Packaging is the technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage,

sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of design, evaluation, and production of
packages. Packaging can be described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for
transport, warehousing, logistics, sale, and end use. Packaging contains, protects, preserves,
transports, informs, and sells.[1] In many countries it is fully integrated into government,
business, institutional, industrial, and personal use.
The first packages used the natural materials available at the time: Baskets of reeds,
wineskins (Bota bags), wooden boxes, pottery vases, ceramic amphorae, wooden barrels,
woven bags, etc. Processed materials were used to form packages as they were developed:
for example, early glass and bronze vessels. The study of old packages is an important aspect
of archaeology.
The earliest recorded use of paper for packaging dates back to 1035, when a Persian traveler
visiting markets in Cairo noted that vegetables, spices and hardware were wrapped in paper
for the customers after they were sold
Modern era
Tinning
The use of tinplate for packaging dates back to the 18th century. The manufacture of tinplate
was long a monopoly of Bohemia; in 1667 Andrew Yarranton, an English engineer and
Ambrose Crowley brought the method to England where it was improved by ironmasters
including Philip Foley.[3][4] By 1697, John Hanbury[5] had a rolling mill at Pontypool for making
"Pontypoole Plates".[6][7] The method of rolling iron plates by means of cylinders pioneered
there, enabled more uniform black plates to be produced than was possible with the old plan
of hammering.
Tinplate boxes first began to be sold from ports in the Bristol Channel in 1725. The tinplate
was shipped from Newport, Monmouthshire.[8] By 1805, 80,000 boxes were made and 50,000
exported. Tobacconists in London began packaging snuff in metal-plated canisters from the
1760s onwards.[9]
Canning
1914 magazine advertisement for cookware with instructions for home
canning.
With the discovery of the importance of airtight containers for food
preservation by French inventor Nicholas Appert, the tin canning process
was patented by British merchant Peter Durand in 1810.[10] After receiving
the patent, Durand did not pursue canning food himself. He sold his
patent in 1812 to two other Englishmen, Bryan Donkin and John Hall, who
refined the process and product, and set up the world's first commercial
canning factory on Southwark Park Road, London. By 1813, they were
producing the first canned goods for the Royal Navy.[11][12]
The progressive improvement in canning stimulated the 1855 invention of the can opener.
Robert Yeates, a cutlery and surgical instrument maker of Trafalgar Place West, Hackney Road,
Middlesex, UK, devised a claw-ended can opener with a hand-operated tool that haggled its
way around the top of metal cans.[13] In 1858, another lever-type opener of a more complex
shape was patented in the United States by Ezra Warner of Waterbury, Connecticut.
Paper based packaging
Packing folding cartons of salt.

Set-up boxes were first used in the 16th century and modern folding
cartons date back to 1839. The first corrugated box was produced
commercially in 1817 in England. Corrugated (also called pleated)
paper received a British patent in 1856 and was used as a liner for tall
hats. The Scottish-born Robert Gair invented the pre-cut paperboard
box in 1890 flat pieces manufactured in bulk that folded into boxes.
Gair's invention came about as a result of an accident: as a Brooklyn
printer and paper-bag maker during the 1870s, he was once printing an
order of seed bags, and the metal ruler, normally used to crease bags,
shifted in position and cut them. Gair discovered that by cutting and
creasing in one operation he could make prefabricated paperboard
boxes.[14]
Commercial paper bags were first manufactured in Bristol, England, in 1844, and American
Francis Wolle patented a machine for automated bag-making in 1852
20th century
Packaging advancements in the early 20th century included Bakelite closures on bottles,
transparent cellophane overwraps and panels on cartons, increased processing efficiency and
improved food safety. As additional materials such as aluminum and several types of plastic
were developed, they were incorporated into packages to improve performance and
functionality.[16]
Heroin bottle and carton, early 20th century.
In 1952, Michigan State University became the first university in the
world to offer a degree in Packaging Engineering.[17]
In-plant recycling has long been common for production of packaging
materials. Post-consumer recycling of aluminum and paper based
products has been economical for many years: since the 1980s, postconsumer recycling has increased due to curbside recycling,
consumer awareness, and regulatory pressure.
A pill box made from Polyethylene in 1936.
Many prominent innovations in the packaging industry were
developed first for military uses. Some military supplies are
packaged in the same commercial packaging used for general
industry. Other military packaging must transport materiel, supplies,
foods, etc. under the most severe distribution and storage
conditions. Packaging problems encountered in World War II led to
Military Standard or "mil spec" regulations being applied to
packaging, designating it "military specification packaging". As a prominent concept in the
military, mil spec packaging officially came into being around 1941, due to operations in
Iceland experiencing critical losses, eventually attributed to bad packaging. In most cases, mil
spec packaging solutions (such as barrier materials, field rations, antistatic bags, and various
shipping crates) are similar to commercial grade packaging materials, but subject to more
stringent performance and quality requirements.
As of 2003, the packaging sector accounted for about two percent of the gross national
product in developed countries. About half of this market was related to food packaging.
The purposes of packaging and package labels
Packaging and package labeling have several objectives

Physical protection The objects enclosed in the package may require protection
from, among other things, mechanical shock, vibration, electrostatic discharge,
compression, temperature,[21] etc.

Barrier protection A barrier from oxygen, water vapor, dust, etc., is often required.
Permeation is a critical factor in design. Some packages contain desiccants or oxygen
absorbers to help extend shelf life. Modified atmospheres[22] or controlled atmospheres
are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh, sterile[23]
and safe for the intended shelf life is a primary function. A barrier is also implemented
in cases where segregation of two materials, prior to end use is required, as in case of
special paints, glues, medical fluids etc. At consumer end, the packaging barrier is
broken or measured amounts of material removed for mixing and subsequent end use.

Containment or agglomeration Small objects are typically grouped together in one

package for reasons of efficiency. For example, a single box of 1000 pencils requires
less physical handling than 1000 single pencils. Liquids, powders, and granular
materials need containment.

Information transmission Packages and labels communicate how to use, transport,

recycle, or dispose of the package or product. With pharmaceuticals, food, medical, and
chemical products, some types of information are required by governments. Some
packages and labels also are used for track and trace purposes. Most items include
their serial and lot numbers on the packaging, and in the case of food products,
medicine, and some chemicals the packaging often contains an expiry/best-before
date, usually in a shorthand form. Packages may indicate their material with a symbol.

Marketing The packaging and labels can be used by marketers to encourage

potential buyers to purchase the product. Package graphic design and physical design
have been important and constantly evolving phenomenon for several decades.
Marketing communications and graphic design are applied to the surface of the
package and (in many cases) the point of sale display. Most packaging is designed to
reflect the brand's message and identity.
A single-serving shampoo packet
Security Packaging can play an important role in reducing
the security risks of shipment. Packages can be made with
improved tamper resistance to deter tampering and also can
have tamper-evident[24] features to help indicate tampering.
Packages can be engineered to help reduce the risks of
package pilferage or the theft and resale of products: Some
package constructions are more resistant to pilferage and
some have pilfer indicating seals. Counterfeit consumer goods,
unauthorized sales (diversion), material substitution and
tampering can all be prevented with these anti-counterfeiting
technologies. Packages may include authentication seals and
use security printing to help indicate that the package and
not counterfeit. Packages also can include anti-theft devices, such as dyetags, or electronic article surveillance[25] tags that can be activated or
devices at exit points and require specialized tools to deactivate. Using
this way is a means of loss prevention.

contents are
packs, RFID
detected by
packaging in

Convenience Packages can have features that add convenience in distribution,

handling, stacking, display, sale, opening, reclosing, use, dispensing, reuse, recycling,
and ease of disposal

Portion control Single serving or single dosage packaging has a precise amount of
contents to control usage. Bulk commodities (such as salt) can be divided into
packages that are a more suitable size for individual households. It also aids the control

of inventory: selling sealed one-liter-bottles of milk, rather

than having people bring their own bottles to fill themselves.
Packaging types
Various household packaging types for foods
Packaging may be looked at as being of several different types. For
example a transport package or distribution package can be
the shipping container used to ship, store, and handle the product or
inner packages. Some identify a consumer package as one which
is directed toward a consumer or household.
Packaging may be described in relation to the type of product being packaged: medical device
packaging, bulk chemical packaging, over-the-counter drug packaging, retail food packaging,
military materiel packaging, pharmaceutical packaging, etc.

