Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila

College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Chemical Engineering
Intramuros, Manila

SUBMITTED BY:
DE UMANIA, GENESIS JAMES
DIZON, GLYZEL
MANINANG, CHARLENE
SANGALANG, KIM PATRICK
BSCHE V

SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR. APRIL ANNE S. TIGUE
 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

Composting
Composting operations of solid wastes include preparing refuse and degrading organic
matter by aerobic microorganisms. Refuse is presorted, to remove materials that might have
salvage value or cannot be composted, and is ground up to improve the efficiency of the
decomposition process. The refuse is placed in long piles on the ground or deposited in
mechanical systems, where it is degraded biologically to a humus with a total nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium content of 1 to 3 percent, depending on the material being
composted. After about three weeks, the product is ready for curing, blending with additives,
bagging, and marketing.

Composting can be defined as the aerobic thermophilic decomposition of organic

wastes to a relatively stable humus. Decomposition results from the biological activity of
microorganisms which exist in the waste. A good compost could contain up to 2 percent
nitrogen, about 1 percent phosphoric acid, and many trace elements. Its most valuable
features, however, are not its nutrient content, but its moisture retaining and humus forming
properties.

Many types of microorganisms are involved in converting the complex organic

compounds such as carbohydrates and proteins into simpler materials, but the bacteria,
actinomycetes, and fungi, predominate. These organisms function in a composting
environment that is optimized by copying the natural decomposition process of nature where,
with an adequate air supply, the organic solids are biochemically degraded to stable humus
and minerals.

Compost is generally considered as a material to be used in conjunction with fertilizer,

rather than as a replacement for fertilizer unless it is fortified with additional chemical
nutrients.

Compost benefits the soil by replenishing the humus, improving the soil structure, and
providing useful nutrients and minerals. It is particularly useful on old, depleted soils and soils
that are drought-sensitive. In horticulture applications, compost has been useful on heavy
soils as well as sandy and peat soil. It has been commonly applied to parks and gardens
because it increases the soil water absorbing capacity and improves the soil structure.

Parameters

All composting processes attempt to create a suitable environment for thermophilic

facultative aerobic microorganisms. If the environmental conditions for biological
decomposition are appropriate, a wide variety of organic wastes can be composted. The most
important criteria for successful composting are:
1. complete mixing of organic solids
2. nearly uniform particle size

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College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

3. adequate aeration
4. proper moisture content
5. proper temperature and pH
6. proper carbon-nitrogen ratio in the raw solids.

The smaller the particles, the more rapidly they will decompose; size is controlled by
grinding. Air is necessary for aerobic organisms to function in a fast, odor-free manner.
Aeration is enhanced by blending wastes to form a porous solids structure in the composting
materials. Some composting systems use blowers while others aerate by frequent turning of
compost placed in windows and bins. The solids to be composted must not, of course, contain
high concentrations of materials toxic to the decomposing microorganisms.

A proper moisture content is the most important composting criteria. Microorganisms

need moisture to function but too much moisture can cause the process to become anaerobic
and develop the characteristic odor and slow decomposition rate associated with anaerobic
processes.

Composting mixtures should have a pH near 7 (neutral) for optimum efficiency. The
temperatures vary a great deal but those in the thermophilic range (greater than 110F)
produce a more rapid rate of decomposition than those in the lower mesophilic range. Higher
temperatures also cause a more efficient destruction of pathogenic organisms and weed
seeds.

An essential requirement of the composting process is control of the ratio of carbon to

nitrogen in the raw materials. Microorganisms need both carbon and nitrogen, but they must
be available in the proper amounts of decomposition will be prolonged.

The time required to complete composting varies, depending on the climate, materials
composted, the degree of mechanization, whether the process is enclosed, and the desired
moisture content of the final product. Composting detention times from a couple of weeks to
several months have been reported.

Composting Materials

Many types of wet solids have been successfully used in composting operations. These
include sewage sludge, cannery solids, pharmaceutical sludge, and meat packing wastes.
Sewage sludge has been frequently used as an additive when composting dry refuse and
garbage. It enhances the composting operation because:
It serves as a seeding material to encourage biological action.
It helps to control the moisture content in the composting mixture.
It enhances the value of the compost by contributing nitrogen and other nutrients.
It can be used to control the important carbon/nitrogen ratio.

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College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

Normally, blending sewage sludge with other compost raw materials required prior
dewatering of the sludge. If the dewatering step is omitted, the moisture content of the mixture
is too high and odors develop. Reducing sludge moisture from 90 to 70 percent by vacuum
filtration or centrifugation allows good aerobic composting with garbage at a blended moisture
content of 53%.

In favorable climates, the composting of digested sludge with sawdust, straw, and
wood shavings has been successful.

Composting Basics
There are five main areas that must be controlled during composting.

Feedstock and Nutrient Balance

Composting, or controlled decomposition, requires a proper balance of green organic
materials and brown organic materials. Green organic material includes grass clippings,
food scraps, and manure, which contain large amounts of nitrogen. Brown organic materials
include dry leaves, wood chips, and branches, which contain large amounts of carbon but little
nitrogen. Obtaining the right nutrient mix requires experimentation and patience. It is part of
the art and science of composting.

Particle Size
Grinding, chipping, and shredding materials increases the surface area on which
microorganisms can feed. Smaller particles also produce a more homogeneous compost
mixture and improve pile insulation to help maintain optimum temperatures (see below). If
the particles are too small, however, they might prevent air from flowing freely through the
pile.

Moisture Content
Microorganisms living in a compost pile need enough moisture to survive. Water is the
key element that helps transports substances within the compost pile and makes the
nutrients in organic material accessible to the microbes. Organic material contains some
moisture in varying amounts, but moisture also might come in the form of rainfall or
intentional watering.

Oxygen Flow
Turning the pile, placing the pile on a series of pipes, or including bulking agents such
as wood chips and shredded newspaper all help aerate the pile. Aerating the pile allows
decomposition to occur at a faster rate than anaerobic conditions. Care must be taken,
however, not to provide too much oxygen, which can dry out the pile and impede the
composting process.

Temperature
Microorganisms require a certain temperature range for optimal activity. Certain
temperatures promote rapid composting and destroy pathogens and weed seeds. Microbial

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College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

activity can raise the temperature of the piles core to at least 140 F. If the temperature does
not increase, anaerobic conditions (i.e., rotting) occur. Controlling the previous four factors
can bring about the proper temperature.

Composting Process

Composting is an aerobic bacterial decomposition process to stabilise organic wastes

and produce humus (compost). Compost contains nutrients and organic carbon which are
excellent soil conditioners. Composting takes place naturally on a forest floor where organic
materials (leaf litter, animal wastes) are converted to more stable organic materials (humus)
and the nutrients are released and made available for plant uptake. The process is slow on a
forest floor, but can be accelerated under optimum conditions.

The optimum conditions for composting are a moisture content of about 50 %, a

carbon to nitrogen ratio of about 25 to 30, and temperature of 55 oC. Because wastewater
sludge is rich in nutrients, its carbon to nitrogen ratio is low (5 to 10). It is also high in moisture.
Addition of dry sawdust, which is very high in carbon to nitrogen ratio (500) can adjust both
the moisture and carbon to nitrogen ratio. Other waste materials that can be used for this
purpose are mulched garden wastes, forest wastes and shredded newspaper.

Composting can be carried

out in a specially built composter,
such as an inclined rotating
cylinder, fed on one end with the
raw materials, and the aerated
product collected at the other end.
As the materials are slowly tumbled
over a period of about one week,
they are mixed and aerated.
Because bacterial decomposition
produces heat, temperatures in the
insulated composter can easily
reach 55 oC. The immature compost
is then windrowed for at least 12
weeks to allow the composting
process to complete, with
occasional turning of the windrow.

Composting can be more simply carried out in windrows (Figure above). Regular turning
of the windrows assists with mixing of the materials and more importantly supply the oxygen
to the bacteria. Temperatures can reach 55 oC, because compost has a good heat insulating
property. Turning of the compost also ensures that all parts of the windrow reach the required
55oC essential for pathogen destruction. Turning is required every two to three days in the
first two weeks when temperature is 55oC or above. After this period frequent turning of the

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College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

compost windrow is not required as less heat is generated and less oxygen is required while
the compost undergoes maturation.

Benefits of Composting
The main advantages of sludge composting are the following:
Compost has an abundance of nutrients and is suitable for a wide variety of end uses,
such as landscaping, topsoil blending, and growth media.
Compost has less nitrogen than biosolids from other stabilization processes, due to
the loss of ammonia during composting. However, nitrogen in compost is released
more slowly and is available to plants over a long period of time, which is more
consistent with plant uptake needs.
Well-composted sludge can meet the requirements for class A biosolids and can be
sold to distributors and the public.
Compost increases the water content and retention of sandy soils.
Compost increases aeration and water infiltration of clay soils.

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 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

Composting Processing Technologies

INTRODUCTION

Composting is the actively managed

process of decomposition of organic residuals
in the municipal solid waste stream. A range
of composting systems is designed to manage
this decomposition process to yield a high
quality compost product without creating a
public nuisance or negative environmental
impact. Composting is a biological process
that is optimized when the starting carbon to
nitrogen ratio is in the range of 30:1 and the moisture and oxygen levels and temperatures
are closely managed and monitored. When processing household organics, it is of critical
importance to have the right starting mix of feedstocks, and to manage moisture, oxygen and
temperatures closely in order to minimize the risk of nuisance factors and environmental
impacts.

WINDROWS

General Description: Outdoor composting in piles that rely on mechanical aeration, typically
with a compost windrow turner, to optimize the composting process. Windrow facilities with
straddle turners (a turner which goes over the top of the pile) are limited in pile height by the
height of the turner. Other turner technologies, e.g., elevating face, perform the turning
function from the side and therefore pile height is less of a constraint. Generally speaking,
however, to optimize the windrow composting process, pile height typically is limited to 3 to 4
metres.

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College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

Source Separated Organics (SSO) to be composted are either premixed prior to being
formed into a windrow, or are layered (e.g., typically on a bed of ground yard trimmings, wood
chips or sawdust) and then mixed with the turner. To control release of odours when the food
scraps in the SSO are fresh, some windrow facility managers create the windrows and then
wait for a few days or a week before the first pile turning. In some cases, the windrows are
covered with a layer of ground yard trimmings, which acts as a biofilter during this initial stage.
In a windrow, temperature control and oxygen levels are managed via mechanical agitation.
Pile temperature and oxygen level need to be taken by a site operator with hand-held
monitoring tools. Pile turning introduces oxygen, accelerates physical degradation of
feedstocks and provides an opportunity to adjust the moisture content to the optimum level.
Many windrow turners have a watering attachment, which enables moisture to be added to
the pile while turning. Generally speaking, the total composting time can be managed by the
aggressiveness of the turning regime. More frequent turning breaks particles down more
quickly, and provides an opportunity to optimize composting conditions, thus accelerating the
composting process. This enables a windrow composting facility to increase its annual
throughput capacity.

In a windrow, temperature control

and oxygen levels are managed via
mechanical agitation. Pile temperature
and oxygen level need to be taken by a
site operator with hand-held monitoring
tools. Pile turning introduces oxygen,
accelerates physical degradation of
feedstocks and provides an opportunity
to adjust the moisture content to the
optimum level. Many windrow turners
have a watering attachment, which
enables moisture to be added to the pile
while turning. Generally speaking, the
total composting time can be managed by the aggressiveness of the turning regime. More
frequent turning breaks particles down more quickly, and provides an opportunity to optimize
composting conditions, thus accelerating the composting process. This enables a windrow
composting facility to increase its annual throughput capacity.

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College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

AERATED STATIC PILE

General Description: Aerated static pile composting is comprised of forcing (positive) or pulling
(negative) air through a trapezoidal compost pile. Agitation only occurs when piles are
combined or moved to a different area for curing. To better manage odours, piles often are
covered with a layer of finished compost or wood chips, which then are incorporated when the
piles are moved. The aerated static pile composting method was developed in the early 1970s
primarily for composting municipal sewage sludge. For biosolids, a bulking agent is needed to
provide pile porosity to enhance the flow of air and control temperatures. Wood chips were
determined to be the optimum bulking agent (although over the years, there has been some
experimentation with shredded tires); these are recovered through screening and recycled
back into the initial pile mix. One advantage of aerated static pile composting is the ability to
capture the process air for odour treatment (typically through a biofilter). Outdoor aerated
static pile operations need to use negative aeration (pulling air down through the pile) in order
to direct it to an odour control system. Indoor aerated static piles can use positive aeration,
with building air removed and treated through an odour control system.

It is rare that aerated static piles are used

to compost materials that need to physically
breakdown (as well as biologically). That is
because, unlike windrows, static piles are not
turned frequently. Therefore, aerated static piles
still are primarily used today to compost
biosolids or feedstocks of similar consistency
and homogeneity. There are some facilities processing source separated and mixed solid
waste that use aerated static piles for the second phase of composting but that is typically for
the final curing, after particle degradation (or removal via screening) has occurred. As noted,
aerated static piles are rarely used in isolation to compost SSO. Instead, they are employed
during the second phase of composting (curing) when a site wants the ability to capture and
treat odourous air. The primary disadvantage of using this technology for SSO is that the lack
of mechanical agitation, which slows down physical breakdown of materials.

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College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

MODULAR IN-VESSEL CONTAINERS

General Description: Contained composting

systems are modular; individual containers are
added as volume increases. The number of units
or modules determines the scale of operation. This
category of in-vessel systems uses a static
composting method, i.e., there is no mechanical
agitation while material is in the container or
tunnel. Instead, agitation is provided when
material is unloaded. Fans supply oxygen and
remove moisture and heat. In most cases, air is
introduced at the base of the material and flows
up through the composting mass into a headspace at the top. In other examples, air is pulled
through the material. In either aeration mode (positive or negative), process air is treated
through a biofilter, frequently housed in a separate container. Several commercial container
systems are in use to process SSO. What varies among the commercial systems is the type of
container, size and details such as the control devices, loading equipment and leachate
management.

Some systems are modelled after, or made from, steel solid waste roll-off containers,
which provide a durable enclosure that is modular and moveable. As containers are filled,
they are connected to a central air delivery manifold. Materials are composted as a batch. In
typical operations, containers are filled; after a period of time, e.g., 10 days to two weeks,
containers are unloaded so that their contents can be mixed and the moisture content
adjusted, if necessary. Some facilities use the tipper mechanism on a roll-off truck to unload
the containers. Over the years, manufacturers of in-vessel containers have modified aeration
systems, leachate management and insulation in order to optimize the composting process
for year-round operation. The aeration and process control strategies for these units can be
versatile and highly technical, involving computer controls (both on-site and remote),
monitoring of several process parameters, variation in air flow rate and direction, and air
recirculation. In typical installations, materials remain in the containers for approximately 3
weeks, and then need to be further cured in windrows or aerated static piles.

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College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

Modular containers are located

outside, thus eliminating the need for a
building with odour control for the most active
phase of composting. However, most
composting sites using this technology have a
building for both the curing phase, and to
unload the containers (to avoid that point
source of odours and be able to operate in all
weather conditions). Therefore, there is still the
need for capital investments in a structure and
odour treatment. The batch composting process, with the ability to adjust the starting mix and
reload the container, can be helpful in optimizing the composting process midstream
(versus some technologies, such as agitated bays or enclosed aerated static piles, where that
is impractical if not impossible). The downside is that more labour and equipment are
involved. Some facilities are able to use the same truck used for roll-off container collection
routes. Over 20 containers can be served by a single aeration and biofiltration system. Each
additional container improves the economics by spreading out the fixed costs of the aeration
and process control system, biofilter, mixer, container tipper and other materials handling
equipment. While the containers can be used from start to finish for composting SSO, facilities
typically only use them for the active phase, reserving the intense process control and air
treatment for when composting feedstocks are most volatile. This reduces the number of total
containers needed, and thus lowers initial capital costs. Like aerated static pile methods,
using containers for SSO does not provide the mechanical agitation to physically break up
particles. Therefore, to accelerate the overall composting time (and thus increase throughput),
facilities use mechanical agitation during the final phases of composting.

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College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

MODULAR IN-VESSEL TUNNELS

General Description: Tunnel composting systems are

essentially aerated containers that have forced aeration
through a floor plenum, internal air circulation and usually
a biofilter. They are loaded from one end and operate in
batch mode after the tunnel is fully loaded. Multiple
tunnels can be used to attain a nearly continuous
operation. Tunnel dimensions vary considerably. At the
several installations using tunnels to process MSW and/or
biosolids in North America, materials are loaded and
unloaded using front-end loaders.

Tunnel Composting Equipment: Tunnels, aeration system, biