud cake thickness

It is known that presence of ordinary materials in

drill mud can cause increased viscosity and mud
weight. This high mud weight can cause damage
to sub-surface formations, plugging of production
zones, hole erosion, decreased penetration rate,
pipe failures, stuck pipe and lost circulation (Ford
et al., 1990, Amoco, 1996, BHI, 1998, Reid et al.,
2000 and Njobuenwu and Nna, 2005). So in order
to decrease probability of stuck pipe we have to
use new materials in which do not increase
viscosity and mud weight very much. Because as
mentioned this increase in viscosity and mud
weight may lead to some problems that one of
them is stuck pipe.

Pressure & Initial

Temperature Mudcake
Thickness

Adding Percentage
2% by of
volume improvement
of
carbon
black to
mud

100 psi, 80 F

32/3

25%

32/8

27%

32/4

500 psi, 300 32/11

F

Results And Conclusion

It is proposed that nanomaterials can be added to
drilling fluids to replace some of the polymeric
additives which may degrade at HTHP drilling
conditions. To verify this hypothesis, oil-based
drilling fluids containing nanomaterials were
prepared, and these were subjected to high
temperature (175oC) aging for up to 96 hours.
Their rheological properties were measured which
showed that drilling fluids maintain their
properties after aging.

Our suggestion for decreasing probability of stuck

pipe is to use nanoparticles in drilling mud that
causes several changes in mud properties. These
nanoparticles are carbon black particles in which
are added to drilling mud to perform some
functions.
As mentioned, presence of carbon black particles
reduces the thickness of the mud cakes. The
uniform individual particle size distribution
provided better compaction medium which
restricted the flow of liquids from the drilling fluid.

Using nanoparticles in drilling mud which is a

branch of nanotechnology has several advantages.
Carbon black is one of the nanomaterials in which
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P a g e | 153

is produced inside Iran and is available and in

access.

3) George Guthrie, Phuoc Tran Novel Fluids for

Deep Oil and Gas Drilling 2005

References

4) Abouzar Mirzaei Paiaman, Bandar Duraya AlAnazi Using Nanoparticles To Decrease

Differential Pipe Sticking And Its Feasibility In
Iranian Oil Fields

1)Sushant Agarwal, Lynn M. Walker, Dennis C.

Prieve, Rakesh K. Gupta, Using Nanoparticles
And Nanofluids To Tailor Transport Properties
Of Drilling Fluids For Hthp Operations Aade
2009ntce-18-05

5) Dr. Jamil Abdo, M. Danish Haneef

Nanoparticles:
Promising
Solution
To
Overcome Stern Drilling Problems.

2) Phuoc X. Tran, David K. Lyons Nanofluids for

Use as Ultra-Deep Drilling Fluids 01/2007

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SIMULATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE FLOODING USING ECLIPSE SOFTWARE

Author:
Hizbullah Memon, Final Year Student,
Institute of Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering
Mehran University of Engineering and Technology
Cell: 0092. 332.2637267
Email: memonhizbullah@engineer.com
ABSTRACT:
The Oil Reserves of World are depleting
faster than ever before. Whereas, demands
for energy is increasing day by day and it
almost got double in recent years. Indeed
the need of the hour is to explore new oil
deposits and new alternate sources for
energy otherwise our future is to be seen
dark. But... wait! Are we forgetting
something??? Yes indeed we are leaving a
lot of oil behind us in the reservoirs. That oil
is recoverable and can be used to meet our
demands. The order of the day is to use the
techniques to bring that remaining oil on
the surface. Those methods which are used
to produce that residual oil are known as
ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY (EOR) Methods.
There are many EOR methods which are
deployed for taking the remaining oil from
the depleted reservoirs including, Thermal
Methods, Miscible Gas Injections, and
Chemical Injections. These methods are
selected on the basis of API gravity of oil,
depth of the reservoir and other reservoir
characteristics.

However this research work concentrates

on Injection of Carbon dioxide Gas and
water simultaneously in the reservoir for
increasing the recovery of oil. A
Compositional Model of the reservoir is
created
using
simulation
software
SCHLUMBERGER ECLIPISE. The model
includes the injection of CO2. After
simulating the model, the results are
generated. The results will be in the
additional percentage recovery, pressure
maintenance, and the life of the project by
determining the break through time of CO2.
INTRODUCTION
When a well is drilled at specified location,
it is brought on production through some
natural processes that are called as Primary
Drive Mechanism or Primary Recovery
Mechanism. In the Primary methods,
natural pressure (solution gas, free gas cap,
water) brings the oil from the reservoir to
wellbore and then from wellbore to the
surface.
When the natural pressure depletes, the
reservoir contains the oil but it does not
have potential to produce towards the
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wellbore so that it can be reached at the

surface. In that conditions the Secondary
Recovery Methods are used. These
methods involves the injection of external
fluids like water or gas directly into the
reservoir so that the reservoir pressure
increase and the injecting fluids physically
sweeps the oil from the reservoir pores
towards the production well.
After the secondary recovery, the oil
becomes viscous and do not mobilize. So
the external fluids are injected to reduce
the viscosity of the oil and make the oil to
mobilize. These methods are called
Enhanced Oil Recovery Methods.

4. To predict the performance of CO2

Flood including the Additional Oil
Production
5. To determine the optimum CO2
Injection Rate and Oil production Rate
and to predict the CO2 Break through
Point.
For this purpose, Schlumberger Eclipse
Compositional (E-300) Simulator is used.
BACKGROUND OF CO2 FLOODING
Carbon dioxide flooding is the miscible gas
enhanced oil recovery method, in which
carbon dioxide is injected (in gaseous form)
into the reservoir.

CO2 flooding is the second most common

tertiary recovery (EOR) technique after
thermal recovery method and is used in
facilities around the world.

The carbon dioxide is colorless an odor less

gas. The molecular weight of Carbon
dioxide is 44.010 g/mol. The Phase Diagram
of CO2 is shown in Figure-1.

Carbon dioxide flooding is a process in

which carbon dioxide is injected into an oil
reservoir. Carbon dioxide flooding works on
the premise that by injecting Carbon
dioxide into the reservoir, the viscosity of
any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence
will be easier for oil to sweep towards the
production well.

The Boiling point and Melting point of CO2

are -109.2 F and -69.9 F respectively.
Density and specific gravity of CO2 are
0.1167 lb/ft3 and 1.521 respectively while it
has the compressibility factor of 0.9942.

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The critical pressure and temperature are

1071 psia and 87.8 F respectively while its
tripe point pressure and temperature are
75.220 psia and -56.6 C.

The main objectives of the work are:

CO2 RECOVERY MECHANISM

1. To simulate the Primary, Secondary and

Tertiary drive mechanism recovery.
2. To Design an CO2 flooding simulation
model using Eclipse E-300 Simulator
3. To see the effects of miscibility of
Carbon dioxide into the oil.

CO2 flooding produces the oil by the

following mechanisms;

Reduction in Oil viscosity

Swelling of oil
Miscibility effects
155 | P a g e

P a g e | 156

Reduction of Interfacial tension

Carbon dioxide is injected in several modes

that are, Stimulation of CO2, Continuous
injection of CO2, Alternate injection of slugs
of Co2 and Water and simultaneous
injection of water and CO2.

flooding project. There are four methods

for the determination of MMP, which are

Slim Tube Experiment

Visual Cell Experiment
Gravity Stable Experiment
Correlations

CO2 DESIGN PROCEDURE

There are several factors which are
necessarily designed for a successful CO2
pilot project.

Reservoir Pressurization: For the

successful field pilot project of CO2
flooding, the reservoir must be
pressurized. The pressure of reservoir is
depleted due to natural recovery. So in
order to get miscibility, the reservoir
pressure must be boosted.
CO2 Volume: The volume of Carbon
dioxide injected depends upon the
volume of hydrocarbon pore volume to
be swept.
CO2 Injection Pressure: The Injection
pressure of CO2 must be less than
fracturing pressure to avoid parting of
formation while it must be greater than
minimum miscibility pressure to obtain
miscibility.

MINIMUM MISCIBILITY PRESSURE

The minimum miscibility pressure is the
minimum pressure above which the Carbon
dioxide will be miscible with the reservoir
oil. This must be determined very carefully
because wrong determination of MMP
usually leads to failure of Carbon dioxide

SCREENING CRITERIA FOR CO2 FLOODING

There are several factors which must be
considered and on the basis of these
factors, the EOR method is selected. The
selection criterion for Carbon dioxide
flooding is as follows:
Formation

Sand Stone, Carbonate,

Dolomite and Chert

Depth

>2500 feet

Permeability

>0.2 md

Viscosity

<12 centipoise

Net Pay thickness

15-25 feet

Bottom Hole

>220 F

Temperature
Pressure

>7000 psia

Oil API Gravity

25 API

Oil Saturation

>30%

DESIGNING OF MODEL

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P a g e | 157

In this paper, the reservoir model was

developed using Schlumberger Eclipse
Compositional Simulator (E-300). When
CO2 is injected into reservoir above MMP,
the gas gets miscible with oil and changes in
composition of oil must be created. So in
order to account these changes, the
compositional simulator is used.
The reservoir model is 3-dimensional model
in which oil (with dissolved gas) and water
is present. The compositon of oil is in such a
way that oil contains 11 components
including heavier fractions (C7+ fraction).
Before going to create model in eclipse
office, a PVT model of fluid was generated
using PVTi module of eclipse software. In
the PVTi model, several test were
performed to determine the different
parameters of the fluids. These tests
include;

Bubble Point Test

Constant Composition Test
Differential Liberation Test
Swelling Test
Separator Test

Swelling test is important in compositional

simulation of CO2 flooding in order to
account the changes occurred in volume of
oil relative to original volume before
injection of gas. Swelling test alters the
properties of fluids accordingly.
The rock and fluid properties is shown in
the following table

Model Dimensions

5x5x4

Permeability

300md

Porosity

20%

Oil Density

50.8432 lb/ft3

Gas Density

0.1749

API Gravity

42 API

Depth of reservoir

9000 feet

Reservoir Temperature

302 F

Reference Pressure

4500 psia

Depth
contact

of

Oil-water 9600 feet

Viscosity

0.1 cp

MODEL
Figure-2 shows the initial design of model.
The model is initialized and Fluid In Place
(FIP) report showed that the reservoir
contains 45.10 MMSTB of oil in place with
12.73 MMSTB of water in place.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
There are three wells which are drilled in
the reservoir. Out of them, one is
production well, one in water injection well
and one is carbon dioxide injection well.

Primary Recovery

Table 2: Rock and Fluids Properties

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In the initial stage, the reservoir is produced

through any primary drive mechanism for
four years. In the primary recovery phase,
the water injection and gas injection well
was shut. During this initial phase, the
Hydrocarbon was produced through natural
drive mechanism and the pressure was
depleted from 4500 psia.

Secondary Recovery

In the secondary recovery phase, the water

injection well was opened and water is
injected into the reservoir at a constant
injection rate. The purpose of injecting
water is to physically sweep the reservoir oil
and to pressurize the reservoir for Carbon
dioxide flooding process. The pressure of
the reservoir was boosted in the range of
14000 psia.

Tertiary Recovery

After the water flooding process, the

reservoir pressure is enough boosted so
that CO2 can be injected and miscibility can
be obtained. So the Carbon dioxide is
injected at constant injection rate. As the
CO2 is injected into the reservoir, it comes
in contact with reservoir oil and gets
miscible with the oil thus reducing the
viscosity and cause the oil to swell thus
leading to
vaporizing the
lighter
hydrocarbons. (Figure 7 to 12 shows the
viscosity reduction trends)The end of CO2
flooding is judged when breakthrough of
CO2 occurs and CO2 is present in large
quantity in the produced gas.

Figures from 3 to 6 shows the 3D view of

the reservoir model at initial stage (start of
primary recovery), start of secondary
recovery, start of tertiary process and end
of recovery.
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
The sensitivity analysis includes number of
scenarios for CO2 EOR process to select the
best recovery. These scenarios includes
Production rates and injection Rates.

Production Rates Sensitivity Analysis

In this sensitivity analysis, the injection rate

of CO2 is kept as constant i-e
5000MSCF/Day. Initially the reservoir was
produced at the constant rate of 4000
STB/Day In this case; the cumulative oil
production was 10.71 MMSTB which makes
the total recovery of 23.7% with the break
through time of 6.8 years. Figure-7 shows
the trend of pressure, viscosity and
cumulative oil production when the well is
produced at rate of 4000 STB/Day. Now
changing the production rates to 3000
STB/day and 5000 STB/Day.
When the well is produced at the constant
rate of 3000 STB/Day, the cumulative oil
recovery at the end of project is 13.39
MMSTB giving the recovery factor of 29.6%
while CO2 breakthroughs after 11.50 years.
The trends of field pressure, viscosity and
Cumulative oil production, when the well is
produced at 3000 STB/Day are shown in
Figure-8.

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When the producing well is produced at

5000 STB/Day, abnormal trends of viscosity
and pressure are being observed. The
cumulative production in this case was 9.59
MMSTB, which provides the recovery factor
of 21.2% and having breakthrough time of
6.2 years. The trends of field pressure,
viscosity and Cumulative oil production,
when the well is produced at 3000 STB/Day
are shown in Figure-9.
As per the above sensitivity analysis, the
optimized production rate for production is
3000 STB/Day because it yield greater
recovery factor and elongate the life of the
reservoir.

Injection Rates Sensitivity Analysis

In this sensitivity Analysis, the production

rate is kept as contant i-e 3000 STB/Day
which is an optimized. Now the injection
rate is changed and recovery factor is
observed, determining the optimized
injection rate which could provide high
recovery factor and elongate the life of the
reservoir.
Initially the injection rate was 5000
MSCF/Day, and production rate was 3000
STB/Day which provided 29.6% recovery
with 11.50 years breakthrough time.
Now the injection pressure is changed to
7000 MSCF/Day while the production rate is
3000 STB/Day. Under these conditions,
Cumulative Oil Production comes out to be
15.31 MMSTB giving 34% recovery factor
with CO2 breakthrough times of 13.40
years. Figure-10 shows the trends of

pressure,
viscosity
and
cumulative
production under these conditions.
When the injection pressure is changed to
8000 MSCF/Day with the constant
production rates i-e 3000 STB/Day, the
recovery factor comes out to be 35.7% with
cumulative oil recovery of 16.12 MMSTB.
Under these circumstances, CO2 will
breakthrough at the production well after
14.2 years. Figure-11 shows the required
trends of viscosity, pressure and oil
production.
When the injection rate of CO2 is kept as
9000 MSCF/Day, the cumulative oil
recovery at the end of project is
16.74MMSTB giving the recovery factor of
37.1% while CO2 breakthroughs after 15
years.. The trends of field pressue, viscosity
and Cumulative oil production, when the
well is produced at 3000 STB/Day are
shown in Figure-12.
After having this sensitivity analysis, the
optimized injection rate was determined as
9000 MSCF/Day.
FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION
1. The reservoir can be best produced by
keeping the production rate of 3000
STB/Day.
2. The Carbon dioxide must be injected at
uniform injection of 9000 MSCF/Day
during tertiary recovery.
3. Under the Optimized conditions, CO2
will be breakthrough at the production
well after 15 years, which the reservoir
can produce upto 15 yrs.
159 | P a g e

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REFERENCES:

Don W Green , Enhanced Oil Recovery

2003: Society of Petroleum Engineers,

Analysis and Screening for Enhanced Oil

Recovery
Processes
in
Different
Reservoir and Operating Conditions by

Richardson, TX.