Aluminum can with an easy open lid

It is sometimes convenient to categorize packages by layer or function: "primary",
"secondary", etc.

Primary packaging is the material that first envelops the product and holds it. This
usually is the smallest unit of distribution or use and is the package which is in direct
contact with the contents.

Secondary packaging is outside the primary packaging, perhaps used to group primary
packages together.

Tertiary packaging is used for bulk handling, warehouse storage and transport shipping.
The most common form is a palletized unit load that packs tightly into containers.

These broad categories can be somewhat arbitrary. For example, depending on the use, a
shrink wrap can be primary packaging when applied directly to the product, secondary
packaging when combining smaller packages, and tertiary packaging on some distribution
packs.
Packaging types
Various household packaging types for foods
Packaging may be looked at as being of several different types. For
example a transport package or distribution package can be
the shipping container used to ship, store, and handle the product or
inner packages. Some identify a consumer package as one which
is directed toward a consumer or household.
Packaging may be described in relation to the type of product being packaged: medical device
packaging, bulk chemical packaging, over-the-counter drug packaging, retail food packaging,
military materiel packaging, pharmaceutical packaging, etc.
Aluminum can with an easy open lid

It is sometimes convenient to categorize packages by layer or

function: "primary", "secondary", etc.

Primary packaging is the material that first envelops the

product and holds it. This usually is the smallest unit of
distribution or use and is the package which is in direct
contact with the contents.

Secondary packaging is outside the primary packaging,

perhaps used to group primary packages together.

Tertiary packaging is used for bulk handling, warehouse

storage and transport shipping. The most common form is a
palletized unit load that packs tightly into containers.

These broad categories can be somewhat arbitrary. For example, depending on the use, a
shrink wrap can be primary packaging when applied directly to the product, secondary
packaging when combining smaller packages, and tertiary packaging on some distribution
packs.
Symbols used on packages and labels
"Print
(GS1-128)
load

&

Apply" corner wrap UCC

label application to a pallet

A bar code encoding the word "Wikipedia" in Code 128

Many types of symbols for package labeling are nationally and internationally standardized.
For consumer packaging, symbols exist for product certifications (such as the FCC and TV
marks), trademarks, proof of purchase, etc. Some requirements and symbols exist to
communicate aspects of consumer rights and safety, for example the CE marking or the
estimated sign that notes conformance to EU weights and measures accuracy regulations.
Examples of environmental and recycling symbols include the recycling symbol, the recycling
code (which could be a resin identification code), and the "Green Dot". Food packaging may
show food contact material symbols. In the European Union, products of animal origin which
are intended to be consumed by humans have to carry standard, oval-shaped EC
identification and health marks for food safety and quality insurance reasons.
Bar codes, Universal Product Codes, and RFID labels are common to allow automated
information management in logistics and retailing. Country of Origin Labeling is often used.
Some products might use QR codes or similar matrix barcodes. Packaging may have visible
registration marks and other printing calibration/troubleshooting cues.
Shipping container labeling
Technologies related to shipping containers are identification codes, bar codes, and electronic
data interchange (EDI). These three core technologies serve to enable the business functions
in the process of shipping containers throughout the distribution channel. Each has an
essential function: identification codes either relate product information or serve as keys to
other data, bar codes allow for the automated input of identification codes and other data,
and EDI moves data between trading partners within the distribution channel.

Elements of these core technologies include UPC and EAN item identification codes, the SCC14 (UPC shipping container code), the SSCC-18 (Serial Shipping Container Codes), Interleaved
2-of-5 and UCC/EAN-128 (newly designated GS1-128) bar code symbologies, and ANSI ASC
X12 and UN/EDIFACT EDI standards.
Small parcel carriers often have their own formats. For example, United Parcel Service has a
MaxiCode 2-D code for parcel tracking.
RFID labels for shipping containers are also increasing in usage. A Wal-Mart division, Sam's
Club, has also moved in this direction and is putting pressure on its suppliers for compliance.
[26]

Shipments of hazardous materials or dangerous goods have special information and symbols
(labels, placards, etc.) as required by UN, country, and specific carrier requirements. With
transport packages, standardized symbols are also used to communicate handling needs.
Some are defined in the ASTM D5445 "Standard Practice for Pictorial Markings for Handling of
Goods" and ISO 780 "Pictorial marking for handling of goods".

Flammable liquid
away from water

Explosives

This way up

Fragile material

Keep

Package development considerations

Package design and development are often thought of as an integral part of the new product
development process. Alternatively, development of a package (or component) can be a
separate process, but must be linked closely with the product to be packaged. Package design
starts with the identification of all the requirements: structural design, marketing, shelf life,
quality assurance, logistics, legal, regulatory, graphic design, end-use, environmental, etc.
The design criteria, performance (specified by package testing), completion time targets,
resources, and cost constraints need to be
established and agreed upon. Package design
processes
often
employ
rapid
prototyping,
computer-aided
design,
computer-aided
manufacturing and document automation.
Transport packaging needs to be matched to its
logistics system. Packages designed for controlled
shipments of uniform pallet loads may not be suited
to mixed shipments with express carriers.
An example of how package design is affected by other factors is the relationship to logistics.
When the distribution system includes individual shipments by a small parcel carrier, the
sortation, handling, and mixed stacking make severe demands on the strength and protective
ability of the transport package. If the logistics system consists of uniform palletized unit
loads, the structural design of the package can be designed to those specific needs: vertical
stacking, perhaps for a longer time frame. A package designed for one mode of shipment may
not be suited for another.

With some types of products, the design process involves detailed regulatory requirements for
the package. For example with packaging foods, any package components that may contact
the food are food contact materials.[27] Toxicologists and food scientists need to verify that the
packaging materials are allowed by applicable regulations. Packaging engineers need to verify
that the completed package will keep the product safe for its intended shelf life with normal
usage. Packaging processes, labeling, distribution, and sale need to be validated to comply
with regulations and have the well being of the consumer in mind.
Sometimes the objectives of package development seem contradictory. For example,
regulations for an over-the-counter drug might require the package to be tamper-evident and
child resistant:[28] These intentionally make the package difficult to open. [29] The intended
consumer, however, might be handicapped or elderly and be unable to readily open the
package. Meeting all goals is a challenge.
Package design may take place within a company or with various degrees of external
packaging engineering: independent contractors, consultants, vendor evaluations,
independent laboratories, contract packagers, total outsourcing, etc. Some sort of formal
Project planning and Project management methodology is required for all but the simplest
package design and development programs. An effective quality management system and
Verification and Validation protocols are mandatory for some types of packaging and
recommended for all.
Environmental considerations

The waste hierarchy

Main article: sustainable packaging
Package development involves considerations for
sustainability, environmental responsibility, and
applicable environmental and recycling regulations. It
may involve a life cycle assessment[30][31] which considers the material and energy inputs and
outputs to the package, the packaged product (contents), the packaging process, the logistics
system,[32] waste management, etc. It is necessary to know the relevant regulatory
requirements for point of manufacture, sale, and use.
The traditional three Rs of reduce, reuse, and recycle are part of a waste hierarchy which
may be considered in product and package development.

