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A.SANYASI RAO
AMIE, M.Tech, MISTE, MIETE

Assoc. Prof, Dept. of ECE

Balaji Institute of Engineering & Sciences

Allanki Sanyasi Rao

MULTIPLEXING

Multiplexing in 4 dimensions
o space (si)
o time (t)
o frequency (f)
o code (c)

channels ki
k1

k2

k3

k5

k6

c
t

c
t

s1

k4

Goal: multiple use

of a shared medium

s2

c
t

Important: guard spaces needed!

s3

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FREQUENCY MULTIPLEX
Separation of spectrum into smaller frequency bands
Channel gets band of the spectrum for the whole time
Advantages:

no dynamic coordination needed

works also for analog signals

k3

k5

k6

Disadvantages:

k4

waste of bandwidth if traffic distributed unevenly

inflexible
guard spaces

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TIME MULTIPLEX

Channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain

amount of time

Advantages:

only one carrier in the medium at any time

throughput high even for many users

Disadvantages:

Precise synchronization necessary

c

k1

k2

k3

k4

k5

k6
f

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TIME & FREQUENCY MULTIPLEX

A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain

amount of time (e.g. GSM)
Advantages:

better protection against tapping

protection against frequency selective interference
higher data rates compared to code multiplex

Precise coordination required

k1

k2

k3

k4

k5

k6

c
f

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CODE MULTIPLEX
k1

k4

k5

k6

bandwidth efficient
no coordination and synchronization
good protection against interference
f

Disadvantages:

k3

Each channel has unique code

All channels use same spectrum at same time
Advantages:

k2

lower user data rates

more complex signal regeneration

Implemented using spread spectrum technology

t

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Spread Spectrum
Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading can
wipe out narrow band signals for duration of the interference
Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad band signal
using a special code

The spread spectrum techniques was developed initially for

military and intelligence requirements.
The essential idea is to spread the information signal over a wider
bandwidth to make jamming and interception more difficult.

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Spread Spectrum (Contd.)

Spread spectrum is a communication technique that spreads a
narrowband communication signal over a wide range of frequencies for
transmission then de-spreads it into the original data bandwidth at the
receiver.
Spread spectrum is characterized by:
- wide bandwidth and
- low power
Jamming and interference have less effect on Spread spectrum
because it is:
- Resembles noise
- Hard to detect
- Hard to intercept

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Narrowband vs Spread Spectrum

Power

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Narrowband
(High Peak Power)

Spread Spectrum
(Low Peak Power)

Frequency

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Signal Spreading

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SPREADING AND FREQUENCY SELECTIVE FADING

channel
quality
2

5
4

Narrowband guard space

signal
channel
quality

2
2
2
2
2
1

spread
spectrum

narrowband
channels

frequency

spread spectrum
channels

frequency

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SPREAD SPECTRUM- MAIN OPERATION

b(t)

m(t)

c(t)

mt bt ct

M f B f * C f
B(f)

M(f)

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Why Spread Spectrum..?

Advantages:
Spread spectrum signals are distributed over a wide range of frequencies
and then collected back at the receiver
These wideband signals are noise-like and hence difficult to detect or
interfere with
Initially adopted in military applications, for its resistance to jamming and
difficulty of interception
More recently, adopted in commercial wireless communications
Has the ability to eliminate the effect of multipath interference
Can share the same frequency band with other users
Privacy due to the pseudo random code sequence (code division
multiplexing)
Disadvantages:
Bandwidth inefficient
Implementation is somewhat more complex.

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Spread Spectrum Technique

To apply an SS technique, simply inject the corresponding SS code somewhere

in the transmitting chain before the antenna. The effect is to diffuse the
information in a larger bandwidth. Conversely, you can remove the SS code, at
a point in the receive chain before data retrieval. The effect of a de spreading
operation is to reconstitute the information in its original bandwidth. Obviously,
the same code must be known in advance at both ends of the transmission
channel.

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Narrow Band vs Spread Spectrum

Narrow Band
- Uses only enough frequency spectrum to carry the signal
- High peak power
- Easily jammed
Spread Spectrum

- The bandwidth is much wider than required to send to the signal.

- Low peak power
-Hard to detect
-Hard to intercept
- Difficult to jam

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Spread Spectrum Use

In the 1980s FCC implemented a set of rules making Spread Spectrum
available to the public.
- Cordless Telephones
- Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
- Cell Phones
- Personal Communication Systems
- Wireless video cameras
Local Area Networks
- Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN)
- Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)
- Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN)
- Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN)

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FCC Specifications
The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 15 originally only described two
spread spectrum techniques to be used in the licensed free Industrial, Scientific,
Medical (ISM) band, 2.4 GHz, thus 802.11 and 802.11b.
- Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) and
- Direct Sequence spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) was not covered by the
CFR and would have required licensing.
- 802.11a, employing OFDM, was created to work in the 5GHz Unlicensed
National Information Infrastructure (UNII)
In May, 2001 CFR, Part 15 was modified to allow alternative "digital modulation
techniques".
- This resulted in 802.11g which employs OFDM in the 2.4 GHz range

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Direct Sequence (DS) - A carrier is modulated by a digital code

sequence in which bit rate is much higher than the information
signal bandwidth.
Frequency Hopping (FH) - A carrier frequency is shifted in
discrete increments in a pattern dictated by a code sequence.

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What is pseudorandom number sequences?

is a sequence of numbers that has been computed by
some defined arithmetic process but is effectively a random
number sequence for the purpose for which it is required.

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Input is fed into a channel encoder

Produce an analog signal with a relatively narrow bandwidth around
some center frequency.
Further modulated using a sequence of digits known as a spreading code
or spreading sequence.
The spreading code is generated by a pseudo noise, or
pseudorandom number generator.
The effect of this modulation is to increase significantly the
bandwidth (spread the spectrum) of the signal to be transmitted.
At the receiver, the same digit sequence is used to demodulate the spread
spectrum signal.
The signal is fed into a channel decoder to recover the data.

Spread Spectrum signals use fast codes that run many times the information
bandwidth or data rate.
These special "Spreading" codes are called "Pseudo Random" or "Pseudo
Noise" codes. They are called "Pseudo" because they are not real Gaussian
noise.

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What can we gain from this apparent waste of spectrum?

Gain immunity from various kinds of noise and multipath
distortion

Can be used for hiding and encrypting signals. Only a

recipient who knows the spreading code can recover the
encoded information.

Several users can independently use the same higher

bandwidth with very little interference (CDMA).

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GENERATING THE SPREADING (PSEUDO-NOISE) SEQUENCE

The pseudo-noise (PN) sequence is a periodic binary sequence with a

noise like waveform that is generated by means of a feedback shift
register.

The feedback shift register consists of m-stage shift registers and a

logic circuit that perform modulo-2 (X-OR) arithmetic.

A sequence with period 2m-1 is called Maximal-Length sequence

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PN SEQUENCE: EXAMPLE

s1
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
1

s2
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0

s3
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0

Spreading code 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 . . .

Here N=2m 1=7, length of the sequence

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PROPERTIES OF MAXIMAL-LENGTH SEQUENCES

In each period of a maximal-length sequence, the number

of 1s and the number of 0s in the sequence always differ
by 1.
The autocorrelation function of a maximal-length sequence
is periodic and binary valued.

1
Rc
Tb

Tb
2
T
b
2

ct ct dt

N 1

Tc

NT
c
Rc
1 for the rest of the p eriod

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Chip rate, Rc is the rate at which the

no. of bits of the PN sequence
occur.
The duration of each bit is
TC= 1/Rc
Therefore, the period
waveform is Tb = NTc

of

the

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W1 and W2N

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Sequence Generation

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Chip Sequences

Encoding Rules

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CDMA Multiplexer

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CDMA Demultiplexer

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DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM (DSSS)

Direct Sequence (DS) - A carrier is modulated by a digital code
sequence in which bit rate is much higher than the information signal
bandwidth.

Most widely recognized technology for spread spectrum.

This method generates a redundant bit pattern for each bit to be
transmitted. This bit pattern is called a chip.
The longer the chip, the greater the probability that the Original data
can be recovered, and the more bandwidth required.
In a spread spectrum system, the process gain (or processing gain') is
the ratio of the spread bandwidth to the unspread bandwidth. It is
usually expressed in decibels (dB).

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The amount of spreading is dependent upon the ratio of chips per bit
of information (which is the processing gain Gp for DSSS)
A direct sequence modulator is then used to carrier modulate the
carrier using binary phase shift keying (BPSK)
At the receiver, the information is recovered by multiplying the signal
with a locally generated replica of the code sequence.
Each bit represented by multiple bits using spreading code
Spreading code spreads signal across wider frequency band
In proportion to number of bits used
10 bit spreading code spreads signal across 10 times bandwidth
of 1 bit code

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Processing Gain

The process gain (or processing gain') is the ratio of the spread
bandwidth to the unspread bandwidth. It is usually expressed in
decibels (dB).

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DSSS USING BPSK

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RANGING USING DSSS

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Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

When using FHSS, the frequency spectrum is divided into channels.
Data packets are split up and transmitted on these channels in a
random pattern known only to the transmitter and receiver.
At the transmitter, the original signal is broadcasted
over a series of radio frequencies, hopping from
different frequencies in a fixed pattern.
The receiver should use the same hopping pattern
simultaneously with the transmitter in order to
receive the data correctly.
The spreading code specifies the sequence of
channels and the receiver should use the same
code to tune into the sequence of channels that are
used by the sender.

