IMPACT OF SPORTS PARTICIPATION ON SOCIAL WELL-BEING AMONG

UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

A Thesis presented to

The Department of Behavioral Sciences

College of Liberal Arts

De La Salle University

In partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the degree of Bachelor of Arts in Sports Studies

By:

Boac, Elijah Abdel G.

Cayanan, Carlos Antonie J.

April 2016

CHAPTER ONE
 INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Various studies had proven how beneficial sports participation can be to

the overall physical health of an individual. Researches had shown how engaging

in physical activities could promote weight loss, increase metabolism, and burn

up unwanted calories which helps a person attain a leaner and healthier body,

reduces the risk of cardiorespiratory illness, and strengthen the skeletal and

muscular systems. But sports does not just affect the physical well-being, but

also an individual's development as a person and relationship with other people

in the society. In addition, participation in sports improves psychological well-

being among individuals. (Mcveigh et.al, 2009).

Mental health is defined as a state of well-being in which the individual

realizes his or her own (WHO, 2010). This conceptualization of mental health

underscores the inclusion of positive social well-being factors such as high self-

concept, mastery, and successful coping and problem solving. (Rose et.al, 2014).

Social well-being is a sense of involvement with other people and with the

community. Social well-being is not just being happy but also about being actively

engaged with life and with other people.

Sports can be a major contributing factor in ones social well-being. It

builds camaraderie and sportsmanship, which creates strong ties between

individuals taking part in it. In addition, it creates positive relationships with

coaches, make new friends, and develop teamwork and social skills among

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individuals. (Holt et. al, 2011). There are reports that participation in team sports

is associated with better health due to the social nature of sports and that the

health benefits are enhance through positive involvement of peers and adults

(Eime et.al, 2013)

According to Durkheims Social Integration Theory, individuals are social

beings whose lives are immeasurably shaped by the nature of their social

relationships. It is the extent to which we interact or associate with other people

and to which we believe in something larger than ourselves. This theory by

Durkheim was used to explain suicide, crime, health, political performance,

economic growth, etc.

Most of the studies about social well-being in the Philippines are taken in

the context of psychological being as an umbrella construct (e.g. Perez, 2012).

Meanwhile, other studies have examined such concept in the context of quality of

life (e.g. Ngelangel, 2008) There seems to be a limited research concerning

social well-being as an independent construct. Moreover, studies in the

relationship between sports participation and its impact on social well-being are

limited if not absent. This proposed study focuses solely on the effects on the

social well-being of the university students by participating in sports.

Review of Related Literature

This section, which is the literature review, present existing studies that

looked into sports participation and how this is being shaped by some socio-

demographic factors and how in the process participation in sports promote

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better social well-being. This section is divided into five (5) parts namely: reasons

for participation, nature of participation, factors influencing sports participation,

and impacts of sports in overall social well-being.

Impacts of Sports on Social Well Being

Social well-being or other scholars would call it as social health refers to a

complex and multifaceted construct, but has predominantly been studied from

two main perspectives: The hedonic and tradition of subjective well-being

(Deiner, 2009) and the eudaimonic tradition of psychological well-being (Keyes,

1998). SWB includes life satisfaction (i.e. a long-term cognitive evaluation of

satisfaction in diverse domains of the persons life) and happiness (i.e. the

perceived balance between positive and negative affect) (Diener, Lucas, & Oishi,

2005). The social function and perceived flourishing in ones social life is labeled

as social well being, and it includes a person/s perception of social acceptance,

social actualization, social contribution, social coherence, and social integration

(Keyes & Lopez, 2005).

Social well-being consists of several elements that indicate the degree of

an individuals function in their social lives.There are five dimensions of social

well-being namely: Social integration, social contribution, social coherence, social

acceptance, and social actualization. (Keyes, 1998)

Social integration is the evaluation of the quality of ones relationship to

the society and community. People must try to cultivate a genuine sense of

belonging in a world where they do not live their entire lives basking in the

unconditional love of family or friends. Healthy individuals feel that they are part

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of societyit is therefore the extent to which people feel they have something in

common with others who constitute their social reality as well as the degree to

which they feel they belong to their communities and society.

Social contribution is the evaluation of ones value to society. It includes

the belief that one is a vital member of society, with something of value to give to

the world. Adults struggle to feel like and be valuable contributors to a world that

does no value them equally or value them merely for being human.

Social coherence is the perception of the quality, organization, and

operation of the social world, and it includes a concern for knowing about the

world. Innumerable events occur daily, some positive and other negative, some

inexplicable and other predictable, some positive and others more distal. As

such, another challenge is for people to strive to make sense of a busy, complex

world. Socially healthy individuals care about the machinations of society and

feel they can understand what is happening around them. Such people do not

delude themselves that they live in a perfect world; they have maintained or

promoted the desire to make sense of life. Social coherence is the analogous

opposite of meaningless-ness in life and involves appraisal that society is

discernable, sensible, and predictable.

Social actualization is the evaluation of the potential and the trajectory of

society. This is the belief in the evolution of society and the sense that society

has potential that is being realized through its institutions and citizens. It is a

challenge, however, to perceive growth and positive development in a world that

does not automatically change or improve for all people. Healthier people are

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hopeful about the condition and future of society, can recognize the potential that

resides in a collective, and believe the world can improve for people like

themselves.

Social acceptance is the construal of society through the character and

qualities of other people as a generalized category. Society consists of a diversity

of people, most of whom we will never know personally. Individuals must function

in a public arena that consists primarily of strangers. Individuals who illustrate

social acceptance trust others, think that others are capable of kindness, and

believe that people can be industrious. Socially accepting people hold favorable

views of human nature and feel comfortable with others. (Keyes, 2004)

Access to and participation in sport is human right and essential for

individuals of all ages to lead healthy and fulfilling lives. Also it brings individuals

and communities together, bridging cultural or ethnic divides that will establish

social networks (Holt, 2009). It is a key component of social life, directly engaging

communities that bring people together in a fun and participatory way. It creates

social relationships, build connections and improve communication between

individuals and groups. It is also a way of developing a community-based identity

with corresponding positive effects and developmental value such as learning to

strive for excellence, to work hard and to work in teams, to be resilient and to

persist.

Although the beneficial effects of sport for development are still not exploited

to their full extent, sport can help bridge cultural and ethnic divides, creates jobs

and businesses, promote tolerance and non-discrimination, reinforce social

6
integration, and advocate healthy lifestyles. Through sports development and

participation, we can achieve human development goals. Sport cannot be a

panacea to solve all the issues of society nor a priority compared to life-

substances needs of disadvantaged communities. It can generate many positive

effects and be a valuable tool for development. It is both a means and an end in

itself (Fox, 2008).

While most studies examine the obvious functions of sports, that is to develop

physical and psychological well-being of individuals, this proposed study dwell on

the impacts of sports on an individual social well-being. But what is social well-

being? Social well-being has been defined by Keyes (1998, p.122) as the

appraisal of ones circumstance and functioning in society. Social well-being

was not very prominent in the athletes descriptions, plausibly because it likely

increases with age (Keyes, 1998). Descriptions related to social well-being

among student athletes included the importance of being a part of coherence in

which the society accepts you (individual) unconditionally and you (as part of the

society) can exchange experiences with each other.

At a sport contextual level, coherence was referred to as being part of an

athletic and team coherence. It involved the inner perception of being liked by

other athletes on the team and that others accept you for who and what you are.

Some athletes described their teammates as a family who shared their interests

and provided support and motivation. Friends within sport also shared the

experiences of the demands involved in being an athlete, and provided by the

opportunity to have fun during travels, practice and competitions. Social health

also included seeing others positive characteristics, rejoicing in others

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successes, offering consolation in adversity, and offering unconditional support

regardless of the performance.

Nature of Participation

Many studies have found that people start engaging in physical activities

or playing sport and stick with it because they enjoy it. It is fun and provides them

with intrinsic rewards. According to a 1992 research, 8,000 youth ranked that

their primary reason for participating in sport was having fun. More study

confirms that sustained participation in sports is related to an ongoing positive

experience, which includes having fun, improving skills, and having positive

interactions with peers and adults. Three most common reasons for taking part in

sport and recreation are fitness and health, enjoyment and social reasons. These

reasons are the same for the men and women and across participants of all

ages, ethnicities, socio-economic backgrounds and locations. However, some

reasons are more or less important to some groups (particularly men and

women). According to a statistical study by Sports and Active Recreation of

Australia, 90.7% said that their reason for participating in sport and recreation

was for fitness and health, while 87.9% was for their enjoyment and 52.9% said

that it was for social reasons.

For a person to be able to effectively engage in sport one must first

understand Sport Culture. And in order for a person to easily participate in

sport, the sporting experience were categorized in the following ways: (1)

Spectators, the largest people group within the sport culture. Their involvement in

sport includes attendance in events or having access in sport through the media;

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(2) Novices, which includes people who are new or in the introductory level of a

sport. Their skills are very basic and they have no or with minimum level of

experience but contrary to this, they are those people who tend to be active

learners and who seek to improve their performance; (3) Leisure, category in

which most sport participants are part of. For these people sport is played mainly

for recreation, fitness and fun; (4) Players, the characteristics of people in this

category are competitive, performance based and internally driven to be the best.

Oftentimes players tend to link their self-image into their sport. Someone

who plays competitive sport usually gives emphasis on winning, training and

performance especially if their sense of self-worth is tied to their sport; (5) Elite,

the people in this category has all the characteristics of a player but with

additional weight of expectation and greater rewards (e.g. financial rewards and

other privileges); (6) High-Profile ,this is the smallest and most exclusive

category within the sport culture people from this category has all the

characteristics of a player and an elite but with addition of greater fame not just

on a team level but more on the national up to an international level of being well

known. Because of their celebrity status, high-profile sportspeople tends to feel

that they are exempt from the rules of the society.

Studies suggests that there are significant difference between participation

motives and some demographic variables such as age, gender and preference.

Researches indicated that male and female have different motivations for

participating in sport. Males are usually motivated by intrinsic factors such as

strength, competition and challenge while females are motivated by extrinsic

factors like weight management and appearance (Egli, et al, 2011). So it is very

9
much likely that males participate in competitive sport while females participate in

wellness and fitness activities. Age has always been a factor in sports

participation, as a person gets older their motivation to participate in sport

decreases. There are also age-related differences in reasons for engaging in

physical activities, younger individuals are usually concerned by interpersonal

attraction outcomes, while older individuals are usually concerned by health

outcomes (Trujillo, Brougham, and Walsh, 2004). Therefore younger people

usually participate in sports which would elevate their interpersonal attraction

outcome, whereas older people engage in sport which would keep them healthy

and fit.

Perhaps the biggest difference between team and individual sports is what

motivates athletes. In solo activities, such as long-distance running, the athlete is

responsible for the training and strategy required to ensure his or her own

success, whereas in a group sport like football, team members must work

together toward victory. Most people are familiar with the concept of intrinsic and

extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is the drive to do something for its own

sake (Deci 1975), and extrinsic would be the oppositedoing something as a

means to an end, like a reward or punishment (Vallerand 2007). One theory of

motivation, Self-Determination Theory, expands upon intrinsic motivation, stating

that it aims to satisfy the three psychological needs of competence, relatedness,

and autonomy (Ryan and Deci 2000). One study found that athletes involved in

individual sports experienced greater feelings of autonomy than their team-based

counterparts, possibly due to greater freedom to make decisions (Gillet and

Rosner 2008).

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 Individual athletes may exhibit higher levels of intrinsic motivation in terms

of autonomy, but team athletes could have an advantage in terms of relatedness.

In addition, extrinsic motivation is an effective and not necessarily negative

phenomenon. Deci and Ryan (1985) expand upon Self-Determination Theory to

address extrinsic motivation, some types of which still involve varying levels of

autonomy. The first type, arguably the most classic example of extrinsic

motivation and also the least autonomous, would be external regulation, which is

motivation on the basis of external factors such as rewards or punishment. This

would be the grade school student who joins the softball team in order to earn a

trip to Disneyland that her fitness-conscious mother promised to reward that

behavior.