Prevention Waste prevention is a primary goal. Packaging should be used only where
needed. Proper packaging can also help prevent waste. Packaging plays an important
part in preventing loss or damage to the packaged-product (contents). Usually, the
energy content and material usage of the product being packaged are much greater
than that of the package. A vital function of the package is to protect the product for its
intended use: if the product is damaged or degraded, its entire energy and material
content may be lost.[33]

Minimization (also "source reduction") The mass and volume of packaging (per unit of
contents) can be measured and used as one of the criteria to minimize during the
package design process. Usually reduced packaging also helps minimize costs.
Packaging engineers continue to work toward reduced packaging. [34]

Reuse Reusable packaging is encouraged.[35] Returnable packaging has long been

useful (and economically viable) for closed loop logistics systems. Inspection, cleaning,
repair and recouperage are often needed. Some manufacturers re-use the packaging of
the incoming parts for a product, either as packaging for the outgoing product [36] or as
part of the product itself.[37]

Recycling Recycling is the reprocessing of materials (pre- and post-consumer) into

new products. Emphasis is focused on recycling the largest primary components of a
package: steel, aluminum, papers, plastics, etc. Small components can be chosen
which are not difficult to separate and do not contaminate recycling operations.
Packages can sometimes be designed to separate components to better facilitate
recycling.

Energy recovery Waste-to-energy and Refuse-derived fuel in approved facilities are

able to make use of the heat available from the packaging components.

Disposal Incineration, and placement in a sanitary landfill are needed for some
materials. Certain US states regulate packages for toxic contents, which have the
potential to contaminate emissions and ash from incineration and leachate from
landfill.[38] Packages should not be littered.

Development of sustainable packaging is an area of considerable interest by standards

organizations, government, consumers, packagers, and retailers
Food packaging is packaging for food. A package provides protection, tampering resistance,
and special physical, chemical, or biological needs. It may bear a nutrition facts label and
other information about food being offered for sale.
Functions of food packaging
Packaging has several objectives:

Physical protection - The food enclosed in the package may require protection from,
among other things, shock, vibration, compression, temperature, bacteria, etc.

Barrier protection - A barrier from oxygen, water vapor, dust, etc., is often required.
Permeation is a critical factor in design. Some packages contain desiccants or oxygen
absorbers to help extend shelf life. Modified atmospheres or controlled atmospheres
are also maintained in some food packages. Keeping the contents clean, fresh, and safe
for the intended shelf life is a primary function.

Containment or agglomeration - Small items are typically grouped together in one

package to allow efficient handling. Liquids, powders, and granular materials need
containment.

Information transmission - Packages and labels communicate how to use, transport,

recycle, or dispose of the package or product. Some types of information are required
by governments.

Marketing - The packaging and labels can be used by marketers to encourage

potential buyers to purchase the product. Package design has been an important and
constantly evolving phenomenon for several decades. Marketing communications and
graphic design are applied to the surface of the package and (in many cases) the point
of sale display.

Security - Packaging can play an important role in reducing the security risks of
shipment. Packages can be made with improved tamper resistance to deter tampering
and also can have tamper-evident features to help indicate tampering. Packages can be

engineered to help reduce the risks of package pilferage; some package constructions
are more resistant to pilferage and some have pilfer-indicating seals. Packages may
include authentication seals to help indicate that the package and contents are not
counterfeit. Packages also can include anti-theft devices, such as dye packs, RFID tags,
or electronic article surveillance tags, that can be activated or detected by devices at
exit points and require specialized tools to deactivate. Using packaging in this way is a
means of retail loss prevention.

Convenience - Packages can have features which add convenience in distribution,

handling, stacking, display, sale, opening, reclosing, use, and reuse.

Portion control - Single-serving packaging has a precise amount of contents to control

usage. Bulk commodities (such as salt) can be divided into packages that are a more
suitable size for individual households. It also aids the control of inventory: selling
sealed one-liter bottles of milk, rather than having people bring their own bottles to fill
themselves.

Food packaging types

The above materials are fashioned into different types of food packages and containers such
as:
Packaging
Type

Type
of
Example
Container

Aseptic
processing

Primary

Liquid whole eggs

Trays

Primary

Portion of fish or meat

Bags

Primary

Potato chips, apples, rice

Boxes

Secondary

Corrugated box of primary packages: box of cereal cartons

Cans

Primary

Can of tomato soup

Cartons

Primary

Carton of eggs

Flexible
packaging

Primary

Bagged salad

Pallets

Tertiary

A series of boxes on a single pallet used to transport from the

manufacturing plant to a distribution center

Wrappers

Tertiary

Used to wrap the boxes on the pallet for transport

Primary packaging is the main package that holds the food that is being processed. Secondary
packaging combines the primary packages into one box being made. Tertiary packaging
combines all of the secondary packages into one pallet

Packaging machines
Pumping slurry ice onto fresh fish
A choice of packaging machinery requires consideration of
technical capabilities, labor requirements, worker safety,
maintainability, serviceability, reliability, ability to integrate
into the packaging line, capital cost, floorspace, flexibility
(change-over, materials, etc.), energy usage, quality of
outgoing packages, qualifications (for food, pharmaceuticals,
etc.), throughput, efficiency, productivity, and ergonomics, at
a minimum.
Packaging machines may be of the following general types:

Autocoding label and date verification

Blister-, skin- and vacuum-packaging machines

Capping, over-capping, lidding, closing, seaming and sealing machines

Cartoning machines

Case and tray forming, packing, unpacking, closing and sealing Machines

Check weighing machines

Cleaning, sterilizing, cooling and drying machines

Conveying and accumulating machines

Feeding, orienting, and placing machines

Filling machines for liquid and powdered products

Package filling and closing Machines

Form, fill and seal machines

Inspecting, detecting and checkweighing machines

Palletizing, depalletizing, and pallet unitizing machines

Labeling, marking, and other product identification machines

Wrapping machines

Converting machines

Reducing food packaging

Reduced packaging and sustainable packaging are becoming more frequent. The motivations
can be government regulations, consumer pressure, retailer pressure, and cost control.
Reduced packaging often saves packaging costs.
In the UK, a Local Government Association survey produced by the British Market Research
Bureau compared a range of outlets to buy 29 common food items and found that small local

retailers and market traders "produced less packaging and more that could be recycled than
the larger supermarkets.
Trends in food packaging
Main article: Active packaging

Numerous reports industry associations agree that use of smart indicators will increase.
There are a number of different indicators with different benefits for food producers,
consumers and retailers.[3]

Temperature recorders are used to monitor products shipped in a cold chain and to help
validate the cold chain. Digital temperature data loggers measure and record the
temperature history of food shipments. They sometimes have temperatures displayed
on the indicator or have other output (lights, etc.): The data from a shipment can be
downloaded (cable, RFID, etc.) to a computer for further analysis. These help identify if
there has been temperature abuse of products and can help determine the remaining
shelf life.[4] They can also help determine the time of temperature extremes during
shipment so corrective measures can be taken.
o

Time temperature indicators integrate the time and temperature experienced by

the indicator and adjacent foods. Some use chemical reactions that result in a
color change while others use the migration of a dye through a filter media. To
the degree that these physical changes in the indicator match the degradation
rate of the food, the indicator can help indicate probable food degradation. [5]

Radio Frequency Identification is applied to food packages for supply chain control and
has shown a significant benefit in allowing food producers and retailers create full real
time visibility of their supply chain.