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The information signal is transmitted on different frequencies

Time is divided in slots

In each slot the frequency is changed

The change of the frequency is referred to as slow if more than one

bit is transmitted on one frequency, and as fast if one bit is
transmitted over multiple frequencies

The frequencies are chosen based on the spreading sequences

Each channel used for fixed interval

Eg: 300 ms in IEEE 802.11
Sequence dictated by spreading cod

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FREQUENCY HOPPING SPREAD SPECTRUM (FHSS)

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FREQUENCY SELECTION IN FHSS

(EXAMPLE 1)

Normally K successive bits of input data sequence represents 2k = M

symbols. Those distinct M symbols are transmitted with the help of Mary FSK modulation system. When spread spectrum modulation is to
be used, then the M-ary FSK signal is further modulated to generate
wideband signal.

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FHSS CYCLES

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Two versions
Fast Hopping: several frequencies per user bit (FFH) --- symbol rate
is lesser than the hop rate i.e., hop rate is faster.
Slow Hopping: several user bits per frequency (SFH) --- symbol rate
is higher than hop rate i.e., hop rate is slower.
Tb
user data
0

Td

f3

slow
hopping
(3 bits/hop)

f2
f1
t

Td

f
f3

fast
hopping
(3 hops/bit)

f2
f1
t

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(EXAMPLE 2)

FHSS uses the 2.402 2.480 GHz frequency range in the ISM
band.

2.479

Divided into 79
1 MHz Channels

Transmission Frequency (GHz)

It splits the band into 79 non-overlapping channels with each

channel 1 MHz wide.

2.401
200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

Elapsed Time in Milliseconds (ms)

Channel 1

Channel 2

Channel 78

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BANDWIDTH SHARING

(EXAMPLE 3)

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(EXAMPLE 4)

A number of channels are

allocated for the FH signal.
Typically, there are 2k
carrier frequencies forming
2k channels.
The width of each channel
corresponds
to
the
bandwidth of the input
signal.

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Transmitter of FH/MFSK

Binary data
Sequence

M-ary FSK
Modulator

FSK
signal

FH/MFSK
signal

Mixer

Frequency hops

Frequency
Synthesizer

t successive bits of
PN sequence
generator

PN
Sequence
Generator

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Receiver of FH/MFSK

Received
FH/MFSK signal

Mixer

FSK
signal

Non coherent
M-ary FSK
detector

Binary
Sequence output

Frequency hops

Frequency
Synthesizer

PN
Sequence
Generator

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Application of FHSS Multipath Suppression

Multipath Interference Problem
In mobile communication, the signal reach to the receiver from different
paths.
There is one direct path and many indirect paths due to reflections from
nearby objects.
The signal due to indirect paths interfere with the required signal in
amplitude as well as phase. It is called multipath fading.
How FHSS overcomes multipath effect?
The carrier frequency of the transmitted signal hops faster than the
differential time delay between the direct signal and reflected signals.
Therefore the reflected signal energy will fall in different frequency slots.
This signal energy will be treated as interference by the matched filter of the
receiver. It is then filtered out and only signal from direct path is available at
the output.
The hopping rate must be fast enough to eliminate interference due to small
time delays between direct and reflected paths.

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Synchronization in Spread Spectrum Systems

Spread spectrum systems are essentially synchronous. The PN sequences
generated at the receiver and the transmitter must be same and locked to
each other so that the transmitted signal can be extracted.
The synchronization of the spread spectrum systems can be considered in
two parts:
Acquisition
Tracking
The acquisition means initial synchronization of the spread spectrum signal.
The tracking starts after acquisition is complete. The tracking maintains the
PN generator at the receiver in synchronism with the transmitter.

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Acquisition of DS signal using Serial search

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The received signal is correlated with the generated PN sequence. This

cross correlation is performed over the time interval of NTC.
The output of the Correlator is compared with a threshold. If it exceeds
the threshold, then the required signal is obtained. If the threshold is
not exceeded, then the PN generator output is advanced by half chip
duration ( 12 T ) and the correlation is performed.
C

The output of the Correlator is again compared with the threshold and
the procedure is repeated.

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Acquisition of FH signal using Serial search

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The VCO consists of frequency synthesizer, PN generator and clock

generator. The received signal is correlated with the output of VCO.
The tuned filter passes only the intermediate frequency f0.
The envelop detector generates the output which is compared with the
threshold voltage.
When the input frequency and frequency of VCO are same, then output
of threshold detector is high and the clock generator starts running
continuously. Then the signal is said to have acquired and tracking
starts.

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