Donaldson Erle, Enhanced Oil Recovery,

Processes And Operations,
Aurel Carcoana, Applied Enhanced Oil
Recovery
Schlumberger Eclipse Reference E-300
Manual
Schlumberger Eclipse Technical E-300
Manual
Schlumberger Eclipse PVTi Manual
Fahad Iqbal Syed, The Petroleum
Institute, Journal Name: International
Journal of Applied Science and Technology,
Vol. 1 No.4; July 2011, Compositional

160 | P a g e

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Figure-01 Phase Diagram of Carbon Dioxide

Figure-02 Initial Rock Model

Figure-3(a) 3D Model of reservoir at start of primary recovery

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Figure-3(b) 3D Model of reservoir at end of primary recovery

162 | P a g e

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Figure-4(a) 3D Model of reservoir at start of Secondary recovery

Figure-4(b) 3D Model of reservoir at end of Secondary recovery

163 | P a g e

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Figure-5(a) 3D Model of reservoir at start of Tertiary recovery (Oil Saturation)

Figure-5(b) 3D Model of reservoir at start of Tertiary recovery (CO2 Percentage)

164 | P a g e

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Figure-6 (a) 3D Model of reservoir at end of Tertiary recovery (Oil Saturation)

Overall End of project

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Figure-6 (b) 3D Model of reservoir at end of Tertiary recovery (CO2 Percentage)

Overall End of project

Figure-7 Viscosity, Field Pressure and Cumulative oil Production Trends

when Production Rate = 4000 STB/Day, Injection Rate= 5000 MSCF/Day

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Figure-8 Viscosity, Field Pressure and Cumulative oil Production Trends

when Production Rate = 3000 STB/Day, Injection Rate= 5000 MSCF/Day

Figure-9 Viscosity, Field Pressure and Cumulative oil Production Trends

when Production Rate = 5000 STB/Day, Injection Rate= 5000 MSCF/Day

167 | P a g e

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Figure-10 Viscosity, Field Pressure and Cumulative oil Production Trends

when Production Rate = 3000 STB/Day, Injection Rate= 7000 MSCF/Day

Figure-11 Viscosity, Field Pressure and Cumulative oil Production Trends

when Production Rate = 3000 STB/Day, Injection Rate= 8000 MSCF/Day

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Figure-12 Viscosity, Field Pressure and Cumulative oil Production Trends

when Production Rate = 3000 STB/Day, Injection Rate= 9000 MSCF/Day

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UNDERBALANCED DRILLING IN DEPLETED RESERVOIRS

Author: ZEESHAN TARIQ
Cell: +92 345 289 1195 Email: zeeshan_tariq3@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Considering current Energy crisis in Pakistan and
with many of the easily accessible reserves
exploited, Pakistans O&G industry today has no
choice, but to explore new and ever more
challenging frontiers with respect to exploration,
production, drilling and security perspectives. At
the same time, there is a pressing need to maximize
the already discovered production potential in
mature fields. Production from these fields has
played a major role in meeting the Pakistans energy
needs, and today holds the potential to further
bridge the supply gap.
However, years of producing oil and gas has
subsequently drawn down the reservoir pressure of
these mature fields. Consequently, many of these
structures are severely depleted in some instances
the depletion is so severe that continued
development is economically unfeasible. Many of
these fields still hold abundant hydrocarbons, but
the eventual production of these trapped reserves
require infill drilling or workover to adequately
exploit the field.
In others, drilling deeper for new production is
necessary, and combined with the ability to preserve
the present zone for continued production, can
improve field economics. When depletion draws
down the pore pressure in what is typically a sand of
other porous and permeable zone it becomes
vulnerable to invasion from fluids used in drilling,
workover, and/or completion.

This paper will review challenges that our industry

encounters and the common practices that are used
to address them. This paper will compare and
distinguish how these same circumstances can be
addressed much more efficiently with engineering
evaluation processes, applying the new technologies
available globally which will not only help us to
maximize drilling performance but will reduce
impacts on Reservoir Damage and Productivity
decline.
INTRODUCTION
A lot of the new wells drilled today go into or
through zones in the formation that have already
been produced from. The reason for this could be
that an existing reservoir needs to be drained from a
different location in order to enhance the
hydrocarbon recovery. Or it could be possible that a
new reservoir located below an older one is
discovered or has not been possible to reach before.
Lower pore pressure than what used to be present is
encountered and this gives rise to problems and
potential risks that have to be dealt with.
When a formation is depleted from earlier fluid
extraction, the operating window between the pore
pressure and the fracture pressure for the section
gets narrower. Due to these smaller tolerances,
variations in drilling parameters will have a bigger
impact on the down-hole conditions. Knowing how
different parameters will affect the down-hole
pressure is of great help. This aids in the design of a
drilling program that can get a section drilled as a

170 | P a g e

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whole while minimizing the risk for operational
hazards.
Due to these circumstances the drilling problems like
lost circulation, differential sticking and kick arises.
As mentioned above due to depletion of pore
pressure the invasion of drilling fluid occurs, this
result in a kick to come and also differential sticking.
Lost circulation is perhaps the most costly drilling
problem, cost factor include lost rig time, expensive
remedial techniques and potential loss of hole.
To alleviate lost circulation problem, first the cause
of lost circulation is analyzed, then different lost
circulation materials are used like ground walnut
hulls, cottonseed hulls, sawdust, cellophane flakes,
and fibrous materials. Solving the problem of lost
circulation reduces the chances of kick.
Differential sticking is due to the presence of porous
and permeable formation and a high difference of
pressure between bore hole and formation, with
borehole pressure much larger than the formation
pressure. Due to this the drill pipe becomes stuck in
the formation. This problem is quite frequent in
depleted reservoir when drilled using conventional
or overbalanced drilling.

Since all these problems and their on-spot

solutions cause industry a significant time and
economics loss. UBD can be used to avoid these
problems. Underbalanced Drilling technology
can eliminate most forms of drilling-induced
damage to leave the reservoir as close as
possible to its virgin state. In UBD the
hydrostatic head of drilling fluid is less than the
formation fluid, therefore lost circulation and
differential sticking are eliminated. In addition
to the solution of these aforementioned
problems, UBD also benefited in shape of
reducing the cost of top-hole drilling to reach

the pay zone, reducing the cost of drilling within

the pay zone itself, increasing reservoir
characterization, discovering bypassed payzone, increasing productivity by reducing
reservoir skin damage and reducing the
reservoirs ultimate abandonment pressure. In
addition to this UBD gives reservoir
characterization simultaneously with the
drilling.
The reasons for UBD can be broken down into two
main categories:

Maximizing hydrocarbon recovery.

Minimizing pressure-related drilling
problems.

Reduced
Stimulation
Reservoir
Characteriza
tion

Easrly
Production

UBD

No
Formation
Damage

High
Productivity

No
Differential
Sticking

No Fluid
Losses

Maximizing hydrocarbon recovery

There is no invasion of solids or mud filtrate into the
reservoir formation. This often eliminates the
requirement for any well cleanup after drilling is
completed.
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Early production
The well is producing as soon as the reservoir is
penetrated with a bit. This could also be a
disadvantage if hydrocarbon production cannot be
handled or stored on site, or if the required export
lines are not available.
Reduced stimulation
Because there is no filtrate or solids invasion in an
underbalanced drilled reservoir, the need for
reservoir stimulation, such as acid washing or
massive hydraulic fracture stimulation, is eliminated.
Enhanced recovery
Because of the increased productivity of an
underbalanced drilled well combined with the ability
to drill infill wells in depleted fields, the recovery of
bypassed hydrocarbons is possible. This can
significantly extend the life of a field. The improved
productivity of the wells also leads to a lower
drawdown, which, in turn, can reduce water coning.
Increased reservoir knowledge
During an underbalanced drilling operation,
reservoir productivity and the produced fluids can be
measured and analyzed while drilling. This allows a
well to be drilled longer or shorter, depending on
production requirements. An operator is also able to
determine the most productive zones in a reservoir
in real time, and obtain well test results while
drilling.
Skin factors on most underbalanced drilled wells are
negative, just as they are in wells drilled and
stimulated.
Minimizing pressure-related drilling problems
Differential sticking

The absence of an overburden on the formation

combined with the lack of any filter cake serves to
prevent the drill-string from becoming differentially
stuck. This is especially useful when drilling with
coiled tubing, because coiled tubing lacks tool joint
connections that increase the standoff in the
borehole and then helps minimize sticking of
conventional drill-pipe.
No losses
In general, a reduction of the hydrostatic pressure in
the annulus reduces the fluid losses into a reservoir
formation. In UBD, the hydrostatic pressure is
reduced to a level at which losses do not occur. This
is especially important in the protection of fractures
in a reservoir.
Improved penetration rate
The lowering of the wellbore pressure relative to the
formation pressure has a significant effect on
penetration rate. The reduction in the chip
holddown effect also has a positive impact on bit
life. The increased penetration rate combined with
the effective cuttings removal from the face of the
bit leads to a significant increase in bit life. In
underbalanced drilled wells, sections have been
drilled with only one bit where an overbalanced
drilled well might need anywhere from three to five
bits. It is normally assumed that penetration rates
double when drilling underbalanced.
Misconception about UBD
There is a popular misconception about UBD that it
always increase the production from the reservoir.
Underbalanced drilling is not a solution to poor
reservoir quality. The process does not inherently
manufacture permeability. It can. However, yield
significant increases in production if the problems
with conventional overba1anced drilling like losses,
differential sticking and formation damage. Many
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operators attempt to apply UBD technology in
extremely poor quality formations, expecting high
production rates when even if the well is drilled and
completed in a completely undamaged fashion,
productivity is uneconomic due to permeability
limitations.
Limitations of UBD:

Increased operational complexities and

daily cost.
Conventional mud pulse is ineffective
when compressible fluids are used
Failure to Maintain a Continuously
Underbalanced Condition during Drilling
Erosion and corrosion problems
Flaring of produced gas

METHODOLOGY
Data
Collection

Evaluati
on

Optimiza
tion

UBD
Project
Lesson
Learning

UBD Well
planning

Execution

1. DATA COLLECTION:
It includes the collection of following data

Reservoir Data
Drilling Data
Analog Data

2. Evaluation:
Underbalanced drilling technique has been used
around for more than four decades in one form or
another, but there are still issues that industry saw
every time to get into UBD projects. The key for
success in UBD lies in the preliminary work, starting
with candidate selection, or the process of choosing
the right reservoir for the application of
underbalanced drilling. UBD cannot create value
where it does not exist so candidate selection is the
key to the success of (UBD) projects. Companies that
tried and short-cut this phase of the work ultimately
ran into accidents, nonproductive time (NPT) and
failures. Doing the work up front and getting it right
leads to proper equipment, procedures and training,
which makes the project successful. Appropriate
reservoir screening is essential for the correct
selection of a suitable reservoir application for
vertical or horizontal UBD well. Reservoir properties
play the most vital role in the success of UBD
operations. The reservoir study like reservoir
pressure, formation damage mechanism provides a
set of criteria that can be used as guidelines to
choose potential UBD candidates.

3. Detailed Well Planning

This phase of UBD project includes the planning of
following

Circulation System Design.

Flow Modeling.
Drill String Design.
Surface Equipment Selection.
Personal Selection.
Well Control Strategy.
Sub-Surface Services.
HSE Planning.
Detailed Cost Estimates.
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I.

Circulation System Design:

The following formula is used to determine
which drilling fluid is used in underbalanced
drilling project (See Figure 5 )

=

II.

III.

0.052 ()

Flow Modeling
Modeling of multiphase flow requires an
advanced computer simulator to determine
the
required
underbalanced
drilling
parameters that full fill the UBD design
criteria. Through the use of a multiphase
hydraulic
simulator,
the
required
underbalanced drilling parameters were
evaluated in detail. Graphs are then created
that incorporate the limiting factors of
minimum annular liquid velocity required for
hole cleaning and the desired BHCP range.
The underbalanced drilling operational
window is displayed as the area of the graph
between the target BHCPs, bound by the
maximum motor throughput, the minimum
annular liquid velocity, and the minimum
motor throughput.
Drill String Design
The down-hole equipments for any
underbalanced project includes
Bit
Non Return Valves
Wire line Retrievable Float Valves
Down Hole Isolation Valves
Drill Pipe
Crossover Sub

Drill Collars
Hard Banding
Jars
Down Hole Motors
Stabilizers
Shock sub

IV.

Surface Equipment Selection.

The surface equipments for any
underbalanced project includes
Gas injection Equipment
Rotating Head Blow Out preventer
UBD Choke Manifold
Separation Equipment
Flare lines

V.

Personal Selection.
A highly train professionals are required for
Underbalanced drilling operations as it is
very complex.

VI.

Sub-Surface Services.
The following sub-surface services are
usually carried out in any UBD project.
a. Formation Cuttings
b. Formation Gas Analysis
c. Electric Logging
d. Coring

VII.

DDV Completion
Down-Hole Deployment Valve DDV is the
latest tool in the UBD. It eliminates the
need to kill the well, while tripping during
underbalanced
drilling
operations.
Traditionally, the well must be killed to run
completion string. With any significant
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pressures while tripping the drill string, it

has been necessary to either use a
snubbing unit or to kill the well. The drill
string can be tripped out of the well
without the use of a snubbing unit and at
conventional tripping speeds, thus reducing
rig time requirements and providing
improved personnel safety. The DDV is run
as an integral part of the casing program,
allowing full bore passage for the drill bit
when in the open position. Once installed
the valve is controlled through pressure
applied to the annulus, created between
the intermediate and surface casing. Once
the well is drilled the DDV can be further
utilized for deployment of the completion
system without killing the well.

VIII.

IX.

Reservoir Evaluation While Drilling

As the production data obtained during
drilling Horner Plot and Productivity Index
Chart are plotted.
HSE Planning
To ensure a safe operation UBD projects
will require significantly more resources
and planning in comparison with
conventional well operations if the risk of
failure is to be minimized. The primary
HS&E concerns relate to; loss of
containment, competence of personnel and
safely designing, installing and operating
the new technology. All these objectives
can be safely achieved if careful attention
given to ensure that hazards are not missed
and that suitable and sufficient controls are

designed and implemented to demonstrate

ALARP.
X.

Detailed Cost Estimates.

Detailed cost estimate is the integral phase
of any UBD project. It is imperative not to
ignore the business driver behind the
technology. The improvements from UBD
increased penetration rate, increased
production rate, and minimization of
formation impairmentmust offset the
additional cost of undertaking a UBD
project. To drill a well underbalanced, extra
equipment and people are required, and
this adds to the drilling cost of a well. The
operators must show a return for their
shareholders, so they will want to know if
this extra investment is valuable before
embarking on a UBD project.

Case Study 1:
The Sui name has become synonymous with natural
gas in Pakistan. Located at a distance of about 650
kilometer(km) from Karachi in Dera Bugti
Baluchistan, in Central Indus Basin. Operator
Company at Sui gas Field is Pakistan Petroleum
Limited. As a major production facility, Sui Gas Field
(SGF) hosts the countrys largest gas compressor
station and a purification plant. Sui gas field is the
biggest natural gas field in Pakistan. Initial
recoverable reserves of this field were around 12
Tcf. Despite diminishing reserves over time, SGF still
remains the highest natural gas producing field in
Pakistan, contributing substantially to the countrys
requirements with daily production of around 550
MMscf. Sui gas field accounts for 26% of Pakistan's
gas production. Remaining reserves are estimated to
be at about 2 Tcf. It is volumetric expansion with
weak aquifer support and its pressure reduced from
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original 1965 psi to 1100+ psi. Primary reservoir for
Sui field is Sui Main Limestone (SML). Secondary
reservoirs include Sui Upper Limestone (SUL), Habib
Rahi Limestone (HRL) and PabSanstone. 90%
production of Sui is from SML and remaining from
secondary reservoir. SML is Eocene limestone and
contains approximately 90% methane, 1.2% ethane,
4.5% carbon dioxide, and 3.5% nitrogen with some
hydrogen sulphide. Porosity and permeability are
approximately 6.7-28.4% and 35 md respectively. It
is not highly fractured and although fractures are
present, they are not the most important factors
contributing to the development of effective
reservoir porosity and permeability.
Two major reservoirs of this field are Sui Main
Limestone (SML) and Sui Upper Limestone (SUL).
Both the reservoirs have become highly depleted by
time. Conventional drilling technologies in these
formations result in complete loss of drilling fluid,
stuck pipe and severe formation damage issues.
Recently drilled offset wells in Sui Gas Field are Sui89(M) and Sui- 92(P) which have been drilled as
vertical wells.
In Sui-89(M) well, SML formation was drilled
vertically with conventional drilling method using
Water Based Mud of 8.75 PPG. This resulted into
total complete fluid loss. Gas Mud Cap-Blind Drilling
Technique (with no return on surface) was applied.
Around 07 days were lost to cure mud losses with
heavy LCM Pills and Calcium carbonate chips
resulting into excessive cost and Non-Productive
time NPT. This also resulted in severe formation
damage and affected well productivity.
Sui-92(P) well was drilled down to Pab Sandstone
reservoir but was completed in Sui Upper Limestone
(SUL) as Pab Sandstone did not show promising
results. In this well SML formation was drilled
vertically with Gasified Drilling Fluid of 6.00 4.50

PPG, but still total and heavy partial fluid losses were
observed while drilling. Well was secured with LCM
pills and cement plugs. Differential stuck of drill
string in SML was also encountered. This resulted in
excessive NPT and increased associated costs.
Therefore based on past experience and reservoir
properties, it was evident that conventional drilling
techniques cannot be used to drill a horizontal well
in SML formation. To avoid the repetition of above
mentioned problems in Sui- 93(M) other alternative
drilling methods were reviewed during the well
planning phase and it was concluded that reduction
in drilling fluid density is mainly needed to avoid the
loss of circulation and other associated drilling
problems. Underbalanced Drilling Technology with
associated services was selected to drill this
challenging well as an alternative to conventional
drilling method.
The primary objective and motive to drill that well
underbalanced is to

Mitigate all drilling hazards

Avoid Drilling problems like mud losses,
differential sticking and potential kicks.
Avoid reservoir damage and hence
increased the productivity & Life of well
and avoid the cost of expensive drilling.
Increased drilling performance, achieve
faster ROP and reduce the total drilling
days.
Allow reservoir characterization while
drilling.
Successfully reach the target depth.

