aS re) anh a SYSTEM ANALYSIS & STABILITY ised Edition) VISEME & E Fle ml Pe Weve! e A canta Bc fay ao nee 621.381044NEE I 40126267 SS[O(Q2626T As per revised VTU Syllabus POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS & STABILITY (For VI Sem. Electrical & Electronics Engineering) INCLUDES Over 300 neat sketches Over 120 Solved Examples Over 65 Exercises Solved Question Papers By V. NEELAKANTAN Publishers Distributors SHIVA BOOK CENTRE SRI MARUTHI BOOK DEPOT 71/2, Avenue Road, §73, Avenue Road, Bangalore - 560 002. Bangalore - 560 002. Ph. : 22244574, 56956853 Ph. : 22351492, 56956854First Edition : 2002 Second Edition : 2010. Enlarged Edition : 2014 © Reserved by Publishers. wee e cece cceecereessesasees . . . * Photostat Copying of this book should not be done without the written permission ° © ofthe Author /Publishers, Violators will be prosecuted as per law. . see evecccccccccsseseecececeesssessceosees seer Copies can also be obtained at : 1. Sri Saraswathi Book Depot Lansdowne Building, Mysore. Phone : 0821-2432990 2, Sri Vasavi Book Depot rea Jaganmohan Palace Road, Phone : 988049550 Durgad bail, Hubli Phone : 9845505124 4. Vinayaka Agencies 1S p- : Kalamanapasi Road, Opp. Shénkarmut, Hubli. Phone : 934303431 5. Patil Book Sellers Gulbarga. Phone : 9449136450 Typeset by : K.V. Chethan Mob. : 98452 55223. Printed at: Thejasree Offsets Mob, ; 9242819871.CONTENTS REPRESENTATION OF POWER SYSTEM COMPONENTS 1-65 1.1, Introduction X 1 4.2 Circuit Models of Power System Components 2 13 One-Line Diagram % 14 — Impedance & Reactance Diagrams: 9 15 Per Unit System. nN 16 Change in Base Quantitiés 12 17 Advantages of Per Unit Computations 18 18 — Per Unit Impedance & Reactance Diagrams 19 1.9 Node Equations and Bus Admittance Matrix 38 1,10. Formation of Ypy< by inspection AL 1.11 Bus or Node Elimination by Matrix Partitioning 46 SYMMETRICAL THREE-PHASE FAULTS 66-109 24 — Introduction 66 22 Transients ona Transmission Line due to Short Circuit 67 23 Symmetrical Short Circuit of a Synchronous Generator 70 24 — Analysis of Three-Phase Symmetrical Faults 7 25 — Selection of Circuit Breakers on 2.6 Concept of Short-circuit Capacity of a Bus 95 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS 110-155 3.1 Introduction 110 3.2 Resolution of Unbalanced phasors into Symmetrical Components 1 33 The ‘a! Operator 112 3.4 Expression for Phase Voltages in terms of Symmetrical Components 113 3.5 Expression for Symmetrical Components in terms of Phase Voltages 114 3.6 Relations between Sequence Components of Phase and Line Voltages in Star Connected Systems 122 3,7 Relations between Sequence Components of Phase and * Line Currents in Delta Connected Systems 127 3.8. Effects.of Neutral in the System 134 3.9 Phase Shift of Symmetrical Components in Y-Delta transformer bank 142 3:10 Complex Power in terms of Symmetrical Components a7,I LULULLLUU—~— 4 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES & SEQUENCE NETWORKS 41 42 43 44 45 4.6 47 48 Introduction Sequence Impedance of a Symmetrical Circuit Sequence Impedance of an Unsymmetrical Circuit Sequence Networks of Power System Elements Sequence Impedances and Networks of Synchronous Generator Sequence Impedance and Networks of Three-Phase Transformers Sequence Impedances and Networks of Transmission Lines Construction of Sequence Networks of a Power System 5 UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS 5a 5.2 5.3 54 5.5 Introduction Fault Calculations of Synchronous Generator Faults through Impedance Unsymmetrical Faults on Power System Series Type of Faults 6 STABILITY STUDIES 61 Introduction 6,2. The Constant M and H of Rotating Machines 63 Power Angle Equation of Synchronous Machines 64 Equal Area Criterion (EAC) APPENDIX A APPENDIX B BIBLIOGRAPHY SOLUTIONS to VTU QUESTION PAPERS ae UNBALANCED OPERATION OF THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS. 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Performance of 3 - 0 Induction Motor under unbalanced supply voltages 7.3 Single Phasing of an Induction Motor INDEX 156-190 156 156 159 163 164 168 170 172 191-265 191 193 204 228 258 266-327 266 271 279 296 328-329 330 331 332-358 359-370 371-372What seems to us as bitter trials are often blessings in disgutse. - Oscar Wilde CHAPTER ‘ REPRESENTATION OF POWER SYSTEM COMPONENTS Cater Ojective After comprehending this chapter, the student should be able to : ® Define balanced, unbalanced, symmetrical and unsymmetrical power systems @ Represent the important components of power system by their equivalent models @ Draw the one-line, impedance and reactance diagrams of system @ Appreciate the usage of per unit system @ Form perunit reactance diagrams from one-line diagrams @ Form bus admittance matrix of simple systems using the method of inspection 1.1 Introduction An electrical power system network consists of genera transmission grids and distribution systems. Generating stations include an energy source (viz. coal, fissionable nuclear material), prime movers (ex: steam turbines, g stations, high voltage diesel