The next type of extrinsic motivation is introjected regulation, which is

prompted by pressure imposed upon the individual by his or her own volition,

such as the risk of guilt or anxiety if he or she does not attend a practice. The

third type, identified regulation, is more autonomous and involves freely choosing

a behavior because it will be beneficial in the long run even though it is not

inherently pleasant. An example of identified regulation would be a football player

who dislikes eating vegetables, but does anyway because he knows a balanced

diet will improve his performance. The last described type of extrinsic motivation,

also with a fair amount of autonomy, is integrated regulation, which involves

making choices to balance various aspects of the self, such as a swimmer who

postpones a late-night movie with friends in order to perform well at her swim

meet the next morning (Vallerand 2007).

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 Differences between individual and team athletes are apparent when it

comes to motivation and training, but does the nature of a sport affect

performance during competition? A good indicator of this would be how often

athletes enter the zone, or a state of psychological flow. Flow is described as an

optimal psychological state in which the perceived challenge of a given activity is

balanced with an individuals ability, which involves complete absorption and

focus in the activity (Csikszentmihalyi 1990). Research indicates the positive

relationship between athletes experience of psychological flow and optimal

performance (Jackson et al. 2001). Nine factors have been found to help

facilitate flow in athletic performance: pre-competition preparation plans such as

repeated rituals, confidence and positive thinking, physical preparation, good

performance during warmups, focus, optimal environmental conditions, positive

coach/team relationships, optimal pre-competition arousal, and motivation

(Jackson 1995).

Several studies have investigated the effect of sport type on achieving a

state of flow among athletes. It is possible that factors more likely to be

experienced by athletes in team sports, such as lower levels of intrinsic

motivation and negative interactions with coaches and team members, could be

more likely to disrupt flow and subsequent performance. In spite of this

possibility, research indicates that the experience of flow is universal among

athletes regardless of what sport they play (Young and Pain 1999). Additionally, a

specific analysis of flow state in college athletes in team and individual sports

failed to indicate a statistically significant relationship between type of sport and

occurrence of flow state (Russell 2001).

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Reason for Participation

There are various reasons why people participate in sports. These reasons

were divided into two models, namely, (1) power performance and (2) pleasure

participation. J. Coackley developed these two sport models with distinctive

characteristics in 2007. The pleasure and participation model and power and

performance model can be used to illustrate how involvement in sports can

result in different experiences and patterns of socialization outcomes. The

pleasure and participation model places an emphasis on good health, enjoyment,

personal expression, social relationships, and creating an inclusive environment.

In contrast, the power and performance model places an emphasis on defeating

others, dominating opponents in order to win, risking personal well-being through

physical traits of strength, speed and power. It is important to note that elements

of both models are evident in many common examples of sport.

However, the contrasting models reflect distinctive and conflicting

ideologies in society. The power and performance model emphasizing strength,

speed and power is considered the main model of sport in United States (U.S)

and provides an advantage to primarily males who exemplify those

characteristics (Rinehart, 2005). Disadvantaged are other males and females

who may have fewer opportunities for sport involvement and feel less inclined to

participate when given the opportunity to do so. Many reasons youth experience

socio-positive outcomes and are motivated to participate can be linked to

characteristics of Coakleys (2009) pleasure and participation model.

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 Characteristics of pleasure and participation model and the power and

performance model can be used to illustrate how sport reflects different forms,

which often result in different experiences and patterns of socialization outcomes

(Coakley, 2009). The pleasure and participation is defined as a framework for an

organizational structure emphasizing democratic leadership, inclusive

participation, and the use of cooperation and competition with others to develop

and test skills in a healthy and enjoyable context. An example of this sport form

could be the trend toward alternative sports. The term alternative/recreational

refers to sports, which encompass a wide variety of physical activities and serve

as alternatives to organized sports.

Characteristics of power and performance model is defined as a framework

for an organizational structure emphasizing hierarchical leadership, exclusive

participation, and the use of strength, speed and power to push human limits and

dominate opponents in the quest for competitive success (Coakley, 2009). An

example representing this sport form could be the trend toward a performance

ethics that encourages sport participants to define the quality of their experiences

solely on skill development through a hierarchal paradigm in which one

compares themselves to others. In this model, excellence is demonstrated

through success and winning indicates success. Winning is valued more highly if

hard work, dedication, sacrifice, risk and pain are evidenced. With this kind of

mentality, the body is viewed as a machine and the training and performance

should be technologically enhanced and scientific because coaches are in

control and players should be subordinate to the coaches.

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 Apart from these models, existing literature suggest that reasons for

participation in sports could either be attributable to personal (psychological,

cognitive, physical) and social motivations. Participating in sports affects the

mental and emotional health of an individual due to the psychological effects that

exercise has on the body. Sports can also be another form of mental therapy for

people with psychological disorders and depression. Sports promote self-esteem

in the form of positive perception of body image and self-worth. By participating

in sports with others, people can also enter in positive social environments to

promote psychological health.

Sports can also decrease the risk of cognitive decline that comes with aging

and can reduce anxiety in adolescents. Smits & Otto (2013) researched and

analyzed the results of dozens of studies involving exercise and mental health,

and concluded that exercise can help reduce depression, anxiety, and can be

especially beneficial to people who lack access to traditional treatments, such as

drugs or counseling. Smits & Otto (2013) recommended not only focusing on the

long-term gains provided by physical activity, but also the immediate, short-term

gains. According to Smits, After 25 minutes of exercising, your mood improves,

you are less stressed, you have more energy and youll be motivated to

exercise again tomorrow. A bad mood is no longer a barrier to exercise; it is the

very reason to exercise.

In fact, Alexander (2006) studied that young children, teenagers and young

women, adults and other adults have different motivators to participate in

physical activities or sports. Young children were more likely to participate in

sports because of their experimentation and parental support. Participation for

15
young children was found to be more enjoyable when children were not being

forced to compete and win, but encouraged to experiment with different activities

with parental support (MacPhail et al, 2013). One motivation for teenager and

young women to participate in sports is the pressure to conform to popular ideals

of beauty as important reasons for them being physically active (Flintoff and

Sacrton, 2008). But social support from family and significant others at key

transitional phases (such as changing in schools) was essential to maintaining

participation. Those who continued participating through this transition period

recalled the importance of positive influences at school in becoming and staying

physically active.

Adults motivation to participate in sport is for them to have a sense of

achievement, skill development and for them to spend luxury time and be away

from their daily responsibilities. The enjoyment and social networks offered by

sport and physical activities are clearly motivators for many different groups of

people aged between 18 to 50 years. Meanwhile, Hardcastle and Taylor (2010)

suggest that a complex interplay of physical, psychological and environmental

factors influence participation among older people. Older adults identified the

health benefits of physical activity in terms of reducing the effects of aging and

being fit and able to play with grandchildren.

Sports and other physical activities have innumerable physical health

benefits, including improved cardio respiratory and muscular fitness, bone health,

increased life expectancy, and coronary health. Physical activities can also help

prevent various types of cancer and weight gain (Cohen, 2013), and it also helps

to lose and maintain a healthy weight. Physical activity improves blood

16
circulation, increases coordination and stamina, prevents bone loss and may

help individual to live longer. According to the American Heart Association, an

active lifestyle can reduce coronary heart disease by 30-40 percent. Additionally,

moderate exercise can reduce the chance of getting a stroke by 20 percent,

which increases to 27 percent with regular, intense physical activity. In addition,

people who participate in regular exercise have a decreased risk of heart

disease, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, colon cancer, lung cancer and breast

cancer (Hereford, 2011).

With regular participation in physical activity and sports, physical fitness

components such as muscle strength, endurance, cardiovascular endurance,

flexibility, agility, speed, bone density and were most likely to develop which was

very common attributes to athletes. Regular participation in physical activity has

been shown to reduce the morbidity and mortality from many chronic diseases

(Crowe, 2012). Physical fitness according to (Bonnie, 2012) is considered a

measure of the bodys ability to function efficiently and effectively in work and

leisure activities, to be healthy, to resist hypo kinetic diseases, and to meet

emergency situations and it is generally achieved through physical activity and

exercise, correct nutrition, enough rest (good quality sleep) and stress

management and relaxation.

Furthermore, according to Coalter (2005) participating in sport can improve

the quality of life of individuals and communities promote social inclusion and

widen horizons. According to New York University Langone Medical Centers

Child Study Center, sports teams are a small stage for social interactions to play

and grow, Children experiment within the social interactions to play and grow.

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Children experiment within the social construct of the sports team to develop

communication skills and conflict resolution skills. Even adults develop

communication skills as part of a sports team. Teenagers especially gain social

benefits from playing sport. Due to the increase in confidence from sports,

teenagers who play in sports do not give into peer pressure as easily as those

that do not play sports.

This means that teenagers and children active in sports do not engage in

risky behavior at the same level as their peers. A study published in Pediatric and

Adolescent Medicine reported that out of 14,000 high school athletes, the ones

who regularly played sports were less likely to use drugs. Likewise, a survey

performed by the National Household Survey of Drug Abuse showed that

students who played sports were less likely to have smoked cigarettes or used

drugs and were more likely to disapprove of using them. Also, the Womens

Sports Foundation has stated that female high school athletes are 80% less likely

to become pregnant than non-athletes.

Factors Influencing Sports Participation

The level of demand for participation in any sport is influenced by a variety

of societal, economic, technologic and demographic factors (Leo, 2014).

Sports Businesses

Money makes the world go round Bryjak (2014). Sports could not exist

without the presence of money. There are high paid athletes asking for multi-

18
million dollar contracts, while at the same time there are doctors not even making

close to that amount. There are corporation buying everything that has to do with

sports. But why do they do this? It is because sports are one of the most

profitable industries in the world. Everyone wants to get their hand on a piece of

the action. Those individuals and industries that spend hundreds of millions of

dollars on these sports teams are hoping to make a profit, but it may be an

indirect profit. It could be a profit for the sports club, or it could be a promotion for

another organization (i.e Rupert Murdoch, FOX). The economics involved with

sports has drastically changed over the last ten years. In the United States, most

people spend their 13% of their money on sports and entertainment. It is clear

that sports has obviously done its job which is to entertain and to gain income

from the society.

In fact, the supply of sport services by profit-motivated businesses has

significantly increased the range of opportunities for people to participate in

fitness, sport and recreation. As an example, the activity called Crossfit is a

recent phenomenon that has seen Crossfit affiliate entities spring up across the

nation, even in small towns for less than 20,000 populations. Another thing is the

increasing number of small business operators can also be found in Sport

Coaching like Badminton coaching, Outdoor Recreation, Swim Schools, Triathlon

Clinics, Basketball clinics, Swim Schools and Personal Training.

Government Policy

Government policy plays a major role in ensuring access to a wide variety

of sport and recreation activities by distributing funding (tax payers money) to

19
sport and recreation organizations (Eckaus, 2012). Government funding tends to

be a pendulum that swings back and forth between elite sport and grass root

sport. Government funding on grass root sport has implications the health of the

population productivity if the workforce. Money spent in grass roots sport tends to

save money on health care on arguably increases the nations productivity.

However, funding on elite sport tends to be far more effective in achieving

publicity and thereby winning votes for politicians. Without the support of

government funding, many sports would cease to have an organized national

and state structure and would be at risk disappearing.

Involvement of Media

Some sports have, by their very nature, great commercial value. Media

organizations, excepting the national broadcaster (the ABC in Australia), can only

exist if they can derive revenue from advertising because the income of any

television or radio commercial, or newspaper advert, is determined by the

number of viewers (or readers). Some sports have inherently more entertainment

value and command large and dedicated band followers. Broadcasting these

sports on a regular basis enables media organization to connect advertisers with

consumers. Furthermore, the emotions felt by consumers as they watch/listen to

their favorite sport enables the advertisers message to have a more powerful

effect. While some sports constantly yearn for more media exposure, the reality

is media organizations are driven by the profit motive far more than their social

conscience. As a result, children are attracted to play sport and emulate the

sports stars the see on television.

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Economic Factors

The population of Australia enjoys a prosperity and ease of living that has

earned the nation name of the lucky country. Participation in most sports is not

expensive and cost around 1-2% of income per capita. The affordability of

involvement in sport and recreation is influenced by the level of employment and

unemployment, interest rates and fiscal (tax) policy and at time when the

economy suffers a slow down or contraction, there is less spending by the

population in general consequently less spending on sport recreation.

Changing Demographics

The effect of demographic change on a year-to-year basis is too small to

be noticeable. Equally, the affect of demographic change on sport is very slow.

Nevertheless, over 1-2 decades, the fortune of some sport and recreation

activities may perish dependant upon demographic change. New sports are

borne and traditional sports begin to disappear. This effect can be masked to

some extent by continual growth of the population. Although the number of

participants in some sports may be static, the actual proportion of the population

may have fallen.

Technological Factors

Technological innovation is perhaps the most significant factor that has

influenced the demand for sport and recreation. Whereas be confined to a single

room for many hours a day would have been viewed as a punishment decades

ago, the situation now exists where a very significant proportion of the population

voluntarily put themselves in this situation (Sandlin, 2014). The rise of computer

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games and social media provide for an addictive and sedentary past-time. While

such time involvement has some beneficial effect on the development of

technology skills for employment, it undoubtedly has a detrimental effect on

health and fitness, and participation in sport and recreation.

Impacts of Sports on Overall Health

Participation in sport can develop the quality of life of individuals and

communities, promote social inclusion and counter anti-social behavior, improve

health, build up good character, and establish social networks. There are

numerous definitions of sport but according to Coakley, Le, and Davis (2012),

sport means all forms of physical activity in which, through casual and organized

participation, aim at expressing or improving physical fitness and mental well-

being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels.

It is strengthened by the previous study of Lombardi (2002), which states that

sport plays a primarily positive role in an individuals development, including

improved academic achievement (see also work of Hartmann 2008), higher self-

esteem, fewer behavioral problems, and better psychosocial.

As indicated earlier, participation in sports can impact an individuals

psychological well-being. For example, a research by Taliaferro et al. (2009)

suggests that playing sport can even protect against suicide risk in youth. Male

athletes exhibit lower levels of hopelessness and suicidal ideation. Young males

involved in multiple sports seem to garner even more protection in this regard.

Similar results were found for girls. Research on the role of exercise in adults

22
confirms that it improves mood and alleviates many forms of depression. Bartko

and Eccles (2009) found that youth who are highly involved in sport are more

psychologically resilient, that is, better able to recover from problems. Eccles et

al. found that sport participation protects young athletes against social isolation.

Taliaferro et al. propose that youth who play sport have higher levels of social

support, which provides higher levels of resilience and develop counter anti-

social behavior.

Becoming a member of a community that includes teammates, coaches,

family, and the greater community provides fertile ground for goals. In addition,

physical activity enhances ones self-perceptions of body, competence and self-

worth. The assumed association between playing sport and improved

psychological and behavioral outcomes (or character) is at times challenged,

despite the overwhelming directionality of the positive associations. Skeptics also

say that many studies have failed to examine whether athletes had specific

character traits before playing sport. Likewise, sport participation also builds

confidence, develops self-esteem and improves health and psychological

functioning. This is particularly true during the late adolescent years (around 11 th

grade). Hansen et al. (2013) found that youth who play sport reported higher

rates of self-knowledge, managing emotions, and physical skills compared to

peers in academic and leadership activities.

Participation in sports, likewise, affects the physical or physiological health of

an individual. In fact, engaging in sport and physical activities, including physical

fitness activities, plays a significant role in promoting health and wellness

amongst individual. Not only does such activity help improve the physical fitness

23
and health of children and youth, but also it is an integral strategy for stemming

childhood obesity a critical health priority for our nation. There is a widespread

consensus about the general links between physical activity and health (US

Department of Health and Human Services, 1996; European Heart Network,

1999). It is accepted that regular physical activity can contribute to reduce the

risk of developing obesity, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, colon cancer,

osteoporosis, strokes and metabolic syndrome. Compared to those who are

inactive, physically active individual have higher levels of cardio respiratory

fitness and stronger muscles, which make them less likely to have health issues.

Nevertheless, sport can offer physical opportunities for everyone because of its

diversity, including such potentially lifelong activities such as swimming, cycling,

running, aerobics, and badminton (Morris, 1994).

Sports can also develop personality traits, character or values. sport is a

reflection of the value trends occurring in society and it is also an environment

that symbolizes cultural values and is a medium through which an individual

learn about and experience many of the core values of the society (Bredemeier &

Shields, 1995). The popularity of sports and physical activity worldwide,

participation can (and should be) develop good character qualities as a part of

the experience. These experiences are a major part of every individual character

development. Sport does not build character, thus, character can be taught and

learned in a sport setting. A sport experience can build character, but only if the

environment is structured and a stated and planned goal is to develop character

such as discipline, self-esteem/confidence, responsibility, perseverance,

competitive spirit and positive motivation. Stoll and Beller (1995) define character

24
as the values and habits that determine the way a person normally responds to

desire, fears, challenge, opportunities, failures and successes. This kind of

environment must include all individuals (coaches, administrations, parents,

participants, etc.) who are stakeholders in the sport setting. Appropriate and

responsible behaviors and values that are develop in sports and physical

education classes will also be used outside the school, in home, and out in the

community are the main goals in these kind of settings (Oarker & Stiehl, 2004).

As earlier mentioned, sports improves the quality of life and provides

opportunities for individuals to engage in valuable and positive relationships with

the society, which is especially important when such benefits are not available at

home (Council of Europe, 2001) that. Thus, it is a missed opportunity for children

who are gated or not included in sport during early stages of childhood

because they are less well behaved than other children. These children are being

prevented from participating in the very thing that could help them learn to control

and regulate their behavior. Sports can provide an opportunity for children to

safely navigate and negotiate between right and wrong as they learn to interact

with peers and adults.

Synthesis

Participating in physical activities or sport is essential for individuals of all

ages to lead healthy and fulfilling lives. Also it brings individuals and communities

together, bridging cultural or ethnic divides that will establish social networks

(Holt, 2009). It creates social relationships, build connections and improve

communication between individuals and groups. It is also a way of developing a

25
community-based identity with corresponding positive effects and developmental

value such as learning to strive for excellence, to work hard and to work in

teams, to be resilient and to persist. Many studies have found that people

start engaging in physical activities or playing sport and stick with it because they

enjoy it. The fun and enjoyment provides them with intrinsic rewards. The study

of Coackely (2012) confirms that sustained participation in sports is related to an

ongoing positive experience, which includes having fun, improving skills, and

having positive interactions with peers and adults. Three most common reasons

for taking part in sport and recreation are fitness and health, enjoyment and

social reasons. These reasons are the same for the men and women and across

participants of all ages, ethnicities, socio-economic backgrounds and locations.

There are various reasons why people participate in sports. These

reasons were divided into two models, namely, (1) power performance and (2)

pleasure participation. J. Coackley developed these two sport models with

distinctive characteristics in 2007. Apart from these models, existing literature

suggest that reasons for participation in sports could either be attributable to

personal (psychological, cognitive, physical) and social motivations. In fact,

Alexander (2006) studied that young children, teenagers and young women,

adults and other adults have different motivators to participate in physical

activities or sports.

The level of demand for participation in any sport is influenced by a variety

of societal, economic, technologic and demographic factors (Leo, 2014). Other

factor also may include cultural, health, resources, and the influence of people

26
that surrounds the environment of the individual. These factors were the most

common reasons why an individual participate in sports and physical activity.

Participation in sport can develop the quality of life of individuals and

communities, promote social inclusion and counter anti-social behavior, improve

health, build up good character, and establish social networks. Bartko and Eccles

(2009) found that youth who are highly involved in sport are more

psychologically resilient, that is, better able to recover from problems. In

addition, physical activity enhances ones self-perceptions of body, competence

and self-worth. In fact, engaging in sport and physical activities, including

physical fitness activities, plays a significant role in promoting health and

wellness amongst individual.

Central to this research is the investigation of how social health is

influenced by sports participation. As indicated in the literature review, sports

participation enhances ones social well being or other scholars called it social

health.

Conceptual Framework

This study focuses on the impacts of sports participation on the social

well-being of the university students. Specifically, it explores the individuals

nature of participation and how it affects their social well-being. It will also

investigate how nature of participation could vary as a result of difference in

socio-demographics and reason for participation among university students.

27
 Socio-demographic Factors

Nature of Sports Participation Social Well-Being

Reasons for Participation in Sports

Fig. 1. Factors affecting the nature of sports participation that influences social well-being
of university students.

The independent variables of the study are the (1) socio-demographic

characteristics of the sample, (2) reasons for sports participation, (3) nature of

sports participation, and (4) factors influencing sports participation. The

dependent variable of the study is the effect of sports on the over-all social well-

being of the university students in Metro Manila.

The literature have shown that there are socio-demographic

characteristics that could influence participation in sports namely gender, age,

allowance, year level, and no. of units enrolled. Aforementioned characteristics

because of the following reasons: (1) gender males are usually motivated by

intrinsic factors such as strength, competition and challenge while females are

motivated by extrinsic factors like weight management and appearance (Egli, et

al, 2011). So it is very much likely that males participate in competitive sport

while females participate in wellness and fitness activities.; (2) year level and age

for younger individuals have a better quality of life (in terms of physical, mental,

and psychological well-being) than elders (Ngelangel,1994); (3) allowance and

28
no. of units enrolled was also taken into consideration for it may become a factor

that can influence an individuals participation in sports. Some sports requires

monetary compensation in order for one to play the sport, he/she may also spend

on equipment required for the sport to be played (e.g. racket for

tennis/badminton, ball for volleyball/basketball, etc.) Time is also required to play.

You should allot time for the sport you play (may it be for leisure only and/or

especially when you are on a competitive level)

The participants reason in participating in sports could affect their nature

of sports participation. It may further be explained by two models namely: (1)

power-performance and (2) pleasure-participation (Coackley, 2009) which can

result in unlike configurations of socialization effects. The power-performance

model, which highlights strength, speed, and power provides benefits primarily

on males; to push human limits and dominate challengers for the goal of

competitive success (Rinehart, 2005). In this model, winning and excellence

equates success. Pleasure-participation model on the other hand emphasizes on

good health, leisure, and social relationships; wherein many youth experience

positive outcomes on their social health.

Next independent variable to be determined is the nature of sports

participated by an individual. A game can be defined as an organized activity

where two or more sides compete according to agreed-upon rules, and a sport

can be defined as a game that requires physical skill and occurs most in human

societies (Deaner, et.al, 2012). Sports may be classified as: (1) team or

individual; (2) competitive or leisure; and (3) contact or non-contact sports. There

are benefits for both team and individual sport but in team sports, it doesnt

29
matter which team has the best player but relies instead on the entire team

thus, promoting working together towards the same goal. On the other hand,

individual sports requires a rather unlike dynamics toward successyourself is

your own competition and you should beat your personal best. The biggest

difference between team and individual sports is what motivates an individual.

Athletes involved in individual sports experienced greater feelings of autonomy

than their team-based counterparts, possibly due to greater freedom to make

decisions (Gillet & Rosner, 2008). Moving on to the next classification,

competitive sports focuses almost exclusively on winning, towards being the

best, while recreational sports is the more sociable side of the sport that focuses

on shared experiences. This classifications can relate to Coackleys models: (1)

power-performance, which relates mostly to competitive and individual (and at

some points on team sports) sports due to its competitive nature and (2)

pleasure-participation, which relates mostly to recreational which focuses more

on personal development;

Aside from being a descriptive study, this research aims to establish the

relationship between the socio-demographic characteristics and reasons for

participation in sports with nature of participation in sports. In addition, this study

will also describe the relationship between the nature of participation and the

perceived level social well-being among university student. Evidence has shown

(e.g. Coackley, 2012) that participation in sports results to higher level of social

wellbeing.

30
Statement of the Problem

This study will examine the nature of participation in sports among

university students in a private university in Metro Manila. It will likewise

investigate the various sociodemographic factors influencing the nature of their

participation in sports. Moreover, it will also investigate the impact of participation

of sports on their social wellbeing.

More specifically, this will answer the following questions:

1. What are the sociodemographic characteristics of the university students?

2. What is the nature of their participation in sports?

3. How do they perceive their social well-being?

4. What is the influence of sociodemographic factors on social-being?

5. How does participation in sports influence perceived social well-being?

31
Definition of Terms

Socio-demographic characteristics Socio-demographic characteristics in

this study, refers to gender, age, allowance, year level, and no. of units enrolled.

Reasons for sports participation This refers to the primary consideration

in participating in sports (Eckaus, 2012). In this study, this refers to the purpose

why university students participate in sports. This is classified by two models

namely: (1) power-performance, (2) pleasure-participation (Coackley, 2009). The

power-performance model highlights strength, speed, and power while pleasure-

participation model emphasizes good health, leisure, and social relationships.

Nature of sports Sports is defined as all forms of physical activity, through

casual and organized participation, aim at expressing or improving physical

fitness and mental well-being (Coakley et.al, 2012) and plays a positive role in

individuals development, mentally (Lombardi, 2002) , socially (Hartmann, 2008),

and psychologically (Bartko & Eccles, 2009). In this study, participation in sports

is classified in terms of type. It may be indoor or outdoor sports, contact or non-

contact sports, recreational or competitive, and/or individual or team sports. It

also pertains to the no. of competition participated by the university student.

Social well-being or others, term social well-being as social health refers

to a complex and multifaceted concept which includes life satisfaction and

happiness (Diener et.al, 2005). It is also defined as an appraisal of ones

circumstance and functioning in a society he belongs to. (Keyes, 1998). Social

well-being in this study refers to the perceived social function and development of

32
an individual in his social life. This will include social acceptance, social

actualization, social contribution, social coherence, and social integration.

Significance of the Study

This study generally aims to identify the impact of sports participation on

social well-being and intends to contribute to theory and practice. This study will

be a significant endeavor in promoting sports, may it be recreational and

competitive, not only among university students and other people as well, such

as primary and secondary level students, out-of-school youths, and any other

age groups that are physically able to do sports. In addition it may also promote

the blooming sports industry in the country. It will be also beneficial to the

students and instructors in the academe, not only to promote sports in general,

but also for the betterment of their social and mental health. This will also benefit

the image of student-athletes of being lousy academically due to sports, for this

study will provide evidence that sports has a positive impact not only on their

social health but also having a positive significant effect on their mental health as

well.

Most studies conducted regarding sports participation only covers its

effects on its academic performance and few on their social well-being.

According to WHO, health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social

well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity. However, the

social aspect of health, or social well-being has not been attended to as equally

as the other aspects, especially in the Philippine context. Thus, this study is

33
significant as the results of the study will help fill the gap in this area of research,

and may help future researchers for this may serve as a guide in their future

researchers similar or in line with this area of research. This research will also be

significant theoretically, for this study has developed a conceptual framework

guided by Emile Durkheims Theory of Social Integration in investigating the

impacts of sports participation as a medium of social integration on the social

well-being of university students.

Scope and Delimitations

The scope of the study deals with the factors associated with university

students to engaged in sports. Given the wide array of factors that may be

related with their participation in sports, this study only focuses into (5) five parts,

namely, reasons for participation, nature of participation, factors influencing

sports participation, and impacts of sports in overall social well-being. This study

only concentrates on the views and perspectives of university students and

athletes of a private school in Metro Manila. It did not cover the beliefs and

perspectives of the coaches or the faculities of the university.

34
 CHAPTER TWO

METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the methodology of the study. It contains the

following topics: research design, population and sampling, instrumentation, plan

for data gathering procedure, plan for data analysis, and methodological

limitations.

Research Design

This proposed study is quantitative in design. It purpose is to describe the

nature of participation in sports among college students. It will likewise establish

the relationship between socio-demographic factors and reason for participation

in nature of participation, as well as nature of participation in social wellbeing.

Data for this study will be coming from a self-administered survey.

Population and Sampling

The respondents of the study will be students from a private university in

Metro Manila who participate in sports, may it be recreational or competitive, and

will be chosen using non-probability purposive sampling. They will be selected

using the following criteria: (1) They must be participating in any type of

competition either inside or outside the university, (2) they may or may not be

part of a sports organization. The respondents will be playing sports that are

either indoor or outdoor, contact or non-contact, and individual or team.

Outdoor

35
Contact (Football) 10 Female; 10 Male

Non-Contact (Athletics and Softball) 10 Female; 10 Male

Indoor

Contact (Martial Arts and Basketball) 10 Female; 10 Male

Non-Contact (Badminton and Volleyball) 10 Female; 10 Male

Instrumentation

The researchers will use an instrument specifically, survey questionnaire

to collect essential data from the respondents. This questionnaire will contain (4)

blocks, (1) Socio-demographic Characteristics, (2) Reason for Participation, (3)

Nature of Participation, and (4) Social Well-being. The first block, socio-

demographic characteristics have age, gender, year level, allowance, and no. of

units enrolled as indicators. The second block, reason for participation will be

classified between pleasure-participation and power-performance. The third

block, nature of participation will be classified depending on the type of sport

whether it is indoor or outdoor, contact or non-contact, individual or team, and no.

of competition participated. The fourth block, social wellbeing will be determined

by the level of social acceptance, social actualization, social contribution, social

coherence, social integration. A 5-point Likert scale will be used on the

questionnaire where numerical values will be given the respective equivalence

namely: 5, strongly agree; 4, agree; 3, neutral; 2, disagree; and 1 strongly

disagree. The instrument will be pre-tested and reliability test will be performed.

Table 1. Instrumentation Matrix

Blocks Indicators

36
Socio-demographic Characteristics Age

Gender

Year Level

Allowance

No. of Units Enrolled

Reason for Participation Pleasure-Participation

Power-Performance

Nature of Participation Type (Indoor versus Outdoor)

Type (Contact versus Non-Contact)

Type (Individual or Team)

No. of Competition Participated

Social Well-being Social acceptance ( )

Social actualization ( )

Social contribution ( )

Social coherence ( )

Social integration ( )

Data Gathering

To gather the needed data and information the researchers will: (1) Create

a survey questionnaire according to the factors mentioned in the objectives. (2)

Roam around the campus to find respondents that is qualified for the research

(3) Introduce the researchers and discussed the research study and its purpose.

(4) Ask permission to students if they are willing participate in our research (5)

37
Distribute the survey questionnaire to the participating students (6) Assure

students that their participation is voluntary and inform them that their identity

and all information will be held strictly confidential and that they will not be

exposed to any harm or danger (6) after the survey was conducted, the

researcher will check if there were errors or any items overlooked by the

respondents. (7) Upon completion of the surveys, the researchers will collect all

the survey questionnaires to interpret and analyze all the answers from the

respondents. (8) Encode all the answers.

Plan for Data Analysis

This study will utilize a descriptive statistics in analyzing the data. This will

apply to the individual description and analysis of the variables and present using

appropriate tables. Moreover, various statistical tests were used to identify

significant differences and correlation/relationships between and among the

independent and dependent variables. A scoring level will respectively be use to

identify and guide both researchers and the respondents.

Scoring for level of social well being:

1- 45 Low Social Wellbeing

46 91 Moderate Social Well being

92 - 125 High Social Well being

Variables Type of Data Test

38
Age and Type of Sports
(indoor or outdoor)

Age and Type of Sports

(contact or non-contact

Age and Type of sports

(team or individual)

Age and Number of

Competition participated

Gender and Type of Sports

(indoor or outdoor)

Gender and Type of Sports

(contact or non-contact)

Gender and Type of sports

(team or individual)

Gender and Number of

Competition participated

Allowance and Type of

Sports (indoor or outdoor)

Allowance and Type of

Sports (contact or non-
contact

Allowance and Type of

sports (team or individual)

Allowance and Number of

Competition participated

Year level and Type of

Sports (indoor or outdoor)

Year level and Type of

Sports (contact or non-
contact

Year level and Type of

sports (team or individual)

Year level and Number of

Competition participated

39
Number of units enrolled
and Type of Sports (indoor
or outdoor)

Number of units enrolled

and Type of Sports (contact
or non-contact

Number of units enrolled

and Type of sports (team or
individual)

Number of units enrolled

and Number of Competition
participated

Reason for participation and

Type of Sports (indoor or
outdoor)

Reason for participation and

Type of Sports (contact or
non-contact

Reason for participation and

Type of sports (team or
individual)

Reason for participation and

Number of Competition
participated

Type of Sports (indoor or

outdoor) and Level of Social
Well-Being

Type of Sports (contact or

non-contact) and Level of
Social Well-Being

Type of Sports (individual or

team) and Level of Social
Well-Being

Number of competition
participated and level of
social wellbeing

40
Methodological Limitations

This study used a survey questionnaire as a data collection instrument,

consisted of a combination of close and open-ended questions for the socio-

demographic characteristics with set of selections and a Likert scale

questionnaire that will required the participants to indicate level of agreement or

disagreement on the statements; to measure their perceived social well-being. As

a limitation, respondents may not feel encouraged to provide accurate and

honest answers because responses may be affected by momentary change in

experiences, therefore do not represent consistent stable and accurate response.

Data errors may occur if non-responses were made by the participants. In

addition, survey questionnaire options may be interpreted differently by the

respondents (e.g. strongly agree option for one may only mean agree to others).

The study does not have a validating tool for the accuracy of the responses, thus

the responses were only taken at face value.

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Appendix A. Self-Administered Survey

45
 Good day! We are students of De La Salle University and currently taking
up AB-Sports Studies. Our study aims to investigate the relationship
between the Impact of Sports Participation in Social Wellbeing among
University students. We would like to ask a little of your time in
accomplishing our survey. Rest assured that information disclosed in this
survey will remain confidential and will only be used for the purpose of
our study. We will also make sure that your identity will remain
anonymous. Thank you very much!

PART I. Sociodemographic Characteristics

A. Age: ____

B. Gender: Male Female

C. Allowance per week: _________________

D. Year Level: Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior

E. Number of units enrolled in the current term: _________

PART II. Reasons for Participation

A. Check what is applicable for you:

1. You participate in sports for:

Leisure/Entertainment Health benefits Competition

Personal Goals Career Others:________

46
 B. Pleasure-Participation versus Power-Performance

5 4 3 2 1

Strongly Agree Neutral Disagre Strongly

Agree e Disagree

Pleasure-Participation

I participate in sports to have

a good body shape

I participate in sports to meet

new peole and to widen my
network

I participate in sports to get

out of stress and depression

I participate in sports
because it is a requirement in
school

I participate in sports
because I just want to and I
just feel it and it gives me
pleasure

Power-Performance

I participate in sports
because I want to win

I participate in sports
because I have goals

I participate in sports to have

a scholarship

I participate in sports
because I want to compete
locally and internationally

I participate in sports to
improve my physical
attributes (speed, strength,

47
power, etc)

PART III. Participation in Sports

A. What is the major sport are you playing? _____________________

B. How many competitions have you participated this term? ________

C. How many competitions have you participated last term? ________

PART IV. Level of Social Well Being

5 4 3 2 1

Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly

Agree Disagree

Social Acceptance

I easily get along and trust

others

When someone asks me a

favor, I dont expect anything in
return

I dont mind people talking

about me negatively

*I dont care about other

peoples problem

I remain calm even if other

people treat me with bad
behavior

Social Actualization

I believe that I have a purpose

in this world

48
I think that society is evolving
and making a progress to
improve and grow positively

*Sometimes I feel like I dont fit

in the society

*Im forced to conform to what is

trending in the society

I have my own way of

presenting my self in the society

Social Contribution

I have something valuable to

give to the society

My daily activities can contribute

anything worthwile to the
society

I am valued by my community

*I feel worthless in my
community

I am a good example to my
community

Social Coherence

I am interested on whats
happening in the society

I see the world as intelligent,

logical and predictable

*The world is too complex for

me

*I cannot make sense on whats

going on in the world

I am connected with everything

around me

Social Integration

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I am a part of a community

I feel supported by my
community

I have commonalities with other

people in the community

My community is my source of
comfort

I dont feel I belong to anything

Id call a community

50