Objectives achieved after well drilled underbalanced

Successfully drilled that well in

underbalanced condition to reach target
depth
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Eliminated all fluid losses.

Minimize formation damage.
Achieved
increment
in
drilling
parameters ROP and hence reduce the
number of days.

Case Study 2:
The Bhit gas field is located 180km NNE of Karachi,
60km SW of Dadu, and 40km WSW of Sehwan and
the Indus River in the Sindh Province. The field was
discovered in the Kirthar License, which lies in the
eastern foothills of the Kirthar fold belt. Terrain in
the block is pre-dominantly hilly, with prominent N-S
trending limestone ranges, such as Bhit, separated
by alluvial valleys. Elevations in the block range from
50m to 900m above sea level. Bhit gas is contained
in the Pab Sandstone formation at depth of around
1100 meters subsea. The bottom hole pressure is
1900 psi. ENI Pakistan is operator for the bhit
Development Lease holds a 40% interest. Kirthar
Pakistan BV (a joint venture between Premier and
Shell) also holds a 40% interest, with the remaining
20% interest held by the Government of Pakistan
through OGDCL. The bhit gas is sweet and also
contains around 19% N2.No H2S has been measured
in any of the samples.
Brief information is given below

Operator: ENI
Country: Pakistan
Location: 180 km north of Karachi in the
Kirthar region
Production start: 2003
Type: gas
Estimated reserves: OGIP 172 million BOE

Vertical well drilled in Bhit Pab Sandstone formation

from 2100-2400m and at a pressure of 900psi using
UBD.

This field has presented many drilling problems

previously such as pipe stuck, hole collapse etc. The
well drilled vertically using UBD technique
successfully avoided all these aforementioned
problems.
CONCLUSION
UBD is done for the benefit of reservoir, proper
candidate and proper designing of UBD is the most
essential part of the planning of UBD project.
Conversely, application of a poorly designed and
executed UBD program can often result in additional
costs, greater damage and complete astray of
objectives of the well
To allay the problems such as loss circulation,
formation damage and pipe sticking encountered in
conventional
overbalanced
drilling,
it
is
recommended to go for UBD that not only avoid
these problems but also give benefits like increased
ROP, production while drilling etc.
Successful application of Underbalanced Drilling
Technology and Lesson learned from the well drilled
in SUI Main Limestone and Bhit opened new
ventures for further development of depleted field
in Pakistan. This is basically the objective of this
paper although UBD is not a new technology but its
applications in Pakistan is very Limited. So by this
paper I want to draw the attentions of concerned
authorities to start new projects in Pakistan as most
of the fields in Pakistan are in depleted phase but
these fields still hold potential hydrocarbons in place
and contributing significantly to bridge the demand
and supply gap.
LIST OF ABBREVATIONS
MWD Measurement While Drilling
NPT-Non Productive Time
NPT Non Productive Time
177 | P a g e

P a g e | 178
NPU Nitrogen Production Unit
NPV Net Present Value
NRV Non Return Valve
PDC Polycrystalline Diamond Compacts
PDM Positive Displacement Motor
POOH Pull Out Of Hole
PPG Pounds Per Gallon
PPM Parts Per Million
RCD Rotating Control Device
RKB Rotary Kelly Bushing
ROP Rate Of Penetration
RPM Rotation Per Minute
SML-Sui Main Limestone
SUI- Sui Upper Limestone
SCF Standard Cubic Feet

[1]. J.C. Cunha & Fabio S. N. Rosa, Petrobras S.

A., Underbalance Drilling Technique
Improves Drilling Performance A Field
Case History, Paper IADC/SPE 47802
presented at the 1998 IADC/SPE Asia Pacific
Drilling Conference held in Jakarta,
Indonesia, 7-9 September 1998.
[2]. J. Surewaard, K. De Koning, M. Kool, SPE, D.
Woodland, H. Roed, SPE, and P. Hopmans,
Petroleum Development Oman, Approach
to Underbalanced Well Operations in
Petroleum Development Oman, Paper
IADC/SPE 35069 presented at the 1996
IADC/SPE Drilling Conference held in New
Orlean, Louisiana, 12-15 March 1996.
[3]. T. W. Hogg and J. E. Boyle, BP Exploration,
Colomian
Underbalanced
Drilling
Operations Start Up Experience, Paper
IADC/SPE 37677 presented at the 1997
IADC/SPE Drilling Conference held in
Amsterdam, The Netherland, 4-6 March
1997.

UBD- Underbalanced Drilling

REFERENCES

178 | P a g e

P a g e | 179

Figure 1: Comparison of Overbalanced Drilling Vs. Underbalanced Drilling

179 | P a g e

P a g e | 180

Figure 2: Comparison of OBD & UBD

Figure 3: Reasons for Underbalanced Drilling

180 | P a g e

P a g e | 181

Figure 4: Improvement in Production

Figure 5: UBD Fluid Selection

181 | P a g e

P a g e | 182

Figure 6: Productivity Index Chart for Sui 93(m)

182 | P a g e

P a g e | 183

Figure 7: Horner Plot for Sui 93(m)

183 | P a g e

P a g e | 184

UNDERGROUND STORAGE OF NATURAL GAS IN A DEPLETED GAS RESERVOIR

Author: SYED MUHAMMAD QASIM ALI
Cell: 92-321-3833053; email: qasimali_13@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Underground storage is a mean of peak shaving
capacity during high demand seasons worldwide.
In this study, an underground gas storage
practice is simulated in a depleted gas field A by
using IPM suite. The first part of the project is
consisted of literature review about UGS storage
operation. Secondly, after gathering of all
reservoir fluid production and pressure data an
MBAL tank model was developed. MBAL
modeling comprised of initializing the software
with the collected reservoir and fluid properties
data and history matching the production and
pressure data of eight producing years of the
field to validate the model. A good history match
was achieved by initializing with the known
parameters while regress unknown or uncertain
parameters. Field A consists of three producing
wells, therefore validated PROSPER models were
developed for each of the well for a reliable
performance forecasting. In addition, injection
wells were also modeled in PROSPER to help in
generating the forecast of production and
injection system. Subsequently, an integrated
model was developed in GAP which interactively
used MBAL and PROSPER models to forecast the
performance of the production and injection
system. After completing the integrated
production-injection model in GAP, optimum
number of gas injection wells and optimum
injection pressure required are determined by
assuming different importing rates of gas and
running different scenarios on GAP to check how
many numbers of injector wells and injection

pressure is required to maintain a constant

injection rate. Each scenario differing in injection
and delivery rates are run on GAP for a particular
time period having 6 months injection cycle and
6 month withdrawal cycle. After performing
these sensitivities, number of injector wells
needed for a particular scenario and compressor
requirement for each particular scenario are
determined. In addition to these, cushion gas
requirement for each scenario to maintain a
constant delivery rate during the withdrawal
period are also determined. Through these
sensitivities cushion gas requirement are
compared between two scenarios having
different deliverability requirements during
withdrawal seasons.
OBJECTIVE
To simulate converting a depleted gas reservoir
into a gas storage field and determine an
optimum configuration for injection and
production system.
INTRODUCTION
STORAGE

TO

UNDERGROUND

GAS

Increasing domestic and commercial demand for

natural gas in the region requires development
of adequate storage facilities. Geologic storage is
one of the most economically attractive options
provided adequate storage capacity and
containment requirements can be met in
favorable locations.
Underground gas storage (UGS) may be defined
as the storage in reservoirs of porous rock, salt
184 | P a g e

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formations or aquifers, at various depths

beneath the surface of the earth of large
quantities of natural gas not native to these
reservoirs in order to support the natural gas
demand in domestic, commercial, industrial, or
space heating which is the most critical case and
reason for storage especially in cold winter
months.
This process is a combination of a constant
supply with a variable demand for economic
advantages. In other words, it helps to combine
low-demand summer season and high-demand
winter season. Fluctuating demands due to
temperature and climate make it an economic
process that is necessary in many cases for
efficient use of the pipelines.
With the rapid growth of the natural gas
industry, UGS has grown to become a large and
essential part of the natural gas delivery system.
Long term demand variations of natural gas
caused by the increased fuel need for space
heating during the cold weather require large
amounts to be stored. These seasonal demand
variations can be satisfied effectively by UGS, if
such facilities exist close to the area where
demand variations take place. UGS is a very well
known practice to gas utilities, gas producers and
large ultimate gas consumers for mainly
economical reasons.
An underground storage of natural gas is built for
balancing between gas supply and demand.
When the gas demand is low, natural gas is taken
from the pipeline to be injected into the gas
storage reservoir and supplied back to the
system in times of high demand. Fluctuating
demands due to temperature and climate make
it an economic process that is necessary in many
cases for efficient use of the pipelines. The
natural gas that is injected into the underground
storage and supplied back to the gas grid has to
meet all requirements of the applicable
standards for marketable natural gas. Natural gas

storage is a kind of buffer in a gas supply system.

Without a buffer, an energy supply system can
easily break down by an internal and external
shock, which translates into a vast economic
cost.
Purpose of natural gas storage
Storage over the past years has served a number
of purposes and the developing industry is still
finding new roles for it. The recent reasons why
UGS is preferred can be summarized as;

Providing an economical way to supply

gas for space heating consumption
To use transmission lines at full capacity
during the entire year by delivering gas to
the consumer or to the UGS reservoir.
Usage of low-pressure wells in the
storage field enabling storage wells to
have much greater deliverability during
the peak season.
Acting as a safeguard for countries having
long distance transmission lines in case of
possible failures thus becomes a strategic
reserve.
Reducing the risks of fire and explosion
by means of storing the gas in oxygenfree environment.

Principle of Storage
The natural gas taken from the pipeline system is
monitored regarding quantity and quality and it
is injected into the storage reservoir using a
compressor station. The need to apply gas
compressors depends on the pressure ratio
between pipeline and gas reservoir and the gas
flow rates to be stored. Figure 1 illustrates
natural gas supply and demand relation and
clarifies importance of having some gas stored in
low demand periods in order to use in high
demand periods.
TANK MODELING
185 | P a g e

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Tank modeling is performed by using IPM-MBAL.

The objective is to develop a model that
simulates the reservoir in a best possible
manner, so that forecasting can be performed
after history matching process. The material
balance program uses a conceptual model of the
reservoir to predict the reservoir behavior based
on the effects of reservoir fluids production and
gas to water injection. The material balance
equation is zero-dimensional, meaning that it is
based on a tank model and does not take into
account the geometry of the reservoir, the
drainage areas, the position and orientation of
the wells, etc.
After entering reservoir data and production
history in MBAL, the first step is to match the
historical data with the model. While history
matching the model, the response of the model
is plotted against historical data. Figure 2 shows
the plot. The blue line is obtained after
regression, in which aquifer is included. This blue
line is overlapping the production history points
so tank model is well matched. But in order to
perform quality checking of history matching
process simulation is performed after this
process. The red line is showing the model
behavior without aquifer influx which is very far
from the history points clearly showing the
dominancy of aquifer influx.
Now using simulation, the history matched
model is quality checked. The history matching
process uses the reservoir pressures entered in
the historical data and calculates the production
while the simulation does the opposite. The rates
are used from the historical data and the
reservoir pressure is calculated based on the
material balance model. If the model has been
properly history matched, there should be no
discrepancy between
reservoir pressure
predicted from simulation and historical,

measured reservoir pressure. After running

simulation the pressure v/s time plot is observed
from simulation and history, both are matched
with each other as shown in Figure 3 so this
shows the accuracy of history matching process.
This graph is showing a good history matched
process. But at this time the model is not ready
to be further used with predictions. Fractional
flow matching should be done that will create
pseudo relative permeability curves based on
history. This is the best way to ensure that WC
and WGR evolution in the future will be
predicted correctly.
In performing forecast with the history matched
model, the amount of water and gas production
(Water cut and WGR) needs to be predicted
accurately. The first step is to calculate the
points from the input production history which
are shown as crosses on the plot (Figure 4). For
each production history point, the Sw value is
the one calculated in the production history. The
Fw values are calculated using the rates from the
production history and the PVT properties. The
second step is to calculate the theoretical values
these are displayed as the solid blue line on the
plot and now the Fw values are calculated from
the PVT properties and the current relative
permeability curves.
The regression is carried out on all of these to
ensure that a plot is obtained which matches the
historical data. Having obtained a plot which
follows the historical saturation v/s fractional
flow allows the relative permeabilities for each
phase to be defined.
Figure 5 shows the WGR matching plot which
reflects the validity of fractional flow curve,
because WGR obtained from prediction is closely
186 | P a g e

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matched to WGR obtained from simulation. The

red line shows predicted WGR values while blue
line shows the simulated WGR values.
Now the tank model of reservoir is history
matched accurately showing a strong water
influx as the dominant drive mechanism. The
model is now able to forecast the reservoir
performance to some level of certainty as it does
not encounter geology and heterogeneity of
reservoir properties.
WELL MODELING
After modeling the tank, the next task is to
develop the well models using IPM PROSPER in
order to model the fluid flow from the reservoir
into wellbore (IPR) and vertical lift performance
through tubing to wellhead (VLP) or lift curves
generation.
Data required for well modeling are reservoir
fluid properties, Reservoir Pressure, temperature
and Thickness, Drainage Area, Well bore radius,
Perforation Intervals, Skin, Deviation Survey
data, Downhole Equipment Data (tubing,
production casing, liner and restrictions in
tubing, etc), Geothermal Gradient and Well
testing data (Tubing head pressure and
temperature, WGR, CGR, Gas Rate, Gauge Depth,
Gauge Pressure (BHP) and Reservoir Pressure).
Gas field A has 3 existing producing wells
which are to be modeled by PROSPER to
completely model the production system. Since
it has a strong water drive aquifer therefore 3
models will be built for each well at different
times to model the reduction in relative
permeability of gas due to water encroachment
that is because a single prosper well model
developed at the initial time of the history could
not effectively model the well in future as water
invades in the formation and gas relative
permeability is reduced and to encounter the

effect of relative permeability different models

are built for each well by entering different
permeability values for each well whereas all the
remaining data for a particular well will remains
same. First Model is built and matched with well
testing data which was taken before start of
production while second and third model is built
and matched with start and end points of
production history respectively.
The data required for plotting IPR for a particular
well depends upon the model selected in the
PROSPER. Different models require different sets
of data. For this case JONES model is selected
because of its simplicity and the least
requirement of the data as compared to the
other models given in PROSPER.
Reservoir pressure and temperature, WGR, CGR
are the parameters that are required to plot the
IPR regardless which model is selected to plot
IPR. As the reservoirs dominant reservoir
mechanism is water influx so water gas ratio is
variable throughout the production history and
increases with time as the water encroaches the
formation as a gas is produced from the
reservoir. So, the value of WGR entered is taken
from the well test for the initial model and the
other two values for second and third model is
taken from production history.
Now, the next step is to calibrate the IPR plotted
with the help of data with the help of available
well test data. 2 points are taken from the data
showing gas rates at particular flowing bottom
hole well pressures. The main aim is to match
these points with the IPR curve and as the value
of permeability which is the value with the least
value of certainty is changed slightly and checked
each time that is it matched with the actual
points or not? For the second and third model of
the same well the same procedure is repeated
except that reservoir permeability should be
reduced to encounter the effect of reduction in
relative permeability of gas due to water
187 | P a g e

P a g e | 188

encroachment and the same method of

calibrating the IPR curve with the real field
production history data points.
Figure 6 shows an IPR of the first model that is
generated from the well test conducted before
the start of production of well 2. It is showing an
AOFP (Absolute Open flow potential) of 7.87
MMscf at a negative skin of -3. Figure 7 is
showing the 3rd model of the well 2 i.e.
developed from the last point of the available
production history of well 02. It shows a very low
AOFP due to reduction in relative permeability
and AOFP reduces to 2.626 MMscf/day which is a
very low value. In this way all the IPRs of other
wells are developed and calibrated with the real
time data in order to accurately develop the well
model for better forecast of production and the
potential of a particular well with the variation of
time.
VLP curve generation is a mathematical tool used
in production engineering to assess the
performance of the completion string by plotting
the surface production rate against the flowing
bottom hole pressure. The fluid composition and
behavior of the fluid phases in the specific
completion design will determine the shape of
the curve. VLP is used with the inflow
performance relationship to predict the
performance of a specific well.
Vertical Lift performance curves generation is the
second most important task in developing well
models. It basically determines the pressure
losses as the fluid travels from the wellbore to
the surface i.e. the pressure losses due to
hydrostatic head of the fluid (gravity term in the
pressure drop correlation) and due to friction of
the fluid with the walls of tubing. (Multiplier of
the friction term in pressure drop calculation)

For developing VLP curves or the lift curves first

it is needed to match a particular correlation
with the actual field data to model the fluid flow
from the wellbore to the surface which is then
used to generate lift curves for different
conditions and sensitizing the variables on which
VLP depends, the operating point (i.e.
intersection of VLP & IPR) can be determined for
a different set of possible conditions. Now to
determine the best correlation suitable for the
fluid flow through wellbore, the most common
correlations are selected as shown in Figure 8. It
is then compared using the VLP/IPR Quality
Checking in PROSPER and select the correlation
which is closest to the well test data point. Figure
8 clearly shows the steps of correlation
comparison.
PROSPER uses a non-linear regression technique
to adjust the VLP correlations to best match the
measured data. It is done by calculating a
pressure traverse using a correlation and
determining the error between measured and
calculated pressures. The density and friction
terms of the pressure loss equations are
adjusted.
Figure 9 shows how the selected correlation is
utilized to develop a VLP curve with IPR and the
percentage difference of the measured flow
rates and bottom hole pressures from the
calculated ones using the selected tubing
correlation are observed to be very low.
The next step is sensitizing the VLP curve for
different set of conditions. VLP is not at all
dependent upon well performance; it depends
only upon the following factors:

Wellhead Pressure or First node pressure

Water to gas ratio (WGR)
Condensate Gas Ratio (CGR)

A possible range of three variables is determined

and entered into the PROSPER model to
generate lift curves using the different sets of
188 | P a g e

P a g e | 189

possible entered values of all the three variables.

