Spread Spectrum

Spreading of data signal s(t) by the signal c(t)

results in message signal m(t) as:
m(t )  s(t )  c(t ) Two Types of m(t)
DSSS and FHSS

Digital Spreading
Spreading
Power signal s(t) signal m(t) Power

c(t) is a pseudo-
noise (PN)
Frequency Code sequence or a Frequency
c(t) pseudo-noise
code. 1-bit of
c(t) is a chip
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 Spread Spectrum
• Input is fed into a channel encoder
– Produces analog signal with narrow bandwidth
• Signal is then further modulated using a spreading
scheme of binary digits
– Spread by orthogonal codes or a spreading sequence
– Spreading sequences are generated by PN
(pseudonoise/pseudo-random number) generators
– Both spreading types (codes & PN sequences) can be
used in the same system as is the case in cell systems
• Effect of modulation is to increase the bandwidth
of the signal to be transmitted (as shown in the previous slide)

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 Spread Spectrum (continued)
• What can be gained from apparent waste of
spectrum?
– Immunity from various kinds of noise and multipath
distortion
– Can be used for hiding and encrypting signals
– Several users can independently use the same
bandwidth with very little interference (local separation)
– Provides dynamic system load flexibility
– Produces isolation of cell users from each other
(separation), both locally (cell) and globally (cluster)
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 Spread Spectrum (continued)
• On receiving end, the same spreading scheme is used to
demodulate the spread spectrum signal
• Has the effect of narrowing the bandwidth of the
desired signal (thus reducing the noise and improving the SNR)
• The signal is then fed into a channel decoder to recover
the data.
• Originally used by the military for secure/secret comm
while lowering the probability of jamming.
• The original idea (FHSS) was conceived by a Hollywood star
(Hedy Lamarr) in 1940; patent granted in 1942; realized in 1957
by Sylvania. First operational use during the Cuban missile crisis
in 1962 after the patent had expired.

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Processing Gain of Spread Spectrum

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 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS)

Digital
Message s(t)
DSSS Receiver Output
Receiver not shown
Transmitted Signal Sss(t)
Power Power Power

Frequency Frequency Frequency

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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
• Each bit in the original signal is represented by
multiple bits in the transmitted signal
• Spreading code spreads the signal across a wider
frequency band
– The amount of spreading is in direct proportion to
number of pseudonoise (PN) bits used or in other words
related to the PN bit rate  bandwidth
• One technique combines digital information
stream with the spreading code bit stream
(PN bit stream) using exclusive-OR

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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

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 CDMA for Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

BPSK

Demodulator
CDMA User #1’s
Code
Signal frequency

Spreading
BPSK
Code of User 1
The use of the code at the receiving end
has the effect of narrowing the bandwidth
for the specific user.
User n’s Code

Including noise
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)

Digital
Data FHSS Receiver Output
Frequency- Receiver Not Shown
hopping Signal
Power Power
Power

Frequency Frequency Frequency

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 Frequency Hoping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

• Signal is broadcast over seemingly random series

of radio frequencies
– A number of channels allocated for the FH signal
– Width of each channel corresponds to bandwidth of
input signal
• Signal hops from frequency to frequency at fixed
intervals
– Transmitter operates in one channel at a time
– Bits are transmitted using some encoding scheme
– At each successive interval, a new carrier frequency is
selected (IEEE 802.11 standard uses 300 mS intervals)

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 Frequency Hoping Spread Spectrum
• Channel sequence dictated by spreading code
• Receiver, hopping between frequencies in
synchronization with transmitter using the same
spreading code, receives the message using the same
(known to user) encoding scheme as the transmitter
– Spreading code = c(t) also known as chipping code
– Frequency changes can be slow (equal or greater than the signal
element time) or fast (changes within the signal element itself)
• Advantages
– Eavesdroppers hear only unintelligible blips
– Attempts to jam signal on one frequency succeed only at
knocking out a few bits
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 An Example of
Frequency Hopping Pattern
Frequency

Time
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 Categories of Spreading Sequences
• Spreading Sequence Categories
– PN sequences (pseudonoise)
– Orthogonal codes
• For FHSS systems
– PN sequences most common
• For DSSS systems not employing CDMA
– PN sequences most common
• For DSSS CDMA systems
– PN sequences
– Orthogonal codes
• Spreading codes result in a higher transmitted data rate  increased
bandwidth; increased system redundancy (jamming resilient);
the spreading codes are noise like in their appearance

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 Near-far Problem

MS2 BS MS1

Received signal strength

Distance Distance
0
d2
MS2 BS d1 MS1
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 Received Signals at BS
Reception of CDMA signals at BS
(reverse link) requires equal power
Power levels from all MSs in the cell.

MS1 MS1 is causing adjacent channel

interference to MS2

MS2
Solution ?

f1 f2
Frequency

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 Power Control in CDMA
Controlling transmitted (effective) power affects the CIR
Pr 1
=
Pt 4df
 
 c 
Pr = Received power in free space (Units of Pr and Pt must be the same)
Pt = Transmitted power (usually dB or dBm)
d = Distance between receiver and transmitter
f =Frequency of transmission
c = Speed of light (3 X 108 m/s if d is in meters and f is in Hz)
= Attenuation constant (2 to 4)
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 CDMA Advantages for a Cellular Network
Transmission is in the form of a Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum (DSSS) which provides
– Frequency diversity – frequency-dependent transmission
impairments (e.g. fading) have less effect on signal which
is spread over a large bandwidth
– Multipath resistance – chipping codes used for CDMA
exhibit low cross correlation and low autocorrelation thus
a signal delayed by more than 1 chip interval does not
interfere with it’s own stronger/direct signal.
– Privacy – privacy is inherent. For DSSS, each user has a
unique code resulting in spread spectrum/noise-like signals
– Graceful degradation – system only gradually degrades
(SNR  error rate increase) as more users access the
system up to the point of an unacceptable error rate

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 Drawbacks of CDMA Cellular
• Self-jamming – unless all of the MS are perfectly
synchronized, the arriving transmissions will not be
perfectly aligned on chip boundaries  interference.
Requires very accurate timing sources (GPS receiver
disciplined clock). No time or frequency guard bands as in
TDMA and FDMA.
• Near-far problem – signals closer to the receiver are
received with less attenuation than signals farther away
and given lack of complete orthogonality, distant stations
more difficult to recover – power control very important
• Soft handoff – requires that the mobile acquire the new cell
before it relinquishes the old; this is more complex than
hard handoff used in FDMA and TDMA schemes

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 Comparison of various Multiple
Division Techniques
Technique FDMA TDMA CDMA SDMA
Divide the frequency Divide the time into Spread the signal Divide the space in to
Concept band into disjoint non-overlapping with orthogonal sectors
subbands time slots codes
All terminals active Terminals are active All terminals active Number of terminals
Active terminals on their specified in their specified on same frequency per beam depends on
frequencies slot on same FDMA/
frequency TDMA/CDMA
Filtering in Synchronization in Code separation Spatial separation
Signal separation frequency time using smart antennas

Handoff Hard handoff Hard handoff Soft handoff Hard and soft
handoffs
Advantages Simple and robust Flexible Flexible Very simple, increases
system capacity
Inflexible, available Requires guard Complex receivers, Inflexible, requires
Disadvantages frequencies are space, requires power network monitoring to
fixed, requires synchronization control to avoid avoid intracell
guard bands problem near-far problem handoffs
Current Radio, TV and GSM and PDC 2.5G and 3G Satellite systems,
applications analog cellular other being explored
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