engines, gas turbines) and generators (typically alternators). Normally, generating stations are located far away from populated areas, closer to the energy source*. The transmission grid comprises of large transformers which convert the generated voltage to extremely high levels for long distance transmission on high voltage transmission lines. For power to be useful in a home or business, the high voltage in the transmission grid has to be stepped down. This is accomplished in the distribution system. Typically, the distribution system includes electrical sub-stations and medium voltage power lines. The sub-stations steps down the voltage from transmission level to distribution level and the distribution power lines supplies power to the domestic and commercial consumers. Consumers might connect any kind of electrical load like light heating coils, induction motors, synchronous motors, rectifiers or other devices. The load does not remain constant but varies every minute based on the demand. (Power system is arguably the largest and most complex man made system!) Note* ; Using technologies such as net metering, distributed generation, vehicle-to-grid gonoration can occur at low levels in dispersed locations, in highly populated areas not outside the distribution grids.2 Representation of Power System Components Worldwide, three-phase power system are most common. A three-phase powe! system is said to be symmetrical, when the system viewed from any phase is similar. This means that, in symmetrical systems, the self impedances of all the three phase: are eqial and the mutual impedances, if any, between the three phases are same Three-phase voltages (or currents) are said to be balanced if the three voltages (0 current) are equal in magnitude and have the same phase angle difference with respect to each other. In symmetrical, balanced three phase systems, the phase angle difference between the voltages (or currents) will be equal to 120° electrical. These terms are frequently encountered in our discussion. 1.2 Circuit Models of Power System Components The major components encountered in a power system are synchronous machines. transformers, transmission lines and static & dynamic loads. In this book, we will not develop the equations or the equivalent circuit models of these components from scratch. Good books on Electrical Machines and Transmission Lines may be referred by the student for the same. We will directly present the well known equivalent models below, Between, you would have studied these topics in detail in your previous semesters and might be an expert already! Why is Power System Modeling essential? For planning the operation, improvement and expansion of a power system, it is required to make a thorough analysis of the system. This necessitates the modeling of the power system network. A complete model of a large interconnected power system representing all the three phases becomes too complicated. rendering it almost impossible for analysis. However, because of the symmetry of the system and the balanced nature of the voltages, a three phase, symmetrical, balanced system can be reduced to a single-phase system for the purpose of analysis. This results in considerable simplification of the three phase network. (a) Equivalent circuit of a synchronous Machine (Non-Salient type) The synchronous machine may operate either as a generator (alternator) or a motor depending on the nature of input energy. In case of a generator it converts a @ Fig. 1.1 )Representation of Power System Components 3. mechanical power into electrical form and feeds it into the power system. In the case of a motor it draws electrical power from the system and converts it into mechanical form. Based on the rotor design, it can be a salient pole machine or non-salient pole machine. The three-phase equivalent circuit of a non-salient type synchronous generator depicting the voltage generated and the impedance of each phase is shown in Fig, 1.1(a). Let us consider the generator to be balanced and perfectly symmetrical, then the induced emfs in each phase is the same ie. E, = E, = jcpehind E, (say) and the impedance of each phase is the same ie. Z, = 2, = Z, = Z, (say). Therefore, the three phase network can be replaced by a single phase network as shown in Fig. 1.1(b). Synchronous motor is similar in construction to a synchronous generator, but it performs the reverse action of the generator. It receives electrical power and converts it into mechanical energy. Hence, the direction of flow of current in a motor is opposite to that of a generator. The equivalent circuits of the synchronous motor are as shown in the Fig. 1.2 (a) and (b) a 1 ed @ Fig. 1.2 () (b) Equivalent circuit of a two winding power transformer The well known equivalent circuit of a two winding transformer referred to its primary side is as shown in Fig. 1.3.4 Representation of Power System Components Here, R, & X, are the resistance & reactance of the primary side. R, & X, are th : NY, ‘ resistance & reactance of the secondary side. K = —4 =~ is the voltage transfor ratio. Ry & X, constitute the exciting circuit of the transformer. (c) Equivalent circuit of a transmission line " In power system networks, the transmission lines are usually long lines (length>160km). Nominal Tl-circuit is usually used to represent the lines, This is shown in the Fig. 1.4. Fig. 1.4 ‘ Here, Z = total series impedance of the line per phase, Y = total shunt admittance per phase, Vs & I; = sending end voltage and current respectively, Vp & Iq = receiving end voltage and current respectively. (d) Equivalent circuit of a three winding power transformer As the name suggests, this category of transformers contains three windings. The Primary and secondary windings of a two winding transformer have the same kVA rating, but in case of a three winding transformer, all the 3 windings may have different KVA rating. 2 not confuse @ three winding transformer with a three phase Wansformer A three phase transformer ‘has only primary and secondary windings. ris shown in Fig. 1.5(a). The three windings are designated as the primary, secondary & tertiary windings, Neglecting The symbol of three winding transforme: the magnetizing current, the impedances of these windings can be connected in ste. (0 represen! the single-phase equivalent circuit as shown in the Fig. 1.5(b). itis to be noted that the common point is fictitious & unrelated to the neutral of the system. Let, = leakage impedance measured in the primary with secondary short circuited and tertiary open. = leakage impedance measured in the primary with tertiary short circuited and secondary openRepresentation of Power System Components 5 edance measured in the secondary with tertiary short Z,, = leakage imp circuited and primary open Z, = Impedance of the primary side referred to the primary circuit Z, = Impedance of the secondary side referred to the primary circuit Z, = Impedance of the tertiary side referred to the primary circuit Then, from transformer theory, it can be proved that, Zyhey ee (1) UYti:2) - (1.3) Equations (1.1) + (1.2) = (1.3) yield, Abs os Zn - or Zp =—(Zps+Zpr~Zs) .. (4) similarly, a (15) (1.6) and The above formulae are used to compute the impedances of the three windings. Applications of three winding transformers (i) They are used for interconnecting transmission lines which are working at different voltage & power levels. (ii) Static capacitors or synchronous condensers may be connected to tertiary windings for reactive power injection into the system for voltagé control6 Representation of Power System Components (iii) Find extensive utilization in high voltage laboratories. (iv) Used in reducing the imbalance in voltages when the load is unbalanced. (v) In building protective relaying circuits. (e) Equivalent circuits of static loads While modeling, loads are usually classified into two broad categories: static loads and dynamic loads. The design and operation of power systems both economically and electrically are greatly influenced by the nature and magnitude of loads. Electric furnaces, induction heaters, lights are common examples of static loads on a power system. They can be represented in the equivalent circuit by any one of the following ways (i) Constant Impedance Representation : Here the load is represented by its impedance. This is quite often used in stability studies. The impedance (Z) can be calculated from the specified voltage levels (V), active (P) and reactive (Q) component of the power of the load. Ive ~ P= iQ (ii) Constant Power Representation : Here the active power (MW) and reactive power (MVAR) consumed by the load are considered to be constant. This kind of representation will be helpful in load flow studies. (iii) Constant Current Representation : Here the magnitude of the load current is sumed a constant. The constant current of the load can computed from the specified voltage, active and reactive components of the power of the load. (f) Equivalent circuits of dynamic loads Synchronous motors and Induction motors are the 4smmon dynamic loads that are encountered in power system networks. The equivalent circuit of a synchronous motor is shown in the Fig. 1.2(a) & (b). The equivalent circuit of an induction motor referred to the stator is shown in Fig. 1.6. x, RK XK 16651 R, Fig. 1.6 Here, ° R, & X, denotes stator resistance & reactance respectively. R, & X, are rotor resistance & reactance. The exciting or magnetizing circuil is composed of Ry & X,,Representation of Power System Components 7 ‘K’ is the voltage transformation ratio. The variable resistance ra represents the load on the motor and ‘s’ is the slip of the induction machine. Note : ina strict sense, power system deals with the business of Generation Transmission, and Distribution of electrical energy. It stops at the consumer premises (ie. does not include loads). But for understanding the complate operation of the system, including the load models becomes necessary, 1.3 One - Line diagram Power systems are extremely complicated electrical networks that are geographically spread over