First for wellhead pressure or first node pressure
a range from highest WHP to the lowest WHP
(greater than the separator pressure) is entered
and liner spacing between 10 values is selected.
WGR (Water gas ratio) is the second most
important deciding factor the greater the WGR
the lower will be the gas rate i.e. the operating
point shifts towards left. So, it is also entered
into the same way as that of WHP. While CGR is
kept constant for a dry gas reservoir so only one
or 2 values is assigned for it unlikely from other
two variables which have 10 values assigned.
Figure 10 shows LIFT CURVES generated by IPM
PROSPER for a set of 3 variables.
So these production models could be converted
to well injection models by converting the type
to injector from producer as it is assumed that
the same models for injectors is used in the
injection system in GAP.
GAP MODELING
Firstly production system is modeled on IPM-GAP
by using data of existing facilities like pipeline
data and separator pressure. Then an injection
system is developed. Same PROSPER files of
production wells are used for injector wells. The
optimum number of injection wells is 2 which are
determined after running different sensitivities.
Finally, a coupled system is formed by combining
production and injection system on a single GAP
file. Figure 11 shows a coupled system consisting
of all production and injection facilities.
As a volumetric reservoir is assumed, because it
is more feasible as compared to water drive. So,
before running any predictions on GAP, it is
necessary to deactivate the water influx in MBAL
and then it is imported in GAP that will represent
tank of both the production and injection
systems. The fluid that is injected into the

reservoir is assumed to have the same

composition as that of the original reservoir
fluid.
There are 3 models that are developed for each
well at different times during production as
discussed earlier. Therefore in GAP, only initial
model is selected to import in the production
and injection system due to the advantage of
high relative permeability (due to less water
encroachment in the initial period) which will
show a relatively favorable condition for this
project as a good permeable and porous
reservoir is one of the basic selection criteria for
underground gas storage project.
Scenarios are broadly classified according to
contract rate; in first scenario a contract rate of
18 MMscf/day is assumed for whole year.
Withdrawal and injection rate are set to be 12
MMscf/day, six months for withdrawal and six
months for injection. While in second scenario a
contract rate of 20 MMscf/day is assumed for
whole year. Withdrawal and injection rates are
set to be 15 MMscf/day, injection and
withdrawal time period is set to be six months.
All predictions are run from 2003 to 2040. In
each scenario the optimum numbers of injection
wells are evaluated to be 2. It is obtained by
running predictions and varying the number of
injection wells and hence selecting the optimum
case.
In first scenario field is depleted at constant rate
of 12 MMscf/day from 1/1/2003, at the end of
plateau period production is stopped and field is
converted into storage reservoir on 1/1/2009.
Amount of cushion gas present in the reservoir
at this point is calculated by subtracting the
cumulative gas produced at the end of plateau
189 | P a g e

P a g e | 190

from the OGIP, which is found to be 36 BCF.

During summer season 12 MMscf/d gas is
injected in the reservoir while remaining 6
MMscf/d is sale to market. On the other hand
during winter season gas is withdrawn from
storage reservoir at a rate of 12 MMscf/d and 18
MMscf/d of contract gas both sales to the
market. i.e. in winter season(withdrawal season)
Table 1: Scenario 1

there is an increased gas rate of 30 MMscf/d

which will helps in overcoming the gas shortage
problem. This scenario is further divided into
three parts which is based on different methods
to maintain the deliverability of 12 MMscf/d
during winter season.

Number

Scenario

Optimum
injection
pressure

1A

Continuous injection at a rate of 18 MMscf/d for 1 year, then injection

and production at 12 MMscf/d for each cycle of 6 months.

2500 psig

Injection at 18 MMscf/day for first five cycles of six months, then

injection and production at 12 MMscf/d for each cycle of 6 months.

2050 psig

1B

1C

Injection at18 MMscf/day for all cycles until initial reservoir pressure is
reached and then the field is converted into a producing field.

In second scenario field is depleted at constant

rate of 15 MMscf/day from 1/1/2003, at the end
of plateau period production is stopped and field
is converted into storage reservoir on 1/1/2007.
Amount of cushion gas present in the reservoir
at this point is calculated by subtracting the
cumulative gas produced at the end of plateau
from the OGIP, which is found to be 39.8 BCF.
During summer season 15 MMscf/d gas is
injected in the reservoir while remaining 5
MMscf/d is sale to market. On the other hand

2800 psig

during winter season gas is withdrawn from

storage reservoir at a rate of 15 MMscf/d and
20MMscf/d of contract gas both sale to the
market. i.e. in winter season (withdrawal season)
there is an increased gas rate of 35 MMscf/d
which will helps in overcoming the gas shortage
problem. This scenario is further divided into
three parts which is based on different methods
to maintain the deliverability of 15 MMscf/d
during winter season.

190 | P a g e

P a g e | 191

Table 2: Scenario 2
Number

Scenario

Optimum
injection
pressure

2A

Continuous injection at a rate of 20 MMscf/d for 1 year, then injection

and production at 15 MMscf/d for each cycle of 6 months.

2500 psig

2B

Injection at 20 MMscf/day for first five cycles of six months, then

injection and production at 15 MMscf/d for each cycle of 6 months.

2300 psig

2C

Injection at 20 MMscf/day for all cycles until initial reservoir pressure is

reached and then the field is converted into a producing field.

CONCLUSION
In an underground gas storage project, since the
injected fluid is very valuable, careful investigation
for the candidate should be done and all the
necessary data should be gathered to decide a
scenario for a satisfactory and successful injectionwithdrawal periods. Optimum configuration for
the underground storage system has been
selected. It is observed that in order to maintain
a high deliverability rate, large amount of
cushion gas is required. In scenario 2, there is 45
BCF of cushion gas required which is greater than
that of scenario 1 in which 41 BCF is required to
maintain the deliverability. In economic
evaluation, analytic techniques are applied to
identify, measure, value, and compare the costs
and consequences of these scenarios. By
assessing the economics of entire processes and
applying the necessary taxes according to
Pakistan Petroleum Policy 2012, scenario 2B has
been selected as the best scenario for the
studied underground storage system on the basis
of performance forecasting. The economic
results are shown in Table 3.

2800 psig

REFERENCES
1. SPE 17739, Yousuf A. Shikari -Gas
research institute underground gas
storage research program: An Overview
2. V. Bolelli, Agip S.p.A, Milan, Italy Advances In UGS Storage of Natural Gas.
3. SPE 106341, E. Khamechchi, Amirkabir
and
F.
Rashidi
-Simulation
of
Underground Natural Gas Storage in
Sarajeh Gas field, Iran
4. Handbook of Gas Engineering (Donald
Katz)
5. SPE 113588, Reza Azin and Ali Jodeyri Investigation of underground gas storage
in partially depleted gas reservoir
6. Anthony Okwananke, A. Sulaiman and
Yekeen Adeboye -Evaluation and
Performance of Natural Gas Storage in
Depleted Gas Reservoir

Table 3: Economic Evaluation of scenarios

191 | P a g e

P a g e | 192

Scenario

NPV (at interest rate 10%)

Scenario 1A

9.42 MMUSD

Scenario 1B

11.58 MMUSD

Scenario 1C

3.15 MMUSD

Scenario 2A

12.33 MMUSD

Scenario 2B

18.88 MMUSD

Scenario 2C

12.66 MMUSD

Figure 1: Supply-Demand Curve

192 | P a g e

P a g e | 193

Figure 2: History Matching

Figure 3: Quality Checking the History

193 | P a g e

P a g e | 194

Figure 4: Fractional Flow Curve

Figure 5: WGR Matching

194 | P a g e

P a g e | 195

Figure 6: IPR Plot

195 | P a g e

P a g e | 196

Figure 7: IPR Plot

Figure 8: Tubing Correlation Comparison

196 | P a g e

P a g e | 197

Figure 9: VLP/IPR Matching

197 | P a g e

P a g e | 198

Figure 10: Lift Curves for a set of 3 variables

Figure 11: Production Profile with Reservoir Pressure at 20 MMscf/day for First Six Cycles

198 | P a g e

P a g e | 199

Figure 12: Injection Profile at 20 MMscf/day for First Six Cycles

199 | P a g e

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200 | P a g e

P a g e | 201

201 | P a g e

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202 | P a g e

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203 | P a g e

P a g e | 204

204 | P a g e

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205 | P a g e

P a g e | 206

206 | P a g e

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207 | P a g e

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208 | P a g e

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209 | P a g e

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210 | P a g e

P a g e | 211

211 | P a g e

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212 | P a g e

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213 | P a g e

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214 | P a g e

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REFERENCES
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Holditch .S.A: Tight Gas Sands, SPE Paper 103356, Distinguished Author Series
(2006).
215 | P a g e

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[2].

Holditch.S.A et al, Unconventional Gas Reservoirs, National Petroleum Council

July, 2007

[3].

Masters JA: Deep Basin Gas Trap, Western Canada, AAPG Bulletin, 1979.

[4].

Rogner H-H: An Assessment of World Hydrocarbon Resources, IIASA, WP 9626,

May 1996 (Resource Triangle).

[5].

Shanley at el, Factors controlling prolific gas production from low permeability
sandstone reservoirs, 2004

[6].

Luis Carlos Rodriguez Norman, Early prediction of reserves in tight gas reservoirs
thesis, Oklahoma 2005.

[7].

Engr. ShahabAlam, Potential of tight gas in Pakistan: Productive, economic and

policy aspects, November 10-11, 2010.

[8].

G.C.Naik, Tight Gas Reservoirs- An unconventional natural energy source for

future, 2003

[9].

Overview of Tight Gas Field Development in the Middle East and North Africa Region
by Ahmed Shehata, AUC/TPS, Ahmed Aly, AUC/Schlumberger and Lee Ramsey,
Schlumberger TGCOE

[10].

A Generalized approach to primary recovery of hydrocarbon by Larry Lake

[11].

Application of the Power Law Loss-Ratio Method of Decline Analysis by R. MCNEIL,

O. JEJE, A. RENAUD (Fekete Associates Inc.)

[12].

TENC_P Mengoni_Decline analysis methodologies and their applications in tight and

shale reservoirs_report

[13].

Fekete Associates Inc Technical Library

[14].

Monte Carlo Simulation Example

[15].

O. Jeje, L. Mattar, Fekete Associates Inc. Comparison of Correlations for Viscosity of

Sour Natural Gas. July 2006

[16].

Standing, M. B., and Katz, D. L., Density of Natural Gases, Trans., AIME, 146, 140
(1942).

[17].

DEMPSEY, J.R. Computer Routine Treats Gas Viscosity as a Variable; Oil and Gas
Journal, pp. 141143, August 16, 1965

216 | P a g e

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[18].

"The Flow of Real Gases through Porous Media", R. Al - Hussainy, H.J. Ramey, Jr.,
and P.B. Crawford, JPT, pp. 625 - 636, May 1966.

[19].

Wichert, E., and Aziz, K., Calculate Zs for Sour Gases, Hydro. Proc., 51, 119
(1972).

[20].

Begs and Brills Beggs-Brill Best-Fit Equation for SK Z-Factor Chart 1973

[21].

Carr, Kobayashi and Burrows Natural Gas Viscosity Correlations, Journal of

Canadian Petroleum Technology, pp. 5156, January - February 1986.

[22].

Agarwal, Ram G., David C. Gardner, Stanley W. Kleinsteiber, and Del D. Fussell.
"Analyzing Well Production Data Using Combined Type-Curve and Decline-Curve
Analysis Concepts." SPE Paper 57916 Revised for Publication from SPE Paper 49222
and Prepared for Presentation at the 1998 SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition. New Orleans, LA. 27-30 September, 1998.

[23].

O. Jeje, L. Mattar, Fekete Associates Inc. Comparison of Correlations for Viscosity of

Sour Natural Gas. July 2006

[24].

Advanced Natural Gas Engineering by Dr. Xiuli Wang and Prof. Michael
J.Economides 2009.

217 | P a g e

P a g e | 218

APPROACH TO EFFICIENT THERMAL RECOVERY

Author:Sidra ChughtaiCo-Author:Tariq Pervez &SaadYousuf
email:sid_taurean20@hotmail.com
provides 60-65% of original oil in place as compare
to primary & secondary recovery mechanism.
ABSTRACT
As the production all over the world is
characterized by large oil and gas reservoirs,
undergoing through the phase of depletion are
being supported by primary and secondary
recovery. At the end of primary and secondary
production, the bulk of oil remains in place, while
the natural energy of the reservoir has been
depleted. Most of the oil is retained due to
capillary pressure and viscous forces which are
reduced by heating the crude oil, leading to one of
the most systematic approach of EOR (Enhanced
Oil Recovery) called Thermal recovery which

This study is an attempt to extrapolate the

potential of Thermal enhanced oil recovery to be
deployed in candidate reservoirs. Thermal oil
recovery methods such as cyclic steam stimulation
(CSS), steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) and
in-situ combustion are being used for recovering
heavy oil and bitumen. These processes expend
energy to recover. This paper focuses on screening
criteria engaged for the selection of thermal
recovery method, as well as highlights the up
gradation of surface facilities required for deriving
heavy oil from subsurface to surface. The process
design of surface facilities requires optimization to

218 | P a g e

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consumption per barrel of oil produced.

Optimization involves minimizing external energy
use by heat integration.

improve the efficiency of oil recovery by minimizing

the energy consumption per barrel of oil produced.
Optimization involves minimizing external energy
use by heat integration. This paper explains the
unit processes and design methodology
considering thermodynamic energy requirements
and heat

integration methods to improve energy efficiency

in the surface facilities.
The subject discussed in this paper provides a
better understanding of recovering heavy oil by
deploying thermal recovery methods including
cyclic steam stimulation (CSS), steam assisted
gravity drainage (SAGD) and in-situ combustion for
any candidatereservoir. This paper identifies the
characteristics of recovering heavy oil in a
convenient and energy efficient way.
INTRODUCTION
The methods under consideration for the recovery
of heavy oil and bitumen which expend energy to
recover oil, includes cyclic steam stimulation (CSS),
Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD) and In-situ
combustion.
In this paper such a design of the surface facilities
will be proposed which will optimize the efficiency
of oil recovery by minimizing the energy

Tertiary or enhanced recovery refers to processes

in the porous medium that recover oil not
produced by the conventional primary and
secondary production methods. EOR reduces the
residual oil saturation and improve the sweep
efficiency in all directions. The objective of EOR is
to increase the pressure difference between the
reservoir and production wells, or to increase the
mobility of the oil by reduction of the oil viscosity
or decrease of the interfacial tension between the
displacing fluids and oil. There are several EOR
processes that are considered to be promising,
these methods are:
Hot water flood
Steam methods like CSS, SAGD, steam flood
In-situ Combustion
0.2% of the thermal EOR production is based on
hot water flooding, 1.7% is based on In-situ
combustion and the most widely used one is steam
method i.e. 98.1%.
In this paper the selection criteria for the EOR
method will also be discussed. Surface facilities for
in-situ
combustion
methods
require
air
compression units, steam generation on a smaller
scale, produced gas treatment, oil treatment,
water treatment and other utilities and offsite
units.
Surface facilities for the steam based thermal
production requires steam generation plants,
water treatment for boiler feed water generation,
produced water recycle and wastewater treatment
units in addition to well pads, gathering systems,
pipelines, oil treatment, gas treatment units and
219 | P a g e

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other utilities and offsite units. This paper discusses

surface facilities for steam based oil recovery and
in-situ combustion processes.
The surface facilities may also include cogeneration
units for electric power, sour gas treatment,
sulphur
recovery,
carbon
capture
and
sequestration units as part of the overall project.
Therefore, the process design of surface facilities
involves process integration and energy
optimization to minimize overall costs of steam
and/or power generation, maximize heat recovery
recognizing trade-offs between capital and
operating costs, and minimizing the overall waste
heat loss and utility cooling or heating.