Plastic packaging being used is usually non-biodegradable due to possible interactions

with the food. Also, biodegradable polymers often require special composting
conditions to properly degrade. Normal sealed landfill conditions do not promote
biodegradation. Biodegradable plastics includes biodegradable films and coatings
synthesized from organic materials and microbial polymers. Some package materials
are edible. For example, pharmaceuticals are sometimes in capsules made of gelatin,
starch, potato or other materials. Newer bioplastics, films and products are being
developed.[6]

Barcodes have been used for decades in packaging many products. 2D barcodes used
in Autocoding are increasingly applied to food packaging to ensure products are
correctly packaged and date coded.

The ability of a package to fully empty or dispense a viscous food is somewhat

dependent on the surface energy of the inner walls of the container. The use of
superhydrophobic surfaces is useful but can be further improved by using new
lubricant-impregnated surfaces

Regulations
It is critical to maintain Food safety during processing[8] , packaging, storage, logistics
(including cold chain), sale, and use. Conformance to applicable regulations is mandatory.
Some are country specific such as the US Food and Drug Administration and the US
Department of Agriculture; others are regional such as the European Food Safety Authority.
Certification programs such as the Global Food Safety Initiative are sometimes used. Food
packaging considerations may include: use of Hazard analysis and critical control points,
Verification and validation protocols, Good manufacturing practices, use of an effective
Quality management system, Track and trace systems, and requirements for label content.
Special Food contact materials are used when the package is in direct contact with the food

product. Depending on the packaging operation and the food, packaging machinery often
needs specified daily wash-down and cleaning procedures.
Food Packaging Technology
Definitions
A few partial definitions of packaging are as follows:
1. A means for ensuring safe delivery of products to the consumer in sound condition at
minimal cost.
2. An art, science, or technology required for preparing foods for transport, storage, or
sales elsewhere from the point of production.
3. A technological and economic function aimed at minimizing costs of delivery while
maximizing sales.
Packaging brings about protection of materials of all kinds by means of containers designed to
isolate the contents to some known degree from outside influences. It is an indispensable
aspect of food value addition.
Nature of foods and food process classification
Foods are of animal (beef or eggs), plant (mango or wheat flour) or mineral (salt or water)
origin, occurring as solids (roasted peanuts), liquids (milk), or semi-solids (ugali). They may be
perishable (mangoes), non-perishable (dried grains), processed (cheese), minimally processed
(pasteurized milk), or non-processed (fresh honey). In addition, foods may be intended for
short-term preservation (fresh meat) or long-term preservation (UHT milk). All these factors
will dictate the nature of packaging and storage conditions appropriate for the particular food.
Why package foods
Packaging serves the following functions:

Containment enabling the food to be presented in a fixed measure by weight or

volume of contents.

Protection against chemical and physical damage.

Barrier against transfer of oxygen, moisture,

microorganisms that are detrimental to quality of food.

Convenience provides convenience in using the product. Also furnishes consumer

convenience about microwavability, resealability, ease of opening, and reusability.

Product information conveys product information to the consumer, including

description of food contents, weight/volume ratio, manufacturers name, directions for
use, sell-by date, and nutritional content.

Marketing serves as effective marketing tool for promoting product identification and
sales

Processing requirement certain food processing operations demand specific product

packaging to facilitate the processing (e.g. canning)

chemical

compounds,

and

Dispensing certain packages facilitate dispensing of product (e.g. beer, salt, or soft
drinks)

Packaging materials
Paper
Paper is a low cost, popular, readily available, and versatile packaging material. It accounts
for about 50% of all packaging. Paper can be used as flexible pouches for primary packaging
as well as more rigid outer secondary food packages. Flexible papers are used as overwraps,
bags, or liners. Examples include Kraft paper, greaseproof paper, glassine, and waxed paper.
Kraft paper is used for making paper sacks with capacities of even 50 kg for packaging
dehydrated meat scraps, granulated sugar, dried grains (as multi-wall paper sacks) and
powdered milk (laminated on the inside with plastics). Kraft paper is also used for making
paperboard and boxboard cartons for secondary (outer) packaging. Polyethylene-coated Kraft
papers are used for liquid packaging cartons and frozen food containers. Polyester-coated
paper, capable of withstanding high temperatures, is used for ovenable or microwavable
trays.
Plastics
Plastics for food packaging are either commodity plastics or barrier plastics. Commodity
plastics (e.g. polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyvinyl chloride) are low cost
and have relatively poor oxygen barrier property. Barrier plastics (e.g. polyvinylidene chloride
and ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer) are relatively expensive but exhibit much better
oxygen barrier property. Polyethylene is the most popular plastic polymer in food packaging.
There two types: low density polyethylene (LDPE) and high density polyethylene (HDPE). LDPE
is transparent and softer (for film packaging as grocery sacks, shrink wrap films, and stretch
wraps) , while HDPE is stiffer, harder, less transparent and, resistant to oils and greases, and
more resistant to gas and vapor transmission (used milk bottles and breakfast cereal liners).
Polypropylene (PP) also finds use in food packaging film wraps, containers, and closures.
Biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP) is used for wrapping candies and sweets. PP is lighter
than all other plastics. The major polyester for food packaging is polyethylene terephthalate
(PET). Biaxially oriented PET films are used as components for boil-in-bag food packages and
retortable pouches, vacuum packaging of cooked meat products, packaging of carbonated
soft drinks and edible oils. Polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC), commonly known as saran, is used
for packaging meat, sausage, fish, and cheese. Ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer (EVOH) is
used for making bottles for retortable food packages, tomato ketchup, mayonnaise, and jellies

Glass
Glass is one of the oldest packaging materials. It was initially used for packaging wines. The
use of glass for packaging heat-processed foods began in 1804. Glass is a desirable package
for foods because it does not react with foods, has excellent barrier properties, transparent,
reusable, reasonably strong, easy to open, can be moulded into any shape, and usable on
many filling machines. However, glass is heavy, breakable, and susceptible to sudden
temperature shocks. Plastics and laminates have largely overtaken glass in food packaging.

Metals
Important metals for packaging foods include the sanitary tin can (for retortable packages)
and aluminium (mainly as cans or flexible foil material). Aluminium cans are used mainly for
beer and soft drinks packaging, while aluminium foils are used as laminates, retortable
pouches, microwavable trays, and foil liddings.
Earthenware
Earthen pots traditionally found extensive use as cooking vessels and for storage of water and
fluid foods such as uji. However, weight, fragility, and low hygienic conditions are a drawback
to their use.
Fiber/Textiles
Sisal bags have been used extensively for packaging dried cereal and pulse grains, coffee,
potatoes, sugar, and tea leaves (on transit to the factory). However, plastics bags (woven or
moulded) are fast replacing sisal bags.
Composites/Laminates
Lamination, either with metal foils or plastics (e.g. polyethylene), is intended to improve
barrier and strength properties of packaging materials. As laminates, aluminium foil and
polyethylene form part of the ubiquitous Tetrapak for dairy, fruit juice, and soft drinks
packaging. A typical laminate may be as follows:

Choosing a packaging material

Mechanical properties
The packaging material must be strong enough to prevent physical damage to the food (e.g.
bruising of fruits and vegetables and breakage of biscuits) and to other packaging materials
(e.g. glass bottles in fiberboard containers).
Physical properties
The packaging material must be able to protect the final physical nature of the food after
processing as well as protect the environment around the food. To do this, the material must
be able to control the movement of water, water vapor, oils and gases. It must also protect
against UV-light and heat gains and losses where necessary.
Chemical and biochemical properties
The package material must offer protection against chemical and biochemical spoilage by
maintaining an environment around the food that reduces or prevents deteriorative chemical

and biochemical spoilage reactions. Products of chemical deterioration must also not migrate
into the food in any large quantities (e.g. corrosion of tin cans).
Microbiological aspects
The packaging material must be able to protect the food and prevent contamination from
external sources. The package environment should be able to slow or prevent the growth of
undesirable microorganisms in or on the food by use of anaerobic conditions or inert gas
atmosphere.
Insect and rodent infestation
The package material must protect against insect and rodent infestation, particularly in bulk
storage, in open warehouses, or where consumer storage conditions are likely to be
inadequate. Paper may not be suitable here but laminates can provide the necessary
protection.
Nature of the food to be packed

The package material must not contaminate the food by leakage or migration of toxic
elements from it to the food.

The final condition of the processed food will determine the nature of packaging
material (is the food raw or fresh, is packaging required for processing, etc.).

Susceptibility to microbial and insect attack and inherent flora will influence the nature
of packaging material.

If the food is still respiring or undergoing postmortem changes, the package material
must be chosen to control the in-package changes.

Many foods possess an odor or are susceptible to aroma loss or odor pick-up during
storage. The packaging material must be selected to resist odors in the manufacturer
stores and in the consumers home environment.

The packaging material must be easy to handle for rapid and uninterrupted production
and should allow for easy retrieval of the food by the consumer.

Availability & cost

The package material must be easily available at a reasonable cost.
Food spoilage and deterioration
In packaged foods, the way in which the food deteriorates should be known and the influence
of transport, storage, and sales condition on the rate at which this deterioration takes place
must be estimated.
Agents of deterioration
Bacteria, moulds, insects, birds, and rodents cause biological deterioration of foods. Moisture
and temperature affect spoilage by bacteria and moulds. Insects, birds, rats, and mice cause
damage to stored and packaged products. Natural aging processes such as senescence also
cause product deterioration.
Conditions for growth

All microorganisms require moisture for growth. The amount of available moisture for
microbial activity is expressed in terms of the water activity, aw. The higher the aw, the
greater the microbial growth and spoilage. The pH also influences bacterial growth as is
temperature C.and aeration. Generally, microorganisms can grow from 10 to 80 Aerobes
require oxygen for their growth, anaerobes do not, while facultative anaerobes will grow both
in the presence and in absence of oxygen.
Food spoilage bacteria
Lactic acid bacteria
These are facultative anaerobes requiring sugar for growth with consequent production of
lactic acid, which may change the smell and taste of the food. Formation of lactic acid may or
may not be desirable depending on the particular food.
Acetic acid bacteria
These are aerobic, develop in alcohol-containing foods to produce acetic acid, which affects
the smell and gives a sour or acid taste to the food.
Proteolytic bacteria
These develop in non-acid protein foods producing toxins harmful to humans. Unpleasant
gases are also formed. The food becomes sticky and slimy. Examples of proteolytic bacteria
are Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium perfringens, Bacillus cereus, Salmonella typhimurium,
Listeria monocytogenes, Campylobacteria jejuni, and Staphylococcus aureus.
Moulds and yeasts
These are aerobic spore formers. Examples are Penicillium (green moulds) and Aspergillus
(black moulds). They need starch, proteins, and high moisture (80 90%RH). Yeasts prefer
acid sugar-containing foods from which they produce alcohol by fermentation.
To control microorganisms, the packaging material should be water-resistant. Oxygen
scavengers may be put in package to discourage aerobic spoilage organisms. Insect
infestation can be prevented by cleanliness and storage in cool, dry and well-ventilated
premises. In addition, thicker and stronger packaging material with smooth surfaces may be
used. Insect repellents may also be used. Good housekeeping generally prevents rodents and
birds.
Shelf-life of packaged food products
Shelf life is the period during which a packaged product maintains marketable or acceptable
quality under specific storage conditions. The shelf life of a product depends on the following:

Initial quality of the food product

Amount of quality change that can be allowed

Prevailing environmental conditions

Barrier properties of the packaging material

Compatibility between food product and package

Information for determination of shelf life

Stability of food product and optimal conditions for storing it

The external environmental conditions to which the package is to be exposed

The size of the package, kind of package and thickness of the packaging material that
can maintain the internal environment at the optimal conditions.

The marketing and distribution requirements

How to determine the shelf life of packaged food products

Actual storage tests
The packaged product is subjected to a storage regime simulating the actual marketing and
distribution conditions and the product failure rate is monitored with time. For some products,
this method may require a very long time.
Accelerated storage tests
At elevated temperature and moisture content, product deterioration rate can be enhanced to
suitably shorten the testing duration. Techniques for non-isothermal (varying temperature)
storage stability studies can be employed to simulate actual environmental variations during
marketing and storage. The temperature dependence of product deterioration indices is often
presumed to obey Arrhenius kinetics.
Hazards during transport and storage of foods

Principles of package development

The packaging for your competitor's product in the market may not be the best or optimum
package design, but it is a good starting point for developing the package of your own
product. To ensure successful package development, the following should be considered:

Product assessment

Hazards of distribution (mechanical, climatic, biological, etc.)

Marketing requirements (competitors, retail service, customer, convenience, etc.)

Selection of packaging material and packaging machinery

The essential point in developing or choosing an optimal package for your product is that you
should know your product well (in terms of its life cycle, physical, chemical and
microbiological characteristics, major spoilage parameters, hazards of distribution, etc).
One should determine when to change a package, why change the package, and how to
change the package. When to change a package is dictated by the life cycle of the product.
The stages in the life cycle of a product are as follows (see figure provided):

Introduction

Growth

Maturity

Obsolescence

When introducing a new food product to the market, the packaging should be just right.
Particular attention should be focused on the design and convenience features of the
package. This will help the product to take off successfully. Subsequently, when sales begin to
fall off during product maturity, design of new packages can help generate a new image and
increased sales. Other reasons for changing a package may be as follows:

To reduce unit costs

Promote wholesale, retail, and/or consumer acceptance of the product

Improve shelf life

Increase turnover, sales and profits

Provide customers with better method of using the product

Improve handling in transport or retail outlet

How to change the package may be illustrated as shown in Figure 2. Developing a product
package can be very involving and the entrepreneur may have to engage consultants such as
food technologists, graphic designers, engineers, and manufacturers for packaging materials
and machinery. All this may seem an enormous task, but it is better to take your time and get
things right the first time rather than rush to introduce a product that is destined for failure.

Levels of packaging
The primary package holds the basic product. It may be a bag, can,
carton, bottle, tube, sachet, or other form of
container. If such small primary packages
to be distributed in large quantities, it is necessary to group
them together in a larger package called a secondary
package. A corrugated fiber board carton
holding several units of canned fruit is an
example of secondary packaging. It is often necessary to group secondary
packages together in pallets to facilitate materials handling equipment in
warehouses and loading in or out of trucks and ships. This forms a tertiary package.

are

Aspects of packaging legislation

Since packaging is virtually unavoidable in commercial food vending, it is important to know
the legal requirements for packaging to avoid clashing with the law and to ensure consumer
confidence. Legislative guidelines for local packaging requirements are elaborated by the
Technical Committee 05/TC 05 (concerned with labeling of prepackaged foods) of the Kenya
Bureau of Standards (KEBS). This Committee has developed standard KS 05-40 of 1990, which
is in two parts. Part I is concerned with General requirements for labeling of prepackaged
foods for human consumption. Part II deals with Guidelines for date marking. These
packaging standards are available at the KEBS Library (off Mombasa Road) for reference or
purchase by any interested party.
General Provisions in KS 05-40: Part I
General Requirements

All prepackaged foods must have a label clearly legible, indelible, conspicuous, and
prominently displayed on container.

The label shall not be deceptive, false, misleading, or likely to create an erroneous
impression regarding character in any respect

The label shall remain firmly attached to the container under expected storage
conditions until the product reaches the consumer

The label information shall not be placed at the bottom of the food container

Additional words (next to name of the food) should be included to avoid misleading or
confusing the consumer about the true nature and physical condition of the food
including type of packaging medium, style, condition or type of treatment it has
undergone e.g. dried, concentrated, reconstituted, or smoked.

Labels on prepackaged foods shall bear the following information applicable to the food
being labeled:

Labeling Requirements on Main Panel of a Prepackaged Food

Labeling requirements on main label shall be:
1. The brand name or trade name of the food product
2. The common name of the food
o

Common names shall indicate the true nature of the food:

Near the common name, a correct declaration of the net contents in metric units
according to Weights and Measures Rule 1971; Cap. 513 of the Weights and
Measures Act

Foods packaged in liquid media (water, aqueous solutions of sugar or salt, fruit
and vegetable juices in canned fruits and vegetables only or in combination with
vinegar) shall carry a declaration in the metric system of the drained weight.

3. List of ingredients
o

Grouped together on any panel, every product shall be a label declaring on one
place a complete list of ingredients, excluding water, in descending order of
proportion by mass, except:

In dehydrated foods intended to be reconstituted by adding water. In such as

case, list the ingredients and add, Ingredients when Reconstituted

In case of foods of a single ingredient

4. Storage conditions - Instructions for the proper storage of the products, if different from
normal ambient conditions, shall be declared.
5. Name and address The name and address of one or more of the following shall be
declared on the label, together with an indication of the capacity in which he has acted:
o

Manufacturer

Packer

Distributor

Importer

Vendor

6. Country of manufacture shall be declared unless already stated above

7. Irradiated food if food is irradiated, it shall be declared on the label
8. Grading grade designations on label shall be readily understood and not misleading or
deceptive
9. The declaration, Made in Kenya or Produce of Kenya
Labeling Requirements for Special Dietary Foods
All dietary foods shall bear all the information under General Requirements and Labeling
Requirements on Main Panel of a Prepackaged Food above and the following:
1. Where a statement or claim implying a special dietary use is made on the label of any
food, the label shall carry a statement of the type of diet for which the food is
recommended.
2. No person shall sell a food containing a non-nutritive sweetening agent unless the label
carries a statement indicating a special dietary use.
3. Artificial sweetener A food containing saccharin or its salts shall carry on the label a
statement to the effect that it contains a non-nutritive artificial sweetener.
4. Carbohydrates or sugar reduced foods A special dietary food recommended for
carbohydrates or sugar reduced diets shall be a food that contains not more than 50%
of the glycogenic carbohydrates normally in foods of the same class
5. A food may be described as sugarless, sugar-free, low carbohydrate or by any other
synonymous terms if it contains not more than 0.25% glycogenic carbohydrates.
6. Where a statement or claim relating to the carbohydrate, sugar, or starch content is
made on the label of the food, the label shall carry a statement of the carbohydrate
content in grams per 100g.
7. Reduced calorie foods:
o

Special dietary foods recommended for calorie reduced diets shall be foods that
contain not more than 50% of the total calories normally present in foods of the
same class.

A food may be described as low calorie if it contains:

15 calories per average serving

30 calories in a reasonable daily intake

Where a statement or claim relating to the calorie content is made on the label
of a food, the label shall carry a statement of the calorie content in calories per
100g.

8. Sodium reduced foods:

The number of milligrams of sodium contributed by a reasonable daily intake of a

special dietary food recommended for a sodium-reduced diet shall not exceed
1/6 the number of milligrams of sodium contained in a reasonable intake of the
same food.

A food may be described as low sodium if it contains not more than:

10 mg sodium in an average serving

20 mg sodium in a reasonable daily intake

Where a statement or claim relating to the sodium content is made on the label
of a food, the label shall carry a declaration of the sodium content in mg per
100g.

Small packages: Where the container is too small to reasonably bear all the
information required by this standard, the outer package shall be labeled
according to this Standard and shall be available for consumers inspection when
required.

9. Presentation of mandatory information:

o

Statements required to appear on the label by virtue of this standard or any

other Kenya Standard shall be clear, prominent, indelible, and readily legible to
the consumer under normal conditions of purchase and use. Such information
shall not be obscured by designs or other written, printed, or graphic matter and
shall be in a contrasting color to that of the background.

The letters in the name of the food shall be in size reasonably related to the most
prominent printed matter on the label. Where the container is covered by a
wrapper, the wrapper shall carry the necessary information, or the label on the
container shall be readily legible through the outer wrapper or not obscured by
it.

In general, the name and net contents of the food shall appear on that portion of
the label normally intended to be presented to the consumer at the time of sale.

Statements required to appear on the label by virtue of this standard or any

other KS shall be in English. If imported goods are not already in English, a
supplementary label shall be used to declare the mandatory information in
English.

General Provisions in KS 05-40: Part II

Section 1: Guidelines for Date Marking
Date marking is to give the consumer a date for ascertaining the status of product
wholesomeness under specified storage conditions. The following dates may be printed on the
product label:
1. Date of Manufacture The date on which the food becomes the product as described
2. Date of Packaging The date on which the food is placed in the immediate container in
which it will be ultimately sold. Date of manufacture and date of packaging may be the
same.
3. Sell-by Date The last date of offer for retail sale after which there remains a
reasonable storage period in the home.

4. Date of Minimum Durability (Best Before Date) This signifies the end of the period
under any stated storage conditions during which the product will remain fully
marketable and will retain any specific qualities for which tacit or express claims have
been made.
5. Use-by Date (Expiry Date) The date which signifies the end of the estimated period
under any stated storage conditions, after which the product probably will not have the
quality attributes normally expected by the consumers. After the date, the food should
not be regarded as marketable.
6. Storage instructions In addition to date, any special conditions for the storage of food
shall be indicated if the validity of the date depends thereon.
7. The following products (Table 2) shall bear prominently:
o

A date marking, showing the last day, month, and year on which the product
may be sold

The proper storage conditions

Table 1: Products for Date Marking

Packed UHT liquid milk, fermented milk, yoghurt, and cream; canned liquid evaporated milk;
packed and canned butter; canned condensed milk; packed and canned milk powder; canned
ghee; all prepackaged baby foods; prepackaged cereal flours; pasta products; biscuits and
cookies; cakes; breakfast cereals; flavored and mixed spices; canned and packed vegetables
and fruits; bottled and packed tomato sauce, ketchup, puree, juice, whole tomatoes; chilli
sauce, mayonnaise; packed dehydrated fruits and vegetables; canned and packed fats and
oils; margarine; bottled drinks, squash, juices; bottled or canned beer, cider, sherry; nonalcoholic beverages; canned meat and fish; githeri; sausages; chocolate and confectionery;
cheese; jams, marmalade, jellies; honey; fried peanuts and crisps; bread and cakes; tea;
coffee.

Section 2: Guidelines for Nutritional Labeling

Purpose
1. To ensure that nutrition labeling is effective by:
o

Providing the consumer with information about a food so that a wise choice of
food can be made

Encouraging the use of sound nutritional principles in the formulation of foods

which benefit public health

Providing a means for conveying information on the nutrient content of a food on

the label

Providing the opportunity to include supplementary nutrition information on the

label

To ensure that nutrition labeling does not describe a product or present

information about it which is in any way false, misleading, deceptive, or
insignificant in any manner.

To ensure that no nutritional claims are made without nutrition labeling

Principles of nutrition labeling

1. Nutrient declaration this entails a suitable profile of nutrients in the food of nutritional
significance. This is to convey an understanding of the quality of nutrients contained in
the product.
2. Supplementary nutrition information content of supplementary nutritional information
will vary from one target population group to another according to the educational
policy of the country and the needs of the target groups.
3. Nutrition labeling should not deliberately imply that a food which carries such labeling
has necessarily any nutritional advantage over a food which is not so labeled.
4. The following definitions apply:
o

Nutritional labeling is a description intended to inform the consumer of

nutritional properties of a food

The components of nutritional labeling

Supplementary Nutrition Information

Nutrition declaration means a standardized statement or listing of the nutrient

content of a food.

Nutrition claim is any representation which states, suggests, implies that a food
has particular nutritional properties including but not limited to the energy value
and to the content of protein, fat, carbohydrates, as well as the content of
vitamins and minerals. The following do not constitute nutrition claims:

are:

Nutrient

declaration

and

Mention of substances in the list of ingredients

Mention of nutrients as a mandatory part of nutrition labeling

Quantitative or qualitative declaration of certain nutrients or ingredients

on the label if required by a national standard

Nutrient is any substance normally consumed as a constituent of food:

Which provides energy

Needed for growth, development, and maintenance of life

A deficit of which will cause characteristic biochemical or physiological

changes to occur

Sugars refer to mono- and di-saccharides in foods

Dietary fiber the edible plant material not hydrolyzed by endogenous enzymes
of the human digestive tract as determined by the agreed upon method

Polyunsaturated fatty acids are fatty acids with cis-cis methylene interrupted
double bonds

Nutrient declaration:

Is mandatory for foods for which nutrition claims are made

Shall be voluntary for all other foods

Where nutrient declaration applies, the declaration of the following is

mandatory:
1. Energy value
2. Amount of protein, carbohydrates, and fat
3. Amount of any other nutrient for which a nutrition claim is made
4. The amount of any other nutrient considered to be relevant for
maintaining a nutritional status

In case of claims with respect to amount or type of carbohydrates, the

total sugars should be listed in addition to the above declarations.
1. Amount of starch or other carbohydrates shall also be listed
2. In case of dietary fiber claim, the amount of dietary fiber shall be
declared

In case of fatty acid claims, the amounts of saturated fatty acids and
polyunsaturated fatty acids shall be declared

Vitamins and minerals may be listed as follows:

1. Only vitamins and minerals for which recommended intakes have
been established and/or which are of nutritional importance shall
also be declared.
2. Only those vitamins and minerals in significant amounts shall be
declared.

Calculation of nutrients:
1. Calculation of energy:

Carbohydrates, 4 kCal/g 17 kJ

Proteins, 4 kCal/g 17 kJ

Fat, 9 kCal/g 37 kJ

Ethanol, 7 kCal/g 29 kJ

Organic acids, 3 kCal/g 13 kJ

Calculation of protein:

1. The amount of protein to be listed should be calculated using the

formula: Protein = Total Kjeldhal N x 6.25.
o

Presentation of nutrient content

Nutrient content declaration shall be numerical

Information on energy value shall be in kJ or kCal per 100 g or per 100 mL

or per package, if package contains only a single portion; or per serving.

Carbohydrates, proteins, and fat shall be expressed in g per 100 g or g per

100 mL or g per package.

Numerical information on vitamins and minerals shall be in metric units

and/or as a percentage of the Reference RDA per 100 g or per package or
per serving.

Information on energy value and protein may also be expressed as a

percentage of Reference RDA. RDAs should be based on nutrient intakes
recommended by FAO/WHO.

The following shall be used as the Reference RDA for labeling purposes:
1. Energy, MJ (kCal) 9.5 (2300)
2. Protein, g 50
3. Vitamin A, g 1000
4. Vitamin D, g 5
5. Vitamin E, g 10
6. Vitamin C, mg 60
7. Thiamin, mg 1.4
8. Riboflavin, mg 1.6
9. Niacin, mg 18
10.Vitamin B6, mg 2
11.Folacin, g 400
12.Vitamin B12, g3
13.Calcium, mg 800
14.Phosphorous, mg 800
15.Iron, mg 14
16.Magnesium, mg 300
17.Zinc, mg 15

18.Iodine, g 150
19.Presence of carbohydrates shall be declared on the label as
carbohydrates. Where the types of carbohydrates is declared, this
should be indicated thus: Carbohydrates.g. of which sugarsg.
20.Declaration of fat should be: Fat, of which polyunsaturated fatty
acidsg, and unsaturated fatty acids..g.

Tolerances and Compliance

1. Tolerance intervals shall be set in relation to public health concerns,
shelf-life, accuracy of analysis, processing variability..according to
whether the nutrient in the product is added or naturally occurring.
2. Values in nutrient declaration shall be weighed average values
derived from data specifically obtained from analyses of products
representative of the product being labeled.
3. Where a product is subject to a Kenya Standard, the specifications
in that Standard take precedence.

Supplementary nutrition information

1. The purpose of supplementary nutrition information is to increase
the consumers understanding of the nutritional value of the food
and assist in interpreting the nutrient declaration
2. Optional except in nutrient declaration

Section 3: General Guidelines for Claims

1. A claim is any representation which states, suggests, or implies that a food has
particular qualities relating to its origin, nutritional properties, nature, processing,
composition, or nay other quality.
2. Prohibited claims:
o

Claims of measurable and objective characteristics that cannot be substantiated.

Claims suggesting that adequate quantities of nutritious substances contained in

the product cannot be obtained from a balanced everyday diet.

Claims that a common food contains adequate quantities of all essential

nutrients, unless authorized by the rules in force.

Recommendations by medical professionals, authorities or other competent

bodies in the public health field and testimonials connecting nutrition and health.

Claims that exploit or arouse fear or anxiety or discredit other foods whether of a
similar nature or not.

Claims that a food has become nutritious from the addition of substances added
for technical and/or organoleptic reasons.

References to doctors, pharmacists, medical instruments, the human body or

organs, even if presented in a stylized manner, intended to illustrate a
physiological function.

Summary of Labeling
All package labels must declare the following information:
1. The name of the product
2. The list of ingredients and components
3. The net quality
4. The date of minimum duration
5. Any special storage conditions
6. Name and address of manufacturer, packer or distributor
7. Particulars of the place of origin (export goods)
8. Instructions for use
Cost of packaging and product pricing
Packaging is a necessary evil. The necessity has to do with the fact that a package is
unavoidable in modern-day value addition of foods, while the evil is in the cost, which can be
quite substantial depending on the type of food and package.
The factors affecting overall package costs are as follows:
1. Package development costs the desired package has to be defined, conceptualized,
designed (function and graphics), pilot produced, market tested, validated, and, finally,
launched. All these developmental stages will cost money.
2. One-time costs this entails tooling costs for production e.g. dies, moulds, packaging
line equipment, etc.
3. Materials costs involve purchase of materials required for retail, primary, secondary,
and tertiary packaging
4. Packaging machinery and process costs this includes purchase or hire of packaging
machinery, depreciation costs on machinery, and labor costs.
5. Storage and distribution costs, including insurance.
The product manufacturer may get a packaging supplier to develop a new package, but he
must first define the package requirements and finally pay the package development cost in
the price of the package. Ultimately, the consumer controls the price of the product. The food
product manufacturer can know what the customer is ready to buy by conducting a market
research. If the cost of packaging is relatively small in comparison to the ex-factory price of
the product, good profits and marketing advantage are possible. The package developer must
produce packages at the lowest possible prices.
Where alternative packages exist for a product, the product manufacturer can opt for the
cheapest alternative, depending on availability of packaging machinery and production scale.

For example, yogurt can be packaged in gable top Tetrabrik, PET bottles, polyethylenelaminated Kraft paper, or bottles. Tetrabrik and laminated Kraft paper require elaborate
machinery and are suitable for large-scale continuous processing facilities with large product
throughput. Small-scale, batch-processed yogurt may be conveniently packaged in PET
bottles.
Table 2: Typical Plastic Package Costs for Some Prepackaged Kenyan Foods Product Capacity
Cost of package (KShs) Sale price (KShs) % Package cost Mala Flavored yogurt 25 mL 500 mL
1100 mL 3.50 5.40 8.80 25 50 110 14 10.8 8 Fruit juice concentrate 5 L 25 1500 1.67
Tomato paste 400 mL 5.50 35 15.71
Fruit jam 500 mL 8.50 65 13.08
Marmalade 500 mL 8.50 80 10.63

Part II: Applications

Packaging of specific food products
Respiring fruits and vegetables

Examples are kales, cabbage, tomatoes, mangoes, bananas, potatoes, and onions.

Packaging materials should be permeable to gas movement in and out of package. This
is because fresh fruits and vegetables are still respiring and the internal atmosphere
will alter reducing the O2 quantity leading to anaerobiosis and consequent product
spoilage.

The following flexible film materials may be used:

o

Cellulose acetate

Lacquered cellulose

PVC

Lacquered orientated cellulose

Ventilation (goring of small holes on the surface of the packaging material) may be
necessary to increase gas permeability.

Larger or heavier quantities (>50kg) are usually packaged in the following materials:
o

Multi-wall Kraft paper sacks laminated or lacquered on the inside to allow gas
permeation but reduce water loss

Inside the multi-wall Kraft paper may be lined with jute and then waxed.

Fibreboard cartons or boxes with partitions for individual items may also be used.

Molded pulp or plastic foam containers (coupled with shrink-wrapping) may also
be used.

Fresh meat

Drying or moisture escape should be prevented but O2 should be allowed.

Use MSADT cellulose film with coating on the outside for moisture proofing. This affords
protection for about 2 4 days.

When the cellulose is wet, O2 can pass through but water is prevented.

For longer periods, use PVC or polythene packs, laminates, or aluminum foil; but these
are O2 impermeable so colour of meat may fade to brown.

On opening and storage at cool temperatures for 1 2 weeks, the real colour is
restored.

Use of O2 impermeable materials may encourage the growth of microorganisms such

as C. botulinum, which prefers anaerobic conditions.

Pasteurized products

These require only a limited shelf life.

C to destroy pathogens but not spoilage microorganisms.The products in this category

are usually heat-treated at less than 100

The products may be heat processed and then aseptically transferred into suitable
packages or the pasteurization process may be in-package. In-package pasteurization
requires packaging materials that can withstand the required process temperatures
(e.g. glass) for liquid foods (beer, milk, etc.).

Wax-coated paper cartons laminated with aluminum foil or polythene on the product
side can also be used.

Tetra-pak systems also find widespread use. These are heat-sealable and easily
adaptable to continuous and aseptic filling.

Dehydrated (dried) foods

These have low moisture contents (1 20%). Dried foods have aw below that at which
most microorganisms can grow.

Drying achieves reduction in weight and volume hence facilitating transport and
storage. Drying is achieved by sun or air-drying, mechanical drying, spray drying,
freeze-drying or vacuum drying. Dried foods can be categorized into the following
groups:

Table 3: Moisture Content of Various Foods

Produ Capaci Cost of package
ct
ty
Moisture content (%) Examples Group 1 1 - 3 Tea, coffee Group 2 2 - 8
Dehydrated vegetables, herbs, spices, dried fish, breakfast cereals Group 3 6 30 Cereals and cereal products, pulses, oil seeds Group 4 25 - 40 Jams, jellies,

fruits, nectars, sugar confectionery

Table

Dried foods are susceptible to non-enzymatic browning and oxidative changes. Addition
of SO2 can reduce these changes. The aim of packaging should be to:
o

Prevent moisture transfer

Prevent O2 and SO2 permeation

Oxygen scavengers can be used for dried and O2 sensitive foods. For example, the
shelf life of white bread in polypropylene film can be extended from by over two weeks
at room temperature by incorporating an O2 absorbent into the package. Examples of
oxygen scavengers are finely divided iron powder contained in a sachet highly
permeable to O2 and water, glucose oxidase enzyme, Iron II carbonate, and platinum
catalyst. Use of oxygen scavengers is an example of Active Packaging System.

4:

Packaging

Materials

for

Various

Groups

of

Dried

Foods

Table

5:

Packaging

of

Specific

Dried

Products

Sugar confectionery

These include boiled sweets and toffees, which tend to absorb moisture from the
atmosphere.

Usually wrapped individually in moisture-proof cellulose films, Al foil, and coloured or

plain cellulose films.

May be further wrapped in MSAT cellulose film plus paperboard cartons, glass jars, tins
as final outer containers to prevent moisture absorption during long-term storage.

Chocolate and milk are susceptible to heat and light but not to oxidation. Packaging
must prevent water absorption by sugar in the chocolate causing bloom.

Wrapped in Al foil heat sealable with glassine over wrap followed by simple bleached
Kraft paper for printing purposes.

PVC trays have also been used.

Dairy products Packaging for some common dairy products are given in Table 5. Table 6:
Packaging of Dairy Products Product Packaging Butter Wrapped in greaseproof paper,
vegetable parchment, or laminated foil, tin cans, PVC tubs, and laminates (Polythene/Al foil
sachets). Cream Packaged in wax coated paperboard containers with replaceable lids for
refrigerated storage, plastic containers with press-on or screw type lids. Cheese Moisture
proof cellulose (MSAT) for up to 5 days, vacuum packed into flexible low water permeable
laminates or tight wrap Al foils. Sterilized and evaporated milk Metal cans and glass bottles

Beer and soft drinks

Beer is usually packed in glass. The bottle is usually brown or amber for protection
against UV light.

The bottle should withstand the pressurized effects of CO2

Strong cans (Al or Tin) with thick acid-resistant lacquers are also in use.

Quantities are usually 0.5 5 liters. Large quantities may be packaged in wooden
barrels, Al barrels, large stainless steel tankers for road or rail transport.

Soft drinks are usually packaged in glass bottles similar to beer, but the glass does not
have to be coloured.

Ready-to-drink squashes are packaged in waxed or polythene laminated paperboard

cartons. Plastic (polystyrene) containers may also be used.

Squashes are susceptible to flavor loss hence have a short shelf life.

Heat processed fruit juices such as nectars and purees are packaged in metal cans
lacquered with an acid resistant lacquer.

Baked products Packaging of baked products is as summarized in Table 5.

Table 7: Packaging of Baked Products Product Packaging Standard breads To protect crumb
from staling and dehydration. Material should not be impervious, otherwise crust will soften
quickly leading to mould growth. Use waxed paper or regenerated cellulose. Polythene is
currently in use. Cakes Have high equilibrium relative humidity at room temperature hence
tend to dry out. Package in semi-permeable films e.g. QSAT and MSADT. Impermeable
materials such as MSAT and MxxT can also be used. Biscuits The equilibrium relative humidity
at room temperature is about 5% hence liable to moisture pick-up from the atmosphere.
Susceptible to oxidative rancidity and is affected by light. Also friable. Use waxed paper or
MSAT plasticized cellulose for flexibility. Use MxxT, which has a more abrasion resistance. In
the tropics, these cellulose films require lamination with Al foil or using double the amount of
wrapping film and packing, the film-wrapped biscuit in a paperboard carton, which is then
over-wrapped with polythene.
References
1. KEBS (1990). KS 050-40: Kenya Standard Labeling of Prepackaged Foods
2. Paine, F. A. and Paine, H. Y. (1992). A Handbook of Food Packaging, 2nd Edition. Blackie
Academic & Professional, London, UK.
3. Ojijo, N. K. O. (2006). Lecture Notes on Food Packaging. Department of Food Science &
Technology, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology (JKUAT), Kenya.