very large areas. For most part, they are also three phase networks - each power circuit consists of three conductors and all devices such as generators, transformers, breakers, disconnects etc. are installed in all three phases. an COMPONENT SYMBOL 1, | Line or cable or bus bar 2 | Circuit breaker —1}— or ——»— 3. | Rotating machine ——_O—_ 4. | Two- winding power transformer 2 og ae 3s 6 | Current transformer 7. | Potential transformer 8 or -83 Se 8. | Three - phase delta connection 5. | Three -w 3 | 9. | Three - phase star connection, neutral ungrounded 10, | Three - phase star connection, neutral solidly grounded 1. _| Three - phase star, neutral grounded through a reactor 12, | Three - phase star, neutral grounded through a resistor | eK | | | <]E> Table 1.18 Representation of Power System Components In fact, the power systems are so complex that a complete conventional diagram showing all the connections is impractical. Yet, it is desirable, that there is some concise way of communicating the basic arrangement of power system components. This is done by using SIngle-Line Diagrams (SLD). SLDs are also called One - Line Diagrams. Single Line Diagrams do not show the exact electrical connections of the circuits As the name suggests, SLDs use a single line do represent all three phases. They show the relative electrical interconnections of generators, transformers, transmission and distribution lines, loads, circuit breakers etc., which are used in assembling the power system, Besides the symbols of the components, the ratings and the impedances of the components are usually marked in the SLD. There are no universally accepted set of symbols used for SLDs. Often used symbols are shown in Table 1.1. The variations in symbols are usually minor and are not difficult to understand, Fig. 1.7 depicts the one-line diagram of a very simple power system. The ratings of the machines and their reactances are also shown. It consists of a solidly grounded generator connected to the transmission line (TL) through a step-up transformer (7). At the other end of the transmission line the transformer (T,) steps down the voltage and feeds the motor loads M, & + ) - am 3-0 —o+ Y ay rir 4 r-—@) G : 300 MVA, 20 kV, X" = 1.20 350 MVA, 230V Y/20 kVA, X = 15.20/ph. 300 MVA, 230V Y/13.2 kVA, X = 160/ph TL: l= 64 km. Xp, = 0.50 /km M, : 200 MVA, 13.2 kV, X" = 1.60 M, 100 MVA, 13.2 kV, = 1.60 Note: 1. The neutrals of synchronous machines are generally grounded through resistors or induotance coils ta reduce the current flow through the neutral during a fault. The coil so used is called a ground fault neutralizer or Petersen coil 2.Few components may or may not be shown in the one-line diagram depending on the information required in the particular system study. For instance, location of relays and circuit breakers are not important in load flow studies and they neod not be shawn in load flow diagrams. Whereas, information about circuit breakers is of extreme importance for protective study and is a must to be shawn in single-tine diagrams dealing with protective studies of power systemRepresentation of Power System Components 9 1.4 Impedance & Reactance diagrams Though the one-line diagram carries concise information about the system, it cannot be used directly to determine the performance of the system under load conditions or upon the occurrence of a system fault. It is necessary to obtain an equivalent circuit of the system for the purpose of analysis under the aforesaid conditions. The impedance and reactance diagram enter the screen at this juncture. The impedance diagram is obtained by replacing each component of the power system by its single-phase equivalent circuit. The synchronous machine is represented by an emf source in series with appropriate impedance. The transmission line is replaced by its equivalent TFcircuit, transformer by its equivalent circuit and loads by their equivalent impedances. Since balanced condition is assumed, the neutral grounding impedances do not appear in the impedance diagram The simplified diagram that is obtained after omitting all resistances, static loads, the magnetizing circuit of the transformers and the capacitance of the transmission lines in the impedance diagram is called the reactance diagram. The simplified representation of some of the important components of a power system is shown in Table 1.2. COMPONENT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT 4 Synchronous % generator Ey I Synchronous x motor ‘Transformer / Transmission Line STH. Table 1.2 Of course, omission of resistance introduces some error in the analysis. But, the results are satisfactory in most of the cases owing to the fact that the reactance of a system is much larger than its resistance. Fig. 1.8 shows the one-line diagram, equivalent impedance diagram and reactance diagram of a sample power system.10 Representation of Power System Components T,(20/230kV) T,(230/13.2kV) lage OY; x a (a) One-line diagram : ‘ FOOD. £050\_, OT__AN\ 1000. FOO. 1—O | ' Em Generator: Transformer ‘Transmission line ‘Transformer + Motor G Ty TL eS (b) Impedance diagram ' LTO : SOD. H SOTO. Ve : ' : ad 1 1 ' Benerator » Transformer | Thansmission line | ‘Transformer G if TL ; ny (c) Reactance diagram Fig. 1.8 It is re-emphasized here that only a balanced symmetrical three-phase system can be reduced to a system on single-phase basis. /n a balanced system, no current flows through the neutral & hence the current limiting impedances are not shown in the equivalent impedance and reactance diagrams. The impedance and reactance diagrams are also called as positive-sequence diagrams. This designation will become apparent in Chap. 4 where we discuss about sequence impedance and sequence networks It can be observed from the one-line diagram of Fig. 1.8 that there are three voltage levels (13.2, 20 & 230 kV) present in the system. For analyzing the system, allRepresentation of Power System Components 1 voltages and impedances have to be transformed to a selected voltage level, say that of transmission line (230 kV). The voltages of generators and motors are transformed in the ratio of transformation and all impedances by the square of the ratio of transformation. This is a very tedious procedure for a large interconnected network with several voltage levels. This problem is avoided by a normalization (or scaling) process known as per unit system which is discussed in the following section. 1.5 Per Unit (p.u.) system Per unit value of any quantity is defined as The actual value of the quantity in any unit The base or reference value in the same unit since the base value always has the same units as the actual value, the per unit value is dimensionless If we choose 50 A as the base current, then a current of 30A is equal to 30/50=0.6 in per unit, a current of 80A is equal to 80/50=1.6 in per unit. It is usual to express voltage, current, power and impedance of an electrical system in per unit quantities. 1.5.1 Per Unit System Applied to Single Phase Circults Let Base power = (VA), Base voltage = Vy Then (VA), Base current p=," 's Vy __Va Base impedance 2s i. WA) a Ifthe actual impedance is Z © then according to definition, the per unit impedance is Z _ 2(Q) x (VA), Fae 7ec RVs mea) In an actual power system network, the devices work at very high voltage and power levels. Hence practical choices of base values are : Base Power = (MVA), Base Voltage = (kV), _ 2(Q) x (MVA)y ptt (BV), ves (1.8)12 Representation of Power System Components 1.5.2 Per Unit System extended to three-phase Circuits Let the three-phase base power be (MVA),, and line-to-line base voltage be Y)g Assuming star connection (if the circuit is not in star, equivalent star can always be found for three-phase circuits). 1000 x (MVA)y Base current /, = ——=————* BV RV) 5 Base ImpedancerZqrmt oe neve BIR 1000 x (kV) 7 1000 x (MVA)y 3 ,, 1000 x (MVAY, Bx Be _ AV) 9" (MVA)y If the actual impedance is ZQ then, it’s per unit impedance can be computed as : z, 22) __2(9) pu Zq (RV) gE (MVA) 5 ‘MVA or Zpu =z(ayx Ms Da + (1.9) (RV), This formula is used for computing the per unit impedance of the apparatus. It can be observed that Eq.1.9 is identical with Eq.1.8. In single phase circuits, (MVA), is the single phase power and (kV), is the line-to-neutral voltage in kilo volts. In three phase circuits, (MVA), is the total three phase power and (kV), is the line-to-line voltage. Mote: a | 1.Sametimes percent values are used i Percent value = per unit value x 100. ee y ‘expressed! in per unit is per unit itself, 2 produ be divided by 100 Tale he fea ‘in percent. 2, The base value is always a real number, whereas t 4.6 Change in Base Quantities The impedance of a device or a component is usually specified in per unit or percent on the basis of its own rated power and rated voltage. In a large interconnected power system, there will be various devices each with different power and voltage ratings. Hence, it will be convenient for analysis to have a common base for theRepresentation of Power System Components 13 entire power system. Since impedances in any part of a system must be expressed on the common base. It is necessary to have a means of converting per unit impedances from one base to another. Let (RY)p.ojy and (MVA), .,4 Tepresent old base values and (kV)y ,., and (MVA), jew TePresent new base values. Then, by virtue of Eq. 1.9 we can write Zz = p.u. impedance of a circuit element on old base. ‘p.u,old _2(8) x (MYA), ot TT avin om s (110) Zu, new = P-U- impedance of a circuit element on new base _ 2(Q) x (MVA)s, new . (1) AVYE, new Dividing equation (1.11) by equation (1.10) and rearranging, we get zy LMVAYa new ,. AVIS, ot p.u.,old * (MVA) ao (VIB, new o. (.12) Eq, (1.12) can be used to convert the p.u. impedance express on one base value (old) to another base (new) Z, Du.,mew SOLVED EXAMPLES Example 1.1 : Calculate the per unit impedance of a synchronous motor rated 200 kVA, 13.2 kV and having a reactance of 50 Q/ph. Solution : The ratings of the machine itself is considered as base values. Base voltage (kV), = 13.2 KV. Base power (MVA)g = me 0.2 MVA. Then, the reactance of the motor in p.u. is given as (mva),, (kV) 5” x 0.2) “03.2% = 0.0574 p.u. Xpu,= X(Q) Example 1.2 : The primary and secondary sides of a single phase I MVA, 4 kV/2 kV transformer have a leakage reactance of 2. each. Find the p.u.14 Representation of Power System Components reactance of the transformer referred to the primary and secondary side. Solution Base values (MVA), = 1 MVA Primary base voltage (kV,), = 4 kV. Secondary base voltage (kV), = 2 KV. Also, it is given that X, = Primary Side The total impedances as referred to the primary side Xj, = X, + X,' 2 where, X,'= x(a) R ndai The total impedance as referred to the secondary side is Xy, = X, + X,' 2 where, X\'= Xi) rel RV; 2 “A) 4 =0.59. Xop = 2+ 0.5 = 250. (MVA) p X = a (Xoo) pu. = Xo2l! Dm vay? 1 =i = 0.625 p.u.Representation of Power System Components 15 From (1) & (2), it can be observed that the p.u. reactance of the transformer referred to primary side & secondary side is the same, though their ohmic values are different. In the next problem, we prove this as a general case. Example 1.3 : Show that the per unit impedance of a transformer is the same irrespective of the side on which it is calculated. Solution : Let, (MVA),, = rated MVA of the transformer. (RV,), = Base voltage in the primary side. (kV,), = Base voltage in the secondary side. Also, let Z,q, be the impedance of the transformer referred to primary side and Zen the impedance as referred to the secondary. We have, (MVA) (Zeat) 4, = Zeqi()* iva? d a) (MVA) 5 and (Zeq2)p 4 = Zeqp(Q)x vag? _@ Where, (RV) 3” Zeqa(Q) = Zeqi(Q)* ue = (3) (eVi)g Substituting Eq. (3) in Eq. (2), we get, (V2)? (MvA) \Z, =Zegix x eet ga Feta) P veg (MVA), =Zeq(Q uals eo Oat = Cea a Thus, it is proved that the per unit impedance of a transformer is the same whether computed from primary or secondary side. Example 1.4 : A three winding transformer has rating as follows : Primary : Y connected, 6.6 kV, 15 MVA. Secondary : ¥ connected, 33 kV, 10 MVA. Tertiary : \ connected, 2.2 kV, 7.5 MVA.16 Representation of Power System Components Leakage impedance measured from primary side as 2s = §0.2382., Z a JO.22) and on the secondary side Z,, = 8.72. Find the star connected equivalent on a base of 15 MVA, 6.6 KV in the primary circuit. Neglect resistances. Solution : Base values Primary side : (VA), = 15 MVA, QV De = 6.6 kV Secondary side : (MVA), = 15 MVA, (kV,)y = 66x38 =33 kV Per unit leakage impedance. Therefore, AC 08 +0.1-0.12) = j0.03p.u. Men tye) | = $(0.12+0.08-01) | = j0.05p.u 2 Lo.r+0 1-0.08) = j0.07p.u. Hence, the star connected equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 1.9.Representation of Power System Components 17 Example 1.5 : Three generators are rated as follows : nerator 1 - 100 MVA, 33 kV, reactance 10%. enerator 2 - 150 MVA, 32 kV, reactance 8%. srator 3 - 110 MVA, 30 kV, reactance 12%. Determine the reactance of the generator corresponding to base values of 0 MVA, 35 kV. olution : Here, the reactances of the generators are specified on the basis of their own ited MVA and kV. We consider this as old values. Therefore, (Xz) =0.1 on 100 MVA, 32 kV. pat, old (Xe), gua = 0-08 07 150 MVA, 32 kV. (Xe) ou, oud =O? on 110 MVA, 30 kV. new base values are 200 MVA, 35 KV. Hence using the formula (VAYB, new V9, ott Xpu., new = “p.u., old * Sarva aaa Ge, sae ‘We get, U5) ps new =*(55)* a =0.177 p.u, (pa new = 8*{ 50 )% oe = 0.08916 p.u. (45), new °° 12x me oF = 0.1603 p.u.18 Representation of Power System Components Example 1.6 : A d.c. series motor rated at 220V, 100A has an armature resistanc of 0.152 and field resistance of 0.20. The friction and windage loss is 1650W Calculate the efficiency of the machine by using per unit system. Solution : Base values (KV), = 0.22 KV. The base current = 0.1 kA Hence, the base power = (MVA), = 0.22 x 0.1 = 0.022 MVA The total resistance of the machine = R = 0.15 + 0.2 = 0.350 (MVA) y 2 (kV), 0.022 x (0.22)? = 0.159 p.u. Ryu. = RQ) = 0.35 At rated load, the copper loss of the machine in p.u. is z (ty 0.159 = 0.15: Fa Rou, =| gy} %0-159= 0.159 pu. 1650 220x100 Hence, the total loss = 0.159 + 0.075 = 0.235 p.u. Let the rated output be 1 p.u. Friction and windage loss in p.u. is =0.075 p.u. The efficiency = =0.81=81%. 1 140.234 1.7 Advantages of per unit computations The greatest advantage of using per unit values is that it considerably simplifies the calculations thus making the analysis of the system easier. The other advantage are : (1) Per unit impedance of transformers is the same referred to either side of it. (Wé have proved this as well!) The method of connection of transformers (Y-Y, Y-A etc) do not effect the per uni impedance of the transformer. Manufacturers usually specify the impedance of an apparatus in per unit or cr 2 (3 value on the name plate based on the power rating and voltage rating of the apparatus. Thus the rated impedance can be used directly in any analysis if th base chosen are the same as the nameplate ratings of the apparatus. In case of machines, the absolute (ohmic) values