Formation thickness: (50 ft to several

hundred feet)
NON-THERMAL RECOVERY METHOD:
Non-thermal recovery techniques could be
considered for moderately viscous oil 50-200 cp,
thin formation less than 30 ft, low permeability
less than 1 md and depths greater than 3000 ft.
Non-thermal methods aim to reduce the viscosity
of oil, increase the viscosity of the displacing fluid,
or reduce the interfacial tension.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF THERMAL RECOVERY

METHOD:

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING AN EOR METHOD:

Evaluate recovery efficiency.

Assess effects of reservoir geology on
performance.
Reduce technical and economical risk in
production forecasts.
Obtain data to calibrate reservoirsimulation models.
Identify operational issues and concerns.
Assess the effect of development options
on recovery.
Assess environmental impact.
Evaluate operating strategy to improve
economics and recovery.

RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS:
Most of the heavy oil deposits occur in:
Shallow depth: (3000 ft or less)
High permeability: (one to several darcies)
High porosity: (around 30 %)
Oil saturation: (50-80 % pore volume)

Steam Based Methods

The selection criteria and working
mechanism of steam based system is
defined as follows:

Cyclic Steam Circulation

New wells in heavy oil reservoir often begin

production by using cyclic steam injection to
improve oil mobility in near-well regions. CSS is a
three-stage process: first, high-pressure steam is
injected through a vertical well bore for a period of
time; second, the reservoir is shut in to soak; and
third, the well is put into production. In addition to
heating the bitumen, the high pressure steam
creates fractures in the formation, thereby
improving fluid flow. Production declines until the
cycle needs to be repeated. Injected steam heats
and thins the heavy oil and displaces it to the
production well. A key focus in a CSS operation is to
increase the total recovered bitumen by increasing
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the quantity recovered in each cycle and/or

increasing the number of cycles for which recovery
is economical. The steam-oil ratio (SOR) - and
therefore the gas costs for steam generation - is
typically at its lowest point during early cycles,
after which it begins to rise until the point at which
bitumen production is no longer economic and the
well is abandoned.
The required purchase of natural gas for CSS is
comparable with that of SAGD at approximately 1
to1.2Mcf per barrel of production. The total
estimated cost of CSS projects is between 9 and 13
$/b.

Screening Criteria
Formation Thickness
Depth, ft
Porosity, %
Permeability, md
Oil Saturation, bbl/acre-ft
API Gravity
Oil Viscosity @ reservoir condition, cp
Temperature, F
Oil Recovery %

> 30
<3000
>30
1000-2000
1200
< 15
1000-4000
250-450
6-15

Imperial Oil has employed CSS technology since 1985 to

recover oil sand bitumen on a commercial scale in the
Cold Lake region.

Steam Flooding

Recovery by steamflooding is commonly used in

heavy-oil reservoirs containing oil whose high
viscosity is a limiting factor for achieving
commercial oil-producing rates. It has also been
considered, however, as a method for recovering
additional light oil.
High-temperature steam is continuously injected
into a reservoir. As the steam loses heat to the
formation, it condenses into hot water, which,
coupled with the continuous supply of steam
behind it, provides the drive to move the oil to
production wells.
As the formation is heated, oil recovery is increased
by:
The heated oil becomes less viscous,
making it easier to move through the
formation toward production wells.
Expansion or swelling of the oil aids in
releasing it from the reservoir rock.
Lighter fractions of the oil tend to vaporize,
and as they move ahead into the cooler
formation
ahead
of
the
steam
theycondense and form a solvent or
miscible bank.
Finally, the condensed steam cools as it
moves through the reservoir and results in
what amounts to an ordinarywaterflood
ahead of the heated zone.
Screening Criteria

Fig.1Bitumen Extraction using Cyclic Steam Stimulation

Formation Thickness
Depth, ft
Porosity, %
Permeability, md
Oil Saturation, bbl/acre-ft
API Gravity
Oil Viscosity @ reservoir condition, cp
Temperature, F

> 30
<3000
>30
4000
1200-1700
13-25
<1000
250-450
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Oil Recovery %

20-40

wells injects low-pressure steam into the reservoir.

As the steam moves through the reservoir, it
creates a steam chamber which warms the
bitumen and reduces its viscosity. The bitumen
then flows into the lower of the two wells and is
pumped to the surface. SAGD is now favoured by
many companies as it requires lower steam
pressures and allows continuous rather than
intermittent production. Bitumen recovery using
SAGD is claimed to be as high as 70%.
The required purchase of natural gas for SAGD is
about 1 Mcf per barrel of production and
companies are adopting innovative strategies to
reduce their exposure to natural gas prices.
Screening Criteria

Fig2. Heavy oil Recovery through Steam Flooding

Net Pay Thickness

Depth from Surface, m
Sand Porosity, %
Sand Permeability, d
Oil Saturation, bbl/acre-ft
API Gravity
Bitumen Viscosity @ 70 C, cp
Oil Recovery, %

15- 20
125 - 175
35
5 - 12
1200-1700
8
6

5 10
55

Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage

Thermally assisted gas-oil gravity drainage is suited

for heavy oil in fractured formations. Steam
injected in the fracture system heats the formation,
thinning the oil so it flows more easily into the
fractures. The steam also applies the gas gradient
across the matrix blocks so that the oil in the
formation drains by gravity. Steam is injected into
an upper horizontal well, creating a hot zone. The
hot oil drains to and is produced through a lower,
parallel wellbore.
SAGD is the most recent and promising steam
injection technology. In SAGD, pairs of horizontal
wells are drilled, one above the other. The wells
are normally five metersapart and can have a 1,000
meter horizontal section. The shallower of the two

Fig3. Steam assisted gravity drainage (SAG-D) most commonly

used to access oil sands deposits that are too deep to be
surface mined.

In-Situ Combustion
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In situ combustion involves the creation of a fire

front in the reservoir, and its subsequent
propagation by air injection. The burning front
combustion zone thuscreated would move in the
formation and displace the fluids encountered
ahead of it, into the producing wells.A certain
portion of the heat 30 % is transmitted to the
overlying and the underlying formations.A portion
(about 10%) of the in-place oil is oxidized to
generate heat by injecting air to oxidize the oil.The
injected air will be preheated by the hot sand, and
will help recover some of the heat stored in the
sand and transport it to downstream to the
combustion front.Due to the low heat capacity of
air, the heat recovery rate is low and the heat
contained in the hot sand will loss to the adjacent
formation.In order to increase the heat recovery,
water can be injected with air, giving rise to the
wet combustion process.Water has a heat
capacity about 100 times that of air.

EOR PRODUCTION

In-Situ
Total EOR
CombustioHot Water
Total
PRODUCn (1.06%) (0.14%)
Steam
Thermal
TION
(100%)
(61 %)
(63%)
Fig5. Production from Thermal Recovery

SURFACE FACILITIES:
The surface facilities for both methods that is
steam based thermal recovery methods and in-situ
combustion are discussed below and are compared
for better understanding.

SURFACE
FACILITIES

Fig 4.In-Situ Combustion, proficient EOR Method

Well Pad
Facilities

STEAM BASED
THERMAL
RECOVERY
METHODS

IN-SITU
COMBUSTION

Well control

Well control

Steam
distribution and
control

Air and Steam

distribution and
control

Production
control
Well testing
Gathering system
Emulsion
pumping

Production
control
Well testing
Gathering system
Emulsion
pumping
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Pump stations

Central Plant

Intermediate
pump stations
Oil processing

Gas separation
Sour gas handling
Free water
knockout
Desanding Tank
& System
Intermediate
pump stations
Oil processing

Produced water
de-oiling
Water treatment

Produced water
de-oiling
Water treatment

Steam
generation
Product storage
and pumps
Utilities and offsites
Waste water
treatment
Emissions control

Steam generation
Air compressor
Sour gas
treatment
Sulphur recovery
Product storage
and pumps
Utilities and offsites
Waste water
treatment
Emissions control

Pipe lines
Pipe lines
Pipe lines
Table1. Thermal EOR Surface Facilities

Fig6. Surface Facilities for Steam Based Thermal EOR

Fig7. Surface Facilities forIn-Situ Combustion

ENERGY OPTIMIZATION:
Generation of steam in steam based thermal
recovery consumes the major amount of energy,
while in in-situ combustion air compression system
consumes the major amount of energy. Energy
consumed in the form of fuel for steam generation
(where the gas produced at the field is utilized as
fuel for steam generation), electricity for
movingfluids and treatment processes are the
influencing factors for energy optimization.
Efficiency of steam based thermal recovery system
depends on Steam Oil Ratio (SOR) which can be
defined as the ratio of the amount of steam
injected (in barrels) to the amount of oil produced
(in barrels). The amount of steam injected varies
along the life of the field that is why Cumulative
Steam Oil Ratio (CSOR) is used to define the energy
consumption of that field. CSOR depends on
reservoir characteristics, development strategies
and amount of oil production.
Efficiency of in-situ combustion system is
determined by amount of air injected per barrel of
oil produced which is called Air to Oil Ratio
(AOR).The amount of air injected varies along the
life of the field that is why Cumulative Air Oil Ratio
(CAOR) is used to define the energy consumption
of that field.This quantity is also dependent on
reservoir characteristics.
224 | P a g e

P a g e | 225

In order to increase the efficiency of the Steam

based thermal methods, SOR must be alteredby
upgrading the surface facilities. Similarly, the
efficiency of in-situ combustion can be increased
through altering AOR by upgrading the surface
facilities.

Waste heat recovery

(available
for
winterization)
Flue gas heat recovery
Steam Generation
Cogeneration of Power

Flue gas heat recovery

Air Generation
Steam Generation
Cogeneration of Power

Some of the general strategies to optimize the

energy consumption are,
Practical Energy Consumption
In practice, the actual energy consumption will be
much higher than thermodynamic minimum due
to,
1. Fluid flow frictional pressure drops
2. Heat transfer due to fluids at different
temperatures
3. Non ideal mixing of fluids & mass transfer
4. Non ideal Chemical Reaction takes place

Fig8. Heat Content of Produced Fluids

High Impact of Different Heat Transfer Factors

SOR
AOR
Heat recovery from Heat recovery from
produced liquids
produced gas
Heat recovery from Waste heat recovery
boiler blow down
(available
for
winterization)

Evaluation
and
quantification
of
thermodynamics limitations to determine
thermodynamic minimum of the treatment
processes, which is less than the actual
(practical) consumption.
To
avoid
insulation
losses,
the
transportation of the hot fluids for
treatment must be minimized.
As heat exchange leads to entropy change,
thus, heat is minimized by matching surface
operating conditions with the reservoir
operating conditions.
If cogeneration is required, maximize fuel
efficiency through heat recovery steam
generation.
Evaluate if direct contact heatexchange is
possible as this will bemore efficient than
indirect heatexchange.
Avoid excess generation of low levelheat.
Due to seasonal variations ofambient
temperatures, low level heatfrom the
process cooling will have to be removed
expending energy in airor water cooling.
Maximize heat integration betweenhot and
cold process streams tominimize external
heating or cooling.
Select
equipment
like
boilers,
steamturbines,
heaters
and
pumps
withhigher efficiencies.
If low level heat generation could notbe
avoided, consider waste heatenergy
recovery units.
CONCLUSION:
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REFERENCES
Identified in-place reserves of tar sands are
estimated to be between 2 200 and 3 700 Bb, the
bulk of them in Canada, which has an estimated 1
600 to 2 500 Bb. Canada's bitumen resources are
situated almost entirely within the province of
Alberta.The Alberta Energy & Utilities Board (AEUB)
estimates the initial volumes-in-placeto be 1 600
Bb.The AEUB further estimates the ultimate
volume in place - i.e. the volumes expected to be
found bythe time all exploratory and development
activity has ceased - to be 2 500 Bb. Of this
amount:
- 140 Bb are amenable to surface mining; they are
located in the Fort McMurray Oil SandsArea
- 2 400 Bb are amenable to thermal recovery
methods.
According to the AEUB, current technologies can
recover some 178 Bb of bitumen. Withanticipated
technologies, the ultimately recoverable volume
could be 300 Bb. About 20% (35 Bb) ofthe
recoverable resources of bitumen are located at a
shallow depth and can be exploited using
miningtechnologies. Exploiting the remaining 80%
(140 Bb) will require the use of Thermal EOR
Methods.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Introduction to Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)

Methods PETE, Dr. Maria AntonietaBarrufet 609
Module 1

6.

Canada's Oil Sands: Opportunities and

Challenges to 2015 Canadian National Energy
Board, May 2004
Evaluation of Carbonate Reservoir for Thermal
Bitumen Recovery,Jeff Peterson, Laricina
Energy, Heavy Oil Development International
Seminar in Panjin, China
Internet Websites: Internet sites: Alberta
Department of Energy, Canadian Energy
Research Institute, World Energy Council, US
Energy Information Administration, Larincia
Energy Limited

7.

Among the many EOR methods tested, only a few

havebeen commercially successful. Steam injection
based recovery methods have been highly
successful for heavy oilsand tar sands. Thus by
utilizing these methods Canada can significantly
increase its Crude Oil Production enabling it to
become World Oil Production Leader.

Prospective Analysis of the PotentialNon

Conventional World Oil Supply:Tar Sands,
OilShales and NonConventional Liquid Fuels
fromCoalandGas,InstitutFranais du Ptrole
Direction des Etudes Economiques, Jean
Franois GrusonSbastienGachadouat, Guy
Maisonnier and ArmelleSaniere
2007 Survey of Energy Resources World Energy
Council 2007 Natural Bitumen and Extra-Heavy
Oil
Comparative Study of Different EOR Methods,
Department of Petroleum EngineeringNorwegian
University of Science & Technology, Trondheim,
Norway
Enhanced Oil Recovery An Overview by Sara
Thomas, Oil & Gas Science and Technology
Rev. IFP, Vol. 63 (2008), No. 1

8.

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INTEGRATION OF CARBON CAPTURE AND SEQUESTRATION (CCS)

APPROACH AND ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY (EOR) FOR
OPTIMIZING RECOVERY OF AN OIL RESERVOIR
SPE Sub-Regional Heat Student Paper, December 2012
NED University of Engineering & Technology
Department of Petroleum Engineering
Third Year
Primary Author: Muhammad Taha
Co-Author: Muhammad Saad Iqbal
Cell: +92-331-2263363;
Cell: +92-342-2039844;
Email: tj_libra@hotmail.com
Email: saadiqbal829@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT
One of the greatest threats to environment caused by anthropogenically induced climate change is the
excess production of CO2 as a result of industrialization. R&D efforts so far have been concentrated on
the development of CCS (Carbon Capture and Sequestration), with the main focus on how to remove CO2
from flue gases and how to bury it forever in deep aquifers or exhausted oil & gas reservoirs to save the
environment from the detrimental effects of CO2. At one side, the alarming situation due to excess
emission of CO2 from industries has been bulled out and at the same time, there is actually high demand
and higher potential for CO2 in the depleted oil fields which can aid to the Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)
through the prolonged CO2 injection in depleted oil fields. It is now becoming clear that CCS
technologies could promote the use or consumption of fossil fuels than otherwise previously thought.
This paper discusses the integration of Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) technology with the
revolutionary technique of Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR). CCS, in general, encompasses a number of
technologies that can be used to capture CO2 from point sources. Pakistan being one of the most badly
affected by the harmful effects of global warming with the depleting oil reserves in the very near future
can be the essential and most viable target of the CCS Project. The scope and potential of the different
techniques of CCS in Pakistan along with the opportunities and challenges and the real case scenarios
happening in the world are discussed in detail.

227 | P a g e

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The economics, process cycle and case studies of this futuristic technology intend to give valuable insight
to the implementation of this integrated technique to the prevalent depleting oil fields of Pakistan. The
CCS-EOR projects have an advantage in terms of lower technical risk, greater value proposition, and the
potential for greater public acceptance.
INTRODUCTION
World population is increasing and so the demand for energy. However, there has been increasing
concern over global warming and the resultant climate change associated with the use of fossil fuels and
CO2 emissions. It is an undeniable fact that fossil fuels will continue to meet a significant share of world
primary energy demand for many decades to come and will be dominated upto 90% till 2030 as
renewable resources will not be sufficient in the short to long term. However, it has become indispensable
to introduce efficient technical solutions to make their use less damaging to the environment.
With the identification of CO2 as a leading contributor to the global warming, steps towards the effective
solution are being carried out to mitigate the release of anthropogenic CO 2 in the atmosphere. Numerous
approaches are in various stages of development and implementation including: creating of economic
incentives to reduce emissions such as a carbon tax or a cap and trade mechanism; reforestation, wetlands
restoration and other activities that increase the number of plants and microorganisms available to
naturally remove CO2 from the atmosphere; and carbon capture and storage (CSS) into oceans or
underground geologic formations.
The geologic storage of CO2 is among the most immediate and viable strategies for lessening the release
of CO2 into the atmosphere. Thus capture and storage of carbon dioxide produced in combustion of fossil
fuels offers one effective option for attaining large scale reductions in the emission of anthropogenic
greenhouse gases.
It is also important to note that all over the world, significant investment has been made in infrastructures
for the use of fossil fuels. It therefore makes economic sense to find ways of continual use of the
infrastructure.
As the human footprint grows, the extent to which we can balance its carbon impact is not only good for
the environment, but also good for economy.
METHODOLOGY
Normally, the Carbon capture and sequestration process involves the following steps:

Capturing of CO2
Separation of CO2
Dehydration
Compression
Transportation
228 | P a g e

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Geological storage/sequestration

CO2 Capture:
Approximately 90% of the CO2 produced by the fossil fuels at large fixed installations can be captured
and prevented from reaching the atmosphere. The three main technology types for CO 2 to be captured
from industrial processes such as power generation, oil refining and cement manufacture are:

Pre-Combustion capture:

Pre-combustion involves partial combustion of CO2 to produce hydrogen and CO2. Hydrogen combustion
produces no CO2 emissions, with water vapor being the main by-product. The component parts of precombustion technology exist at commercial scale; the challenge now is to integrate these in a power
application.
One of the advantages of capturing the CO2 before burning (pre-combustion capture) is that this technique
separate hydrogen from hydrocarbon fuels. Hydrogen is a clean fuel, producing only water when
burned.

Post-Combustion:

In post-combustion capture, the CO2 is removed after

combustion of fossil fuel. CO2 is captured from exhaust
gases and other large point sources. Post-combustion
can be installed on both new and existing power plants
of vital importance given that the average power
plant operates for 40 years. The challenge around postcombustion is scale-up of the technology to commercial scale in a power application as well as
integration.

229 | P a g e

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Oxy-firing capture:

This process involves burning fossil fuels in pure oxygen as opposed to air resulting in a more complete
combustion. This results in an exhaust stream which consists of almost pure CO2 (typically 90%) and
water vapour. which can be easily separated from CO2 by condensation.
The main problem with this method is separating oxygen from the air. This is usually completed
cryogenically which required a lot of energy.

CO2 Separation:

Chemical Adsorption:

It is a process where CO2 reacts with liquid solvents to form weakly bonded intermediate compounds,
which are then broken down by application of heat, regenerating original solvents for reuse and producing
CO2 stream. The commonly used solvents are alkanol amines. Mixtures of amines and formulated
solvents are also used to improve CO2 removal removal capability.

Physical Adsorption:

It is a process in which CO2 is physically adsorbed in a solvent and then regenerated using pressure
reduction in which less or no energy is required. Solvents used are Selexol & Rectisol.

Cryogenic Technologies:

They incorporate the high pressure but low temperature physical approach in which CO2 is separated
directly condensing or by using solvent. These methods require the pressure of feed gas to be raised and
are hence cost-effective. But cryogenic technology offers an advantage of producing CO2 at high pressure
and hence reduces the compression cost.

230 | P a g e

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Dehydrating CO2:
The separated CO2 from the hydrocarbon gases is not pure and contain other gases like water vapor, etc.
Dehydration has dual purpose of preventing both corrosion and formation of hydrates. The formation of
CO2 hydrates takes place in the presence of free water at pipeline operating pressure and temperatures
upto 11 C. The formation of these can create flow assurance problems which will complicate the
process. Water could be removed between each compression stages as condensate. At around 5.5 MPa
(800psi), the water solubility in CO2 is at a minimum. Further water vapour removal is done by countercurrently contacting it with a cool lean triethylene glycol solution in an absorber.
Compressing CO2:
CO2 has to be compressed in order to transport it via pipeline. This is achieved at pressures above 8MPa
to achieve a single phase flow while keeping the density high. The energy required for the compression is
supplied by a CO2 emission source such as fossil-fired power plant. An estimation of the amount of
carbon dioxide produced to generate energy for compressing CO2 is required. Achievement of single
phase flow will help in easy transportation of gas.
Transportation of CO2:
The captured, dehydrated and compressed CO2 can be transported to the injection site by several ways.
CO2 pipelines are the most prevalent means of bulk CO2 transport and are a matured market technology
in operation today. Bulk transport of CO2 by ship also takes place though on a minor scale. This occurs in
insulated containers at temperatures well below ambient, and much lower pressures than pipeline transfer.
Transport by truck and rail is possible for small quantities of CO2, but unlikely to be significant in CCS
because of the very large masses likely to be captured. For pipeline transport, the most widely used
operating condition is to maintain CO2 at pressure higher than its critical pressure. At above critical
pressure, CO2 exists as a dense single phase over a wide range of temperatures. Two phase flow induces
pressure surges and is more expensive because of the need for larger pipelines or the construction and
operation of additional compression stations.
The pipeline diameter is determined by several factors namely entrance pressure at the beginning of
pipeline, required pressure at the end of pipeline, maximum and minimum operating pressures, ambient
temperature, pipeline length, CO2 flow rate etc.
CO2 Storage/Sequestration:
Geological carbon dioxide (CO2) storage involves the injection of supercritical CO2 into deep geologic
formations (injection zones) overlain by competent sealing formations and geologic traps that will prevent
the CO2 from escaping.
CO2 storage sites tend to be in the same areas as productive oil and gas basins, both onshore and offshore.
However, other factors, such as proximity to anthropogenic CO2 resources play a vital role.
There are several generic sites of CO2 geological storage, including:

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Depleted Reservoirs:
It provides one of the most readily available storage solutions, because these reservoirs have been
thoroughly characterized and consequently have a large amount of data available that can directly applied
to understanding the dynamics of CO2 storage. Apart from offering suitable pressure regimes for CO2
injection and storage, they allow immediate access to the reservoir through existing wells.
Deep saline formations:
Deep saline formations also offer storage opportunities due to their wider regional coverage and potential
proximity to CO2 capture sites. Deep saline formations with good storage potential will generally be
present in the same basins as oil and gas reservoirs and the site characterization methods are essentially
similar.
Unmineable coal seams:
These are too deep or too thin to be economically mined. All coals have varying amounts of methane
(CH4) adsorbed onto pore surfaces and wells can be drilled into unmineable coal seams to recover coal
bed methane (CBM). Initial CBM recovery methods leave a considerable amount of CH4 in the formation,
but this can be increased by injecting CO2. CO2 is adsorbed onto the surface of the coal and the methane
is desorbed.
Other formations are ultramafic, basalt and shale formations.
SEQUESTRATION MECHANISMS:
As CO2 is pumped deep underground it is compressed by the higher pressures and becomes essentially
a liquid, which then becomes trapped in the pore spaces between the grains of rock by several means,
summarised below. Depending on the physical and chemical characteristics of the rocks and fl uids, all
or some of these trapping mechanisms will take place. Structural storage has immediate effect; the
others take time, but provide increased storage security. The longer the CO2 remains underground, the
more securely it is stored.
Structural Storage:
When the CO2 is pumped deep underground, it is initially more buoyant than water and will rise up
through the porous rocks until it reaches the top of the formation where it can become trapped by an
impermeable layer of cap-rock, such as shale. The wells that were drilled to place the CO2 in storage can
be sealed with plugs made of steel and cement.

Residual Storage:

Reservoir rocks act like a tight, rigid sponge. Air in a sponge is residually trapped and the sponge usually has to be
squeezed several times to replace the air with water. When liquid CO2 is pumped into a rock formation, much
of it becomes stuck within the pore spaces of the rock and does not move. This is known as residual trapping.

Dissolution Storage:
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CO2 dissolves in salty water, just like sugar dissolves in tea. The water with CO2 dissolved in it is then
heavier than the water around it (without CO2) and so sinks to the bottom of the rock formation, trapping
the CO2 indefinitely.
Mineral Storage:
It is a permanent mechanism of sequestration in which silicate minerals are converted to secondary
carbonates due to reaction with CO2.
Detailed background of this technique is given under the title of scope and potential of CSS in Pakistan.
Scope & Potential of CSS in Pakistan:
Pakistan is one the most badly affected countries suffering from harmful effects of the rise in CO2
emissions due to the burning of fossil fuels.
Although, there is a huge potential of CSS in Pakistan, our study restricts to the available data of the
Northern Areas of Pakistan which helps to estimate the amount/capacity of Carbon that ground can hold
inside its crust.
Pakistan has many major ultramafic complexes with varying thickness and lithologies containing Ca
and/or Mg rich silicate minerals, such as pyroxene, olivine, amphibole, serpentine, etc. Our present work
is about the mineral carbonation potential of ultramafic rocks of Pakistan, including Chilas and Jijal
complexes, Alpuri serpentinites and Dargai
ultramafics. The calc-silicates exist in abundance in all of these ultramafic bodies and may act as
possible sinks to sequester CO2 in the form of magnesium and calcium carbonates. In this study,
approximate amounts of CO2 that can be sequestered in all the ultramafic rocks of Chilas, Jijal, Alpuri
and Dargai are estimated using equation formulated by Zevenhoven and Kohlmann, (2001). The
approximate covered
area of the Chilas complex is 7318 km2, Jijal complex 551 km2, Alpuri serpentinite 16 km2 and that of
Dargai ultramafic belt is 153 km2. Taking into consideration the depths, densities and MgO contents, the
estimate shows that an ultramafic proportion of 1 million ton (mt.) in the Chilas, Jijal, Dargai, and Alpuri
ultramafic can store ~ 01268, 93.79, 47.82 and 1.79 mt of CO2, respectively.
Capacity = 1 x x a x t x d x (1- )
Mineral CO2 Sequestration: Brief Review
The basic principal of mineral CO2 sequestration is the acceleration of weathering/alteration processes
occurring in nature, wherein CO2 reacts with Ca, Fe and or Mg containing minerals especially silicates.
For industrial applications, the process is largely to be completed in hours compared to the natural
weathering reactions, which take considerable time. Thus optimization of reaction kinetics is of prime
importance in mineral. The permanent sequestration of CO2 in the form of carbonates is shown by this
reaction.
(Ca, Mg)O + CO2 (Ca, Mg)CO3
(Ca, Mg)SiO4 + CO2 (Ca, Mg)CO3 + SiO2.
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Nature stores CO2 predominantly in carbonates, mainly limestone, dolomite. Listwanite (carbonated
serpentinite) represents a fossil mineral carbonation system, serving as a repository of CO2 in the form of
carbonates during the reaction of serpentine with CO2-rich fluids (Kump et al., 2000; Kojima et al., 1997).
CO2 is made to react with mafic/ultramafic rocks which are the most common source of magnesium, iron
or calcium-bearing silicate minerals present in nature (Goff and Lackner, 1998). Examples of such a
carbonation reaction with suitable magnesium minerals (Mani et al., 2008) are:
Mg3SiO5(OH)4 + 3CO2 3MgCO3 + SiO2 + H2O
(Serpentine) (Magnesite) (Silica)
MgSiO4 + 2CO2 2MgCO3 + SiO2
(Olivine) (Magnesite) (Silica)
The reaction of industrial waste acids with olivine on enhanced rates (i.e., industrial time
scale) was investigated by Schuiling et al. (1986), Jonckbloedt (1997) and Lieftink (1997). In a
subsequent study, Schuiling and Krijgsman (2006) demonstrated that olivine reacts with compressed CO2
in autoclaves, in the presence of right catalysts, in a matter of hours, which testifies to feasibility of
industrial application of CO2 sequestration. The main advantage of mineral carbonation is the
thermodynamic stability of the formed carbonates, which makes the storage permanent and inherently
safe (Lackner, et al.,1997). Furthermore, carbonation reactions are exothermic, which enables reduction of
energy consumption and costs (Goff and Lackner, 1998; Lackner et al., 1997).
CaO + CO2 CaCO3 ( Hr = 179 kJ/mol)
MgO + CO2 MgCO3 ( Hr = 118 kJ/mol)
Where Hr is the heat released in the reaction. Finally, the potential of the technology to store appreciable
amounts of the CO2 resulting from fossil fuel combustion is large enough because serpentine, olivine, and
pyroxene-rich rocks occur in large amounts in nature (Goff and Lackner, 1998; Lackner, et al., 1997).
Olivine is slow to react and serpentines react poorly, unless pretreated to remove chemically bound water.
At a high temperature of ~600C and pressure of about <0.5 kbar, the reaction has favourable conditions
for kickstarting the carbonation pathways (Pokrovsky and Schott, 1999).

Estimation/Calculation of Sequestration Capacity:

a) For the Chilas mafic-ultramafic complex:
An effective sequestration of about 20% at a
depth of 1 km is calculated as:
Volume of the complex:
73181=7318 km3
Effective volume of the complex for
Sequestration:
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20% of 7318=1463 km3=1463 106 m3

Average density:
3197 kg/m3.
Mass of ultramafics:
volume density
1463106m33197 kg/m3= 4677109 m3.
Average % MgO in ultramafics:
27.67%
Total MgO in ultramafics of Chilas Complex:
27.67% of 4677109m3=1294 million tons (mt.)
Since 1 ton of MgO can dispose of approximately 1 ton of CO2 (Zevenhoven and Kohlmann, 2001), with
an average porosity of 2% in ultramafic rocks, 1294 mt of MgO in Chilas Complex can sequester:
Capacity = 1 x x a x t x d x (1- )
11294 (1-0.02) = 1268.12 mt. of CO2 in the form of magnesium carbonate.

S.No

Name of formation

Avg Density

Area (Km2)

Depth (Km)

Mass (mt)

% of
MgO

CO2
Sequestration
Potential

Chilas Complex

3197

7318

4677

27.67

1268.12

Jijal Complex

3000

551

330

29

93.79

Dargai Ultramafics

4071

153

122

40

47.82

Alpuri Serpentinites

3300

16

10.56

17.37

1.79

Previously, research paper related to the modeling for capture of carbon dioxide using aqueous ammonia from
flue gases of a brick kiln was published in the International Journal of Chemical and Environmental Engineering
which showed different stats including the chart of the Carbon recovery from all the provinces of Pakistan. The
table is shown below:
Province

CO2 at present (tons/yr)

CO2 captured (tons/yr)

CO2 released tons/yr

Punjab

33562.70

32220.19

1342.50

Sindh

2403.12

2307.00

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96.12

Khyber Pakhtunkhua

1032.18

990.89

41.28

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Application of CO2-sequestration in the

CO2-EOR & CO2-EGR techniques:
Of the various options for storing CO2 underground, the use of depleted oil and gas fields has a number of
attractions. In particular, these fields are known to have held gases and liquids for millions of years since
their geology is known and there is substantial capacity available. Indeed, thousands of oil and gas fields
are approaching the end of their lives. Such depleted fields provide the opportunity for storing CO2.
CO2-EOR Technique:
Once the CO2 is stored geologically inside the earth, it can be transported to the depleted oil fields to
enhance its recovery. If the CO2 is sequestrated in the depleted oil fields region, then it substantially
reduces the amount of transportation and makes it feasible since in such fields, much of the data is known
along with the fracture propagations, geometry and fault line parameters. The pre-requisite knowledge
helps in avoiding the injection of CO2 in the fractured-zones or the other hazardous zones to prevent the
CO2 seepage towards the surface or encountering loss into formation.
Pakistan has one of best potential storage of CO2 in the depleted oil reservoirs and will account to large
surplus and mitigation of oil imports bill to the large extent for several decades if it is properly carried out.
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Mechanism

When CO2 is injected into an oilfield it may mix with the crude oil, causing it to swell and thereby
reducing its viscosity. This also helps to maintain or increase the pressure in the reservoir. The
combination of these processes allows more of the crude oil to flow to the production wells.

In other situations the CO2 is not soluble in the oil. Here, injection of CO2 raises the pressure in the
reservoir, helping to sweep the oil towards the production well upto 25-35%. Up to half of the injected
CO2 is stored in the immobile oil remaining in the reservoir at the end of production. The rest is collected
from the production well and re circulated.
Economic Evaluation
Now, once the investment has been made to mitigate the CO2 emissions, its time to recover the capital
through the CO2-EOR Technique which would take some years to achieve the break-even point and then
result in the surplus amount. Eventually, there are two man-friendly processes going on: (i) The reduction
of CO2 emissions (ii) Its utilization in CO2-EOR technique, fulfilling the oil demand for several decades
along with profit.
Globally, 130 Gtonne of CO2 could be stored as a result of CO2-EOR operations.
The cost of capturing the CO2, transporting it 300 km and storing it has been estimated to be between
$30-50/tonne CO2 avoided.
Through researches, it has been found out that the EOR through WAG (Water Alternate Gas) CO2 will
increase the recovery factor upto 52% in Pakistan. This boosted amount can help in achieving the
breakeven point too soon and the profit ratios in terms of economic would be far much greater than the
sole injection of CO2.
CO2-EOR is commercially proven. It is used extensively in the USA, where 74 projects are now
operating, injecting some 33 million tonnes of CO2 annually. Although most of this CO2 comes from
natural sources, about 3 million tonnes per year is from natural gas processing plant, from ammonia

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production and other man-made sources. So some storage of CO2 is already taking place. A limited
amount of CO2 is used for EOR projects in other countries.
CO2-EGR Technique:
Mechanism
In a depleted gas field the CO2 would occupy some of the void space that had previously been
occupied by the natural gas. Some depleted gas
fields are reused as buffer stores for natural gas
production. The techniques of gas re-injection can be adapted to store CO2 in these fields. The EGR
techniques enhance the gas recovery to the substantial amount of 2% only.
Economic Evaluation
Globally, 900 Gtonnes of CO2 could be stored in depleted natural gas fields, substantially more than in
depleted oil fields. The cost of capturing the CO2, transporting it 300km and storing it in depleted gas
fields has been estimated to be between $40-60/tonne CO2 avoided.
However, the recovery factor with CO2-EGR is found to be too small and would take decades to achieve
the breakeven point. Different economic measures and propositions are being made to make this process
economical feasible. One of them is that the cost can be recovered by increasing bills to a substantial
amount for providing the cleaner atmosphere to the public. Perhaps, deep research into CO2 gas
production is being carried out to increase the recovery factor. If however, it is established that the
process is technically feasible, then the overall cost of CO2 capture and storage could be similar to that in
oil fields which would offer a great leverage opportunity for the gas-producing countries like Pakistan.
Case Study : SHELL Wasson Field in West Texas:
The production plot shown in fig A illustrates how a field can respond to CO2 injection. This case study
exemplifies Shell Oils Denver Unit in the Wasson Field in West Texas, showing oil & water production
and water and CO2 injection over sixty years. The primary production portion of the fields life lasted
from 1938 through about 1965. The oil production rate peaked in the mid-1940s and then began to
decline as reservoir pressure depleted. The operator initiated pressure maintenance with water injection
(water-flooding) in 1965 and oil production rates responded quickly.
As the injected water began to break through at the production wells, the volume of water produced also
rose rapidly in the 1970s. By the end of 1982, the volumes of water injected and produced were
considerably more than the volume of oil produced. Zbout two years after the operator initiated CO2
injection in 1983, the oil production decline began to slow and eventually leveled off. At the end of 1998,
one could determine the incremental oil attributable to CO2 EOR by calculating the cumulative difference
between the projected decline tae without CO2 injection and the actual production rate.
In this example, the volumes of oil produced are significant because the Denver Unit flood is large with
more than 2 Billion barrels of oil originally in place and a residual oil satruration after waterflooding of
40% percent. The typical well pattern is ten producing wells for every three injectors. Currently, the
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Denver Unit produces about 31,500 barrels of oil per day of which 26850 is the incremental oil
attributable to the CO2 flood. The Wasson Fields Denver Unit CO2 EOR project has resulted in more than
120 million incremental barrels of oil through 2008.

Fig A. Plot showing oil production versus time for

primary, secondary (waterflood) and tertiary (CO2 EOR)
oil production periods for the Denver Unit of the Wasson
Field in West Texas. Incremental oil production due to
EOR is represented by the green area under the curve at
right.

Fig B. shows the cumulative oil production in USA with CO2-EOR technique

Fig B

Although, the oil reserves in Pakistan only account to fulfill 22% need of the state energy demand yet
these reservoirs can be utilized for longer periods to avoid facing the sky-rocketing oil imports bill upon
depletion of the existing oil reserves.
Uses of CO2:
Beverages/Dry ice/Cooling (Liquid CO2)/Supercritical food application
Neutralization of waste water
Desalinated water mineralization
Welding
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Etc.

Semi conductor cleaning

Urea
Methanol
Soda Ash
Polycarbonates
Gas to Liquids
Dimethyl Ether production
CO2 Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)
Enhanced Coal Bed Methane (ECBM)
Greenhouses
Micro Algae Bio diesel
Kelp in sea water Bio diesel
Steel making
Low pressure steam reforming

Public Perceptions about CCS at Local Level:

The Game-changer Benefits
It could provide a good bridge to the future
If successful, can avoid large quantities of CO2 from getting into atmosphere
Allow continued use of fossil fuels which provides economic advantage for most of the countries
or regions.
Help clean up coal-based power plants
Allows emissions to be reduced without changing lifestyle too much
Less reliance on the new and renewable energy resources.
Barriers & Challenges
Safety risks of CO2 leak
Contamination of ground water
Effect on local environment including plants and animals near site
Availability of enough storage
Long-term viability and who is liable for stored CO2
Lack of infrastructure to support large-scale deployment
Cost-economic concerns
Risk of unknown technology
Conclusion:
Undoubtedly, this is a milestone demonstration of a new technology at the dawn of a new century and
millennium. It opens up new possibilities for sustainability, efficiency and environmental protection. It

241 | P a g e

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will not assist in development of the necessary technologies but also further open up the debate on what is
possible and what is desirable in the use and eventual phase out of fossil fuel energy.
Over the past decade, there has been a remarkable increase in interest and investment in CCS. A decade
ago, there was only one operating project, little corporate or Government investment in R&D and no
financial incentives to promote CCS. Today there are over 234 projects of various sized and stages of
development. Many companies have significant investments in technology development and governments
around the world have committed billions of dollars for R&D, scale-up and deployment. The coming
decade will be critical in the technology development and the ultimate role this option plays in reducing
GHG emissions with enhancing production through CO2-EOR and CO2-EGR. While the outlook is quite
promising, there are a number of economic, scientific and social challenges ahead which are needed be
coped positively.
Recommendations:
Huge Coal reserves in Pakistan can be the best checkpoint of CCS project since the electricity produced
with coal would be producing enormous amount of CO2 which would be very beneficial for producing the
methane gas and enhancing its production with ECBM (Enhanced Coal Bed Methane) technique which is
the different science and one-off in character in meeting the energy demand of country for many decades.
It is undeniable truth that the paradigm shift towards the coal exploitation is necessary for the best
benefits of the country. Therefore, the Government should take meagre steps towards the expected
revolutionary change towards the coal exploitation and take part in the marathon of CCS projects
booming and pumping all over the world to save its ground with the dangerous harms of CO2 emission of
Coal-power generation.
References:
[1] J. D. Figueroa, T. Fout, S. Plasynski, H. McIlvried, and R. D.Srivastava, "Advances in CO2
capture
technology--The
U.S.
Department
of
Energy's
Carbon
Sequestration
Program,"International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, vol. 2, no.1, pp. 9-20, Jan.2008.
[2] Joachim Wilhelm, et al .From CCS to CSU : Carbon Capture & Utilization. Paper OMC
presented at the 2011 10th Offshore Mediterranean Conference & Exhibition, Ravenna, Italy
[3] Norske Shell, et al .CO2 Recovery for Sequestration from a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Power Plant.
Paper SPE 61027 presented at 2000 SPE International Conference on Health, Safety and the
Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production, Stavanger, Norway, 26-28 June 2000
[4] Priyadharshini Saptharishi, et al .Technical and Geological Review of Carbon Dioxide Geo
Sequestration Along with Analysis and Study of various Monitoring Techniques. Paper IPTC
15402 presented at 2012 International Petroleum Technology Conference, Bangkok, Thailand, 0709 February 2012

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[5] Isehunwa, et al .CO2 Capture and Sequestration in Nigeria : Prospects and Challenges. Paper
SPE 105978 presented at 2006 SPE International Technical Conference, Abuja, Nigeria, 31 July02 August, 2006
[6] A.T.F.S Gaspar, et al.Economic Evaluation of Oil Production Project with EOR : CO2
Sequestration in depleted Oil Fields. Paper SPE 94922 presented at 2005 SPE Latin American
and Carribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 20-23 June 2005
[7] Tazeem Tahirkheli, et al .CO2 mineral sequestration studies in the ultramafic rocks of northern
Pakistan. Paper Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences, University of Peshawar, pages 83-90, 2012
[8] Sally M. Benson, et al .Carbon Capture and Storage American CCS Study Group, 2009
[9] S. Nazir, et al .Modelling for capture of CO2 using aqueous ammonia from flue gases of a brick
kiln, 2011
[10]
S. Chen, et al .Optimization of Displacement Efficiency in a CO2 Reservoir under
uncertainty. Paper 2008/127 presented at 2008 Canadian International Petroleum/SPE Gas
Technology Symposium 2008 Joint -Conference, Calgary, Alberta, Canada 17-19 June 2008

Development Strategies of Existing and New Oil and Gas Fields under Current Economic
Conditions in Pakistan

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Author: Yasir Irfan

Cell: 03432959096; email: yasir_irfan01@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT:
E&P Companies are always looking for
favorable economic conditions to develop
their existing and new fields as well as to
maximize
their
revenues.
Pakistan
Petroleum Policy 2012 has given an
increased price for hydrocarbon production
specially gas production (wellhead gas price
about 6US$/MMBTU). There is currently a
strong
focus
on
exploration
and
development activities for new and existing
fields all around the Pakistan. However,
installation and operation decisions in these
projects involve very large investments that
potentially can lead to large profits, but also
to losses if these decisions are not made
carefully.
There are numerous considerable factors
related with field development plan such as
reservoir, reservoir fluids, exploration and
development
facilities,
available
technologies, economics, environmental,
HSE and many other factors and their
related risks and uncertainties. Every
developer needs to emphasize to all related
factors to ensure sufficient economic return
and safety for both personnel and
environment
With the motivation described above, the
paper addresses the optimal development
planning of oil and gas fields in a generic
way and discusses the key issues involved in
their fast track development. In particular, a
unified development plan is presented
revealing the general concept, influence

parameters, steps and procedure which may

concern with fast track field development.
The steps involved in the paper are
incredibly simple and following on the oil
and gas process workflow.
INTRODUCTION:
Field development planning is one of the
core business processes in the upstream oil
and gas industry. Before a discovered field
can be developed and its hydrocarbon
produced, proper evaluation and planning of
the subsurface reservoirs and surface
facilities are necessary to ensure that the
field development plan is not only
economical to undertake, but also flexible
enough to cater for any deviation from the
original plan during implementation as a
result of inherent uncertainties in the
reservoirs over the production life span of
the field. In developing and subsequently
operating a field, environmental and
ecological considerations have to be
included. Regulatory agency constraints will
also have to be satisfied.
A field development involves several
variables that affect the operational schedule
involved in its management. Some of them
are: drilling schedule, rig allocation,
facilities acquisition, number and location of
wells, rate of production decline, water
and/or gas injection systems and, mainly, a
production profile that uses the maximum
capacity of the installed facilities for most of
the lifetime of the field.
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DEVELOPMENT STEPS
The choice of a development scheme is thus
an approach that is both technical and
economic. The profitability of the
development of a field is generally
calculated over a period of ten to fifteen
years. The front-end investments (well,
piping, production facilities, pipelines),
which are short term investments, becomes
profitable through the long term production
of hydrocarbons.
It is therefore necessary to predict the future
production of a field, over a period of many
years. It immediately appears that
forecasting is not an easy thing. The
reservoirs are often complex and their
development and production depend on the
number of wells and on possible enhanced
recovery
A decision must first be made concerning
the number and location of the well to be
drilled for natural depletion, and then one

(or more) type of secondary or enhanced

recovery can be introduced, leading to the
comparison of several hypothetical cases.
Forecast results are obtained by the use of
reservoir models which reproduce with only
a relative degree of accuracy the architecture
of the reservoir and its drive mechanism
(and after simulation of production history
once production begun).
This enables the development of the field by
optimizing the recovery of the hydrocarbon
in accordance with the economic conditions
of the time.
Once a reservoir has been discovered,
several appraisal wells are generally drilled
to obtain more information about the
reservoir. A development project is then
drawn up, often precede by a preliminary
project using very simple model and taking
account of the small amount of information
available initially.
A general flow chart of a project is shown in

Figure 9 Field Development Steps

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figure. This study takes place according to

the following general procedure.

Analytical Phase

This phase involves compilation of

information with a critical analysis of the
data. The very limited understanding of
reservoir in the appraisal phase gives rise to
significant uncertainties in the values,
proposed to define the image of the
reservoir. Moreover, the drive mechanism
and especially the potential activity of the
aquifer are poorly known.
The information includes raw data such as
seismic records, well logs, conventional and
special core analyses, fluid analyses, static
pressures, pressure-transient tests, flowing
pressures, periodic well production tests,
and monthly produced volumes of oil, gas,
and water.
Geophysical, geological, and engineering
interpretations are expected to produce
information on the distribution of
hydrocarbons in place and reserves. These
interpretations include field and regional
structure maps, including fluid-contact
locations and the size of aquifers; isopach
and porosity maps; the number of flow units
or individual producing zones; the
depositional
environment
including
information on diagenetic changes and
vertical and areal barriers to flow (or lack
thereof); and variations in fluid saturations
and permeabilities. The expected variability
in these values should be included in these
assessments. Descriptions from hand drawn
maps and correlations may suffice for small
resources; however, in most cases, a
geologic model is developed to capture these

interpretations, with more complex models

being needed for larger resources. The
power of PCs and their software makes it
more attractive to develop geologic models
for all resources.
Interpreted data could include seismic time
maps, seismic conversion of time-to depth
maps, seismic attribute maps, log analyses,
formation tops, structure and isopach maps,
cross sections etc.
How much information and how to capture
this information varies with the size of the
database, size of the resource, and the
remaining life of the resource. Hand-kept
records and hard copies of information may
be adequate for small resources. However,
digital databases should be considered for all
resources for the systematic acquisition of
data, the growing usability of software for
data interpretation, and the value of having
data available to individuals in a distributed
network.
The critical choice of the data is therefore
fundamentally important in reservoir
engineering. Following are the most
important points,
1. Volume in Place: be prudent in
estimation;
apply
probabilistic
method (Monte Carlo simulation),
then check the figures found as soon
as production history permits by
simulation model.
2. Reservoir Image, heterogeneities,
Compartmentalization: note that
the fault with a throw smaller than
the thickness of the reservoir rarely
creates
impervious
barriers.
Similarly, small shale beds in a
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3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

shale/sandstone series do not

necessarily extend over the area of
the reservoir and do not always
constitute a vertical barrier. The
analysis of the well pressures usually
helps to dispel this uncertainty (but
rarely at the start of production).
Permeability: Production tests give
the best overall values. The core
permeability is very useful and help
to provide a vertical log and a fairly
good idea of the anisotropy ratio
kv/kh
Position of Fluids: the interfaces are
determined by logs, for the wells
crossing through them. Otherwise,
capillary pressure measurements in
the laboratory can yield some
indication to be used with caution
(possible inversion of wettability,
especially for carbonates)
Relative Permeabilities: obtained
on samples, they cannot be expected
to represent the flows at the scale of
reservoir. An attempt can be made to
fit them as soon as sufficient two
phase production history is available
(one to two years). However the key
points of these curves are only
kro(Swi) or krg(Swi) and krw(Sor) or
krg(Sor).
PVT analysis: the measurement
must be adapted to the drive
mechanism of the reservoir and to
the production method (process
plant). The analysis must be able to
reconstruct
the
thermodynamic
changes in the fluids.
Well Productivity: The mapping of
depositional environments, flow

barriers, and flow test and core data

aid in understanding the productivity
and recovery trends in the reservoirs.
This understanding is important in
optimizing well placement and
spacing and in recovery process
selection. this is the major
uncertainty in the assessment of the
reservoir.
Hence
the
great
importance of appraisal wells, which
can reveal very wide variations in
potential. During this period, simple
Buckley-Levertt type calculations
can provide invaluable data about the
water and/or gas influxes. A coning
study is also generally necessary.
8. Drive mechanism: these must be
determined as early as possible. Is
there a gas cap for an oil reservoir?
The comparison between initial and
bubble point pressure (PVT) can
give the answer, in the absence of
well that has crossed through the
gas/oil interface. Yet caution is
necessary, since some reservoirs
have a widely variable bubble point.
When there is an aquifer, its characteristics
must be optimized as soon as permitted by
the production history. At the very outset of
production, the uncertainty may be large
(and recovery may vary by a factor of ten
depending on the capacity of the aquifer).
Avoid analogies with neighboring fields,
which could spring unpleasant surprises.

Modeling Phase:

This consists of the interpretation of the data

and the attempt to construct a system
(model) whose behavior reconstructs that of
the actual reservoir. Reservoir models are
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basic tools for addressing reservoir

management questions and issues. In
selecting a model, it is normally desirable to
select the simplest model that will give
reliable results (i.e., selecting a model that
will adequately discriminate among
alternatives and lead to an optimal decision,
although absolute results may not be
precise). Several types of models of varying
complexity are available that may be
adequate for different uses. These models
include analog, decline curve, analytical
(material-balance, Darcy-law, BuckleyLeveret, pressure-transient), small numerical
(well, cross-sectional, pattern-element, 3D
segment), and large-scale, full-field models.
1. Geometry and internal architecture
of reservoir (reservoir geology).
2. Choice of possible drive mechanism.
3. Choice of operating conditions (and
constraints);
productivity
and
completion of the wells, artificial lift
techniques, surface conditions.
4. Choice of number and location of
producing wells, and possibly
injection wells.

Reservoir Issues.
The first step in model selection is to
identify the questions to be answered
and their relative importance. The
following issues must be addressed
during this step.

Exploration prospect forecast of oil,

gas, and water production.
Annual forecasts of oil, gas, and
water production.
Monthly tanker scheduling and
storage requirements.

Pressure maintenance requirements.

Evaluation of alternative recovery
processes:
gas-cap
expansion;
natural water drive; and water, gas,
or other fluid injection.
Operational guidelines for pressure
levels, injection volumes and
distribution, and individual well and
field total production targets.
Well
performance
predictions:
coning, artificial lift requirements.
Stimulation evaluation.
Gasand
water-handling
requirements.
The need for and timing of reservoir
depressurizing.

Model Description
A second consideration in model selection
is deciding which primary forces will
dominate reservoir performance. It must be
determined whether viscous, gravity, or
capillary forces, as reflected in coning, gas
overrun, water under run, or pressure drop,
will dominate reservoir and well
performance.

Model Data
Most models require at least some data
describing fluid properties and reservoir
description and may require multiphase flow
(relative permeability and capillary pressure)
and well performance [coning correlations,
gas/oil ratio (GOR), water/oil ratio (WOR)]
functions. Based on experience, certain
simplifying assumptions may be acceptable.
For example, if the reservoir description is
dominated by a fining or coarsening upward
depositional sequence, this may be more

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important than capturing the areal variation

in reservoir description.

Case Design
Careful thought should be given to
identifying cases to be run with the model to
avoid running all combinations of the
variables being studied, a number that can
run in the several thousand for even modestsized resources. In some cases, this may
involve starting with a simple model to test
the importance of some variables. For
example, before building a full-field model,
it can be helpful to build well, crosssectional, 3D-segment, or pattern element
models.

Forecasting Phase:

This involves the calculation of production

forecasts in each case selected. Several
alternatives are available for each step of the
project: volumes in place, drive mechanism,
operating conditions, number of wells,
secondary recovery etc.
It can be seen that a project is composed of
several alternatives which are compared and
for which economic optimization is sought.
Thus a study is a multidisciplinary effort and
focused around the reservoir engineer,
enlists the services of the reservoir
geologists, the data processing specialists,
the producer and the economist.

Economic Considerations in the

development of a field:

The economic optimum for the development

of field is identified by the quantified

comparison of the different development

alternatives examined.

Different cases examined and

decision:
The alternatives available to the engineers
must be evaluated with the help of
economists. The objectives of the economics
studies are in fact to clarify the decision by
re-placing them within the strategic
guidelines of the company. Adapted to the
situation considered. Meanwhile, the needs
and requirements of the states in which the
activity takes place must be born in mind,
along with complex analyses using several
criteria and highlighting the sensitivity of
the results to potential changes in the key
factors. Following parameters should be
analyzed:
a) Parameter 1: Uncertainty in the
size of the accumulation
b) Parameter 2: Search for the best
recovery method
c) Parameter 3: Comparison
of
different development schedules
d) Parameter 4: Influence of inflation
and borrowing
e) Parameter 5: Influence of taxation
Following five basic elements are important
in economics,
1. Production schedule
2. Product prices
3. Ownership interests
4. Costs of production
5. Capital investments.
Production Schedule
A production schedule must be estimated
for oil and gas production plus any
associated production such as NGL or
condensate. Previous discussion has
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described the methods of estimating future

reserves and production. Extrapolation of
existing or similar property production
decline is the most direct method of
estimating future production when either oil
or non associated gas is the primary
production stream. Associated gas may be
projected as a function of oil production
using a fixed or variable gas-oil ratio
(GOR). Non associated gas may have
associated condensate production that can be
projected as a fixed or variable yield.
Where decline curve extrapolation is used,
the form of the decline, whether exponential,
hyperbolic or harmonic, must be defined and
applied. It is always a good idea to compare
the reserves obtained from production
decline with reserves obtained from other
methods such as rate-cumulative curves or
to volumetric and/or material balance
calculations.
When
decline
curve
extrapolation may not be appropriate, such
as when projecting future production from a
new field or reservoir or for an EOR project,
production estimates can be obtained by
converting the volume results of the material
balance, frontal advance, or other method
into annual or monthly production. This may
require determining a limiting condition that
can be identified, such as lifting capacity or
injection rates and back-calculating a
production rate. However it is done, be sure
to compare the production schedule with
other similar projects or fields and with
good reservoir and operating practice. Also,
the selection of a schedule may have
economic impacts, such as the requirement
for investment, increased operating costs, or
in some circumstances royalties and/or taxes

that may cause an alteration of the selected

production schedule. Finally, as noted
earlier, the proper analysis of the source and
form of the production data is very
important to a valid cash flow analysis.
Product prices
Product prices are the market price of oil,
gas, condensate, or NGL. A cash flow is
usually done as of a point in time so the
prices would be those in effect at that date.
Two basic sources for product prices are
actual sales and posted prices. The actual
price for oil and/or gas being received on the
property to be evaluated is the best source of
a price for a cash flow. In using actual
prices, determine if there are any shipping,
pipeline, dehydration or other deductions
that would reduce the price actually received
for the oil or gas produced. These charges
must be accounted for in the cash flow.
Also, gas sales prices are often based on the
heating or Btu value of the gas not on the
Mcf or volume of gas. Since gas production
is normally expressed in Mcf, a correction
must be made if the gas price is in $/Btu.
Posted prices are the prices offered in the
market by large purchasers of crude oil, such
as major refiners. These posted prices are
readily available for oil from various fields
or for regions of the country or state. The
posted price changes as economic conditions
change. The posted price is listed as $/bbl
for a certain gravity of oil, with a correction
factor for gravity differentials.
The appropriate price for the oil in the
property being evaluated can be estimated
by obtaining one or more posted prices for
oil of a similar gravity in or near the same
field and making necessary adjustments for
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gravity. Gas prices can be estimated from

standard prices offered by pipelines in the
area. Gas sales are not always as
straightforward as oil sales. During periods
of high demand, the purchaser may be
willing to take all the gas that can be
produced and will build the connection lines
to the property. At other times, however, the
purchaser may limit sales to a percent of
capacity and may not be willing to provide
connection. These conditions could not only
reduce revenue from sales but could require
additional investment and may have the
effect of reducing production of other
products if the gas is associated gas.
Whatever the conditions, they must be
considered in the production schedule and
cash flow.
Condensate is generally treated and priced
as crude oil. NGL is generally treated as a
by-product of gas sales where wet gas
containing NGL is sold to a gas plant that
strips out the liquids and sells the dry gas
and liquids. The producer may receive
revenue from the dry gas sales and a share
of NGL sales or he or she may receive a wet
gas price.
The projection of product prices into the
future depends on the perspective of the
evaluator regarding future economic
conditions and, to some extent, the purpose
of the cash flow. The simplest approach is to
determine the appropriate price(s) as of the
date of evaluation and hold those prices
constant for the life of production. But now
it has become more common to attempt to
estimate whether oil and/or gas prices would
change over the expected life of production

and to build those anticipated changes into

the cash flow by escalating or deescalating
oil prices at certain rates over time.
The question of whether or not to escalate
prices in a cash flow depends on the
information available to the evaluator and
how well the evaluator can translate
information into expectation. Major
companies
often
have
economics
departments whose purpose is to estimate
future oil prices that are often implemented
in cash flows. Smaller companies and others
are generally without such resources and
must rely on other, published and
unpublished sources and their own intuition.
Oil and, to a lesser extent, gas have been
open market commodities subject to a wide
range of forces causing prices to rise and
fall. Most price projections that extend for
more than a year or two will probably be
wrong except that over time, because oil and
gas are finite resources, the price must
eventually increase. As will be discussed
below, the use of several cash flows with
differing price projections may serve to
reduce price risk.
Ownership interests
Ownership interests are the percentages of
the production revenue and cash flow from a
property owned by various parties.
Ownership can be broadly divided into two
classes: working and royalty interests. The
basic difference is that the working interest
pays all the operating costs and makes the
investments and then receives a share of the
revenue. The royalty interest receives a
percentage of the revenue but pays no costs
and makes no investment. The share of
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revenue received by the working interest is

called the net revenue interest.
There are several types of royalty interest
including landowner, overriding, and sliding
scale. The latter are most common on
federal or state government leases but may
occur on private leases and are very
common in foreign countries.
The royalty interest is paid directly out of
sales, often by the production purchaser, so
that the WI pays all operating costs, etc., out
of the NRI. If there is more than one
working interest owner, the WI and NRI will
generally be divided proportionately.
Whatever the type of royalty, the effect on
the cash flow is the same. In some cases, the
ownership interest may change during the
expected life of production. In constructing
a cash flow it is very important that the
ownership interests be determined and
accurately applied. The best source is your
land department and/or the division orders
issued by product purchasers in most states.
Costs Of Production
The costs of production include all the
costs, except royalty and investment,
required to produce, treat and sell the oil,
gas and any other products from the
property being evaluated. There are a great
many different types of costs and companies
may account for them in various ways but
they must be included in the cash flow.
Costs of production can be broadly divided
into
1. Operating costs and
2. Production taxes and charges.

Operating costs can be further subdivided

into (a) fixed, (b) variable. Fixed costs
include those costs that remain generally the
same regardless of the volume of
production, such as lease labor (pumper,
treater),
well
pulling,
maintenance,
engineering, and/or supervisory staff); some
fuel and power costs; lease maintenance and
repair. While these costs may change over a
long period of time, for cash flow purposes
they may be considered fixed costs in
dollars per month or per year. Variable costs
are those that vary with the volume of gross
(oil plus water) production or with the
number of wells. Such costs are chemical
treating, some fuel and power costs, water
disposal and some labor costs. Other costs
might include distributed costs of
environmental, regulatory or other programs
that are applied across several properties or
that have no property-specific application.
The best source of operating cost data is the
historical cost records for the property being
evaluated or a similar property. It is
important to review at least 12-24 months of
previous costs to properly define the full
range of costs and the variation of those
costs with time and production changes, and
to define any recurring costs. If certain costs
remain essentially the same over time, they
should be treated as fixed costs in the cash
flow. On the other hand, costs that can be
shown to vary with total fluid or oil
production or the number of wells or some
other criteria should be treated as variable
costs in the cash flow.
Production tuxes and charges include, but
are not limited to severance taxes, wellhead
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taxes, regulatory impositions and certain

charges based on income such as the
windfall profit tax. These taxes not only
occur individually but, in many areas, one or
more of the taxes occur and are cumulative.
It is important to identify the taxes
applicable to the property being evaluated
and to include them in the cash flow.
Capital Investments
Capital investments capital investments can
be broadly defined as relatively major
expenditures, which may or may not be
predictable, and which generally result in an
increase in production or a decrease in costs
or both as a direct result of the investment.
Changing a pump might be operating cost
while changing a pumping unit is an
investment. There is a certain amount of
subjectivity involved here and company
policy should be consulted.
RISK ANALYSIS
Risk is the possibility that events or
conditions in the future may not occur as
expected. When flipping a coin you may
expect it to turn up heads, but there is a 50%
possibility that it will be tails. In drilling a
purely exploratory well, there is a very high
possibility that the well will be dry. In
projecting future oil prices, there is a very
good chance that your projection will be
wrong both as to direction and timing. Each
example contains risk, but the ability to
quantify that risk ranges from a fixed 50% to
a statistical value for wildcat drilling to
virtually unquantifiable for the price
projection.

Risk has a significant impact on valuation of

oil and gas properties. The oil business is a
relatively high-risk endeavor to begin with,
and within any property evaluation there are
numerous opportunities for risk to impact
the value. The production projection and
reserves determination can be done using all
available data and the best methods, but the
actual production is still subject to the
vagaries of a natural system-the reservoir
rocks and fluids-that cannot even be
sampled and measured to any major extent,
let alone be accurately modeled to eliminate
the potential for variance from expectations.
Reserves are classified as proved, probable
and possible on the basis of the ability to
estimate those reserves and likelihood of
recovery.
A property valuation should attempt to
recognize and account for risk. There are
several methods of analyzing risk and
applying adjustments. The process has steps
which can be generalized
1.
2.
3.
4.

Define the risk.

Determine if the risk is measurable.
Define a range of values for the risk.
Select a risk evaluation method(s).

Define the Risk

Any evaluation of an oil and gas property
has a wide range of risks associated with it,
starting with the geologic risk that
recoverable hydrocarbons exist to the
economic risk posed by price/cost
projections and selection of discount rate.
Geologic risk is very important in assessing
drilling prospects but is much reduced in
production development projects. There
have been several treatises written on a
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drilling project risk that allows the risk to

approach quantification.
Geologic risks:
Does the zone exist?
Field size?
Sufficient recoverable hydrocarbons?
Performance risk:
Reservoir properties (Sw, porosity, k,
P, etc.)
zone thickness
areal extent
drive mechanism (effects RF)
decline rate
depth
production method needed
well spacing required
stimulation needed
Economic risks:
Price projection depends on gravity
of oil and composition
Operating costs projection depends
on gravity and composition, depth,
number of wells.
Royalty and production taxes.
Required investment.
Cost-of-capital.
Income tax treatment.
Measurement of Risk
Each of these risks elements and many
others can be measured to some degree
although the degree of real quantification
varies considerably. Geologic risk has been
addressed by many authors to the point that
such factors as field size distributions are
quantified based on normal or log-normal

analysis. Reservoir properties such as Sw

and Q can generally be estimated from
similar properties and fields and can be
analyzed statistically as data are available.
Areal extent can be estimated from mapping
depending on the quality of control data.
Economic data can be well known, such as
current price, within very narrow boundaries
but future trends can be highly variable.
Each factor must be reviewed to determine
the error potential, degree of uncertainty and
range of possible but realistic values.
Define Range of Values
Most of the risk factors that may occur in an
evaluation and that can be measured can be
quantified on a range of values about the
most likely value. Each risk element must be
assessed for the range of possible values that
may occur or the likelihood that a certain
value would occur. Selection of those values
should be based on objective measurement
where possible supplemented by analysis of
similar field (property) data and tempered by
subjective experience.
Select Risk Evaluation Method
The method used for evaluation of risk often
depends on (a) the relation to the risk
element to the overall evaluation and (b) the
degree to which a probability can be
assigned to the value or values in the range
of values. As an example, such factors as
porosity, Sw, zone thickness; areal extent;
and starting prices and costs could have as
much probability of being one value as
another within the range of values, in which
case sensitivity analysis or Monte Carlo
analysis
would
provide
sufficient
consideration of the risk factors. On the
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other hand, where probabilities of

occurrence can be assigned to such factors
as field size or price/cost escalations an
expected value approach might be more
appropriate. Of course, each risk element
can be evaluated either on its own or in
combination with other factors. Oil-in-place
might be calculated using a range of equally
likely values for Q, Sw, etc., which would
result in a range of values for OOIP that
could then be tested for field size
distribution and assigned a probability. A set
of production projections could be evaluated
using a range of price escalations to
determine the sensitivity of project value or
return to various prices.

Apply Risk Evaluation Methods

Sensitivity Analysis
1. Select one risk element and
measure the range of equally
likely values.
2. Apply the range of values, with
appropriately selected intervals,
to the part of the evaluation
which is sensitive to that
element.
3. Combine
compatible
risk
elements to determine if the
elements offset or enhance each
other.
4. Determine a range of outcomes
and analyze statistically to
determine the most likely

outcome
and
range
of
probabilities.
Monte Carlo Analysis
This method essentially combines the
sensitivity analysis approach with a system
of randomly selecting the values to be used.
The method is most effective in analyzing
the interrelation of a large number of
variable factors. The outcomes can be
statistically analyzed for assignment of
probabilities.
Expected Value Theory
Expected value is similar to sensitivity
analysis with the major difference that the
values used are considered to have a
probability of occurrence and to be mutually
exclusive.
These methods are relatively easy to apply
once the risks (also read variables) have
been analyzed and defined. They are
particularly adaptable to computer analysis.
REFERENCE

Petroleum Engineering Handbook

Larry W. Lake, Editor-In-Chief
Reservoir
Engineering
And
Petrophysics Edward D. Holstein,
Editor

Standard Handbook Of Petroleum

And Natural Gas Engineering
(Volume 2) By Williacm. Lyons,
Ph.D.,P .E. (Editor)

Basic Of Reservoir Engineering By Rene Cosse

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Project Description Chad Export Project Supporting Documents - Volume 1

Optimal Scheduling Of Development In An Oil Field Antonio Carlos Bittencourt De

Andrade Filho

Preparing A Gas Field Development Plan Tangga Barat Cluster Gas Project Antonio
Carlos Bittencourt De Andrade Filho

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