of impedance may differ widel based on the constructing materials and the ratings of the machines. Howevel the per unit impedances would lie within a narrow range. Therefore, where actu: values are not known, a good approximate value can be used. Typical values fi various equipments are available from many sources and reference books. aRepresentation of Power System Components 19 (5) The tools of circuit analysis (ex ; Kirchoff's laws, Thevnin's theorem) may be directly applied to circuits with components in per unit values (6) For simulating the steady state and transient models in computer, the per unit method is very handy Note : The per unit system is not without any drawbacks : 1.Same equations that hold in the un-scaled case are modified when scaled into per unit. Factors such as 3 and 3 are removed or added by the method. 2, Equivalent circuits of the components are modified, making them some what more abstract. S.Sometimes phase shifts that are clearly present in the un-scaled circuit are eliminated in the per unit cirevit. 1.8 Per Unit impedance & reactance diagrams In these diagrams, the impedance or reactance of the components are not expressed in their ohmic values, but in per unit values expressed on a common base. This greatly simplifies the task involved in analysis. Procedure to form per unit reactance diagram from one-line diagram From a single-line diagram of a power system we can directly draw the p.u, reactance (or impedance) diagram by following the steps given below : (1) Choose a base power [(kVA), or (MVA),]. This value remains the same for all sections of the power system and preferably is the rated kVA or MVA of one of the electrical apparatus of the system. In case of three phase power system, the (kVA), or (MVA),, is the three phase power rating. (2) Select a base voltage (kV), for one section of power system. In case of three phase power system, the (kV), is the line voltage. This should preferable be the rated kV of the apparatus whose power rating has been taken as the base. Various sections of a power system work at different voltage levels and the voltage conversion is achieved by means of transformers. Hence, the base voltage of one section of the power system should be converted to base voltage corresponding ‘o another section using the transformer voltage ratio. In case of a three-phase transformer (or bank of three single phase transformers), line-to-line voltage ratio is used to transfer the base voltage on one section to another. (kV)y on HT section =(kV)y on LT section x #7 voltage rating LT voltage rating LT voltage rating kV, LT section = (kV), on HT section (kV)g on LT section = (kV), ection XAT voltage rating20 Representation of Power System Components (3) In preparing a network solution, the MVA base chosen applies throughout the network. Any per unit impedance given on any other base must be converted to the chosen MVA base before solving the network. When the specified reactance of the component is in ohms then, yx, -X(2) x MVADg ae (RV)y? When the specified reactance of the component is in p.u. on the component rating as base values, then consider the component rating as old base values and selected base values as new bases. Now the p.u. reactance on new base can be calculated using the formula: (HVA) new, CRVY out x ee eee eee pwc CMVAYg oa ORV YE. new pu..new Did you know? 1. “As per one of the statistics, India a. Has the largest power system network among developing countries b. Is the fourteenth largest power system in the world c. Is the sixth largest energy consumer in the world 2. According to the Ministry of Power, Government of India website, power generation in the year 2008-09 was about 723 billion kWh. It was less than 200 billion kWh in 1986-87 Severe power shortage is a major obstacle to India’s development. Nearly i 40% of Indians, mostly in rural areas, still have no access to electricity 4. The Government of India has an ambitious mission of ‘POWER FOR ALL BY 2012 SOLVED EXAMPLES Example 1.7 : Draw the reactance diagram of the system shown in Fig. 1.10. Tht ratings of the components are G : 15 MVA, 6.6 kV, X" = 12%, t= 20 MVA, 6.6/66 kV, X = 8% T, = 20 MVA, 66/6.6 kV, X = 8% M, & M, : 5 MVA, 6.6 kV, X" = 20%, = wa. [+-—) Y |-—) Yy Fig. 1.10Representation of Power System Components 21 Solution : Base values Let us consider the ratings of the generator as base values. Base power, (MVA), = 15 MVA. (This is the same for the entire system). Base voltage on the generator G = 6.6 kV. Various sections of the power system works at different voltage levels. Hence, the base voltages are different in the different sections. The voltage conversion is achieved by means of transformer voltage ratio. 66 _ 6e Base voltage on the transmission line TL= 6.6% =66 kV. Base voltage on the motors My & My = 66x90 =6.6kV. These values are used as the new base values for calculation of p.u. reactances of the different components Reactance of generator G CVA, new, (VY, ott ew = oll * TVA) on (RV a. new = Xa. old Cavayy oy “(avy a5 oy (15) (6.6) =j0.12p.u, = j0.12x This value is the same as given because, the new base values are selected on its rating. Reactance of transformer T, (MVADE, new . YY, ott (MVA)p, oa” (RV) Xr, new = Xr1, old * 2 B, new (a5) (66? = j0.08% (20) ° (66)? = j0.06 p.u. Reactance of 602 transmission line TL (vA) Xp, = X(Q)x connected to HT side of transformer T,. (kV) 15 = j60x—~, FP = 0.207 p.u.22 Representation of Power System Components Reactance of transformer T., 2 (MVAp, new YB, ota X72, new = X11, old * 7 “(wy 72, ne Th old” (MVAYB, oid (RV) ery Reactance of motors M, & M, These are connected to LT side of transformer T,, since the ratings of both the machines are the same. 2 (MVA)s, new (eV) 5. old Xx, = Xmo, new = Xm, of X= 5 M1, new M2, net MI, old * (MVA)p. ota (avy B, new = 9,20) GY (5) (6.6) = 0.6 p.u The reactance diagram is as shown in Fig. 1.11 j0.06 0.207 j0.06 Example 1.8 : Obtain the impedance diagram of the electrical power system shown in Fig. 1.12. Mark all impedance values in per unit on a base of 50 MVA, 138 kV in the 402 line. The machine ratings are : G, : 20 MVA, 13.2 kV, X" = 15%. G, : 20 MVA, 13.2 kV, X" = 15%. M : 30 MVA, 6.9 kV, X" = 20%, Three-phase Y-Y transformers : 20 MVA, 13.8/138 kV, X = 10%. Three-phase Y-\ transformers : 15 MVA, 6.9/138 kV, X = 10%.Representation of Power System Components 23 ¥™% YY pH j2m j200 EE YM YUU = UU annm mmm a “4 Es xem 4 Fig. 1.12 Solution Base power, (MVA), = 50 MVA. Base voltage on the /40Q transmission line = 138 kV. Base voltage on the generator G; a = 13.8 kV. Base voltage on the generator Gp=138x\58 = 13.8 kV. fate Vollage on the 200 transmission lines, ae 138 kV. Base voltage on the motor Mf =138% "= 6.9 kV. Reactance of 400 transmission line Xn xaos ry = j0.105 p.u.24 — Representation of Power System Components Reactances of generators G, & G, The generators G, & G, are identical. Hence their p.u, reactances are same. (MVADG, new. OV, ont Ker nn = Xt new = XO. ot Cinayy eee” Gave ot ‘B, new = jos (MVS, new , (Va, ott Xs, new = X73, old T3, new ‘3, old (MVA)p, old (kV), en xO 2? (a5) (22° = j0.143 p.u. Reactance of generator G, 2 p “xe px VAD new OV ., ota 3, new = X63. 014 CAVAYy oa (VEE, ns 2 = 19" aE = j0.275 p.u. Using the above values, the reactance diagram is as constructed in Fig. 1.15. 0.2 70.826 0.1033 0.1667Representation of Power System Components 29 Example 1.9 : Fig. 1.16 shows the schematic diagram of a radial transmission system. The ratings and reactances of the various components are shown therein. A load of 60 MW at 0.9 p.f. lagging Is tapped from the 66 kV substation which is to be maintained at 60 kV. Calculate the terminal voltage of the machine. Represent the transmission line and transformer by series reactances only. 11/220 kV 220/66 kV 60 KV 3 S c= + 6oMW, 3 0.9 pl lag Yi 1oomva. looMvA V2 X=10% X=8% Fig. 1.16 Solution : Base values Let the base power, (MVA), throughout the system be 100 MVA. Base voltage in the transmission line = 220 kV. 66 Base voltage on the load = Ha sre = 66 KV. Base voltage on the generator side = 20x Ue = 1KY, Reactance of 11/220 kV transformer 2 : ey pe MYA. new YY B, ont Ti, new = ATi, old* 7, | a (MVA)B, od (RV)5 new . = 59 yy. (100) ,, (220)? = 401% A o5) x (20! =j0.1p.u. Reactance of /150Q transmission line (MVA) 5 (kV) ,? 100 (220 =j0.31p.u. Xr = Xn(2)x = j150xRepresentation of Power System Components 30 Reactance of 220/66 kV transformer 2 (MVADe, new VIB. 14 x; =X; x Ta new 072,018 OUVAYE, oid (RV), neuy — 008 (100) ,, (220)? = 10-08 90) * (2202 = 0.08 pu Impedance of load The exact value of the impedance of the load is not required in this problei However, if inevitably required to calculate, then it can-be determined using th formula (2 VY; z-lKl P-jQ Where, V, = Voltage at the terminals of the load = Active component of the power at the load Q = Reactive component of power at the load. Hence, the reactance diagram of the system is as shown in Fig. 1.17. 0.1 0.31 0.08 OOO. ——- | ; 8 Vey ¥, [ Jeon 76 Fig, 1.17 em: I vi Vg, = terminal voltage of the machine V, = Load voltage 1, = Load current v, =60 Kv = SOY 9 909 pu 66 kVRepresentation of Power System Components 3]. P =I == —— £- cos 4 BV, cos ® 60x10 = = 6-081 0.9 V3 x 60x10? x0.9 = 641.5 2-25.84° A. For computation, the value of /, should be in p.u.. Hence, first we determine the base current /, using 1000 x(MVA) , BYE =(kV) g _ 1000x100 v3 x (66) =874.77 A. , I, _ 641.52-25.84° Ty in p= te = 84.52—25.84" _ 9 733 7 -25.84° p.u. cas 2 874.77 F From Fig. 1.17, it can be observed that Varo =O pu. +42 (Xri+ Xiu + Xra) = 0.909 + 0.7332 ~25.84° (j0.1+ j0.31+ j0.08) ).909 + 0.359 264.16° ).909 + 0.156 + j 0.323 = (1.065 + 0.323) =1.112 216.87° p.u. Ver in kilovolts =(Ver),,,, x base voltage on the generator Pa. =LNM2x1 [Vopl = 12.232 kv. This is the desired answer. Example 1.11 : A 300 MVA, 20 kV, 30 generator has a reactance of 20%. The generator supplies two motors M, & M, over a transmission line of 64 km as shown in one - line diagram. The ratings of the components are as follows : T, = 350 MVA, 230 kV-¥/20 kV-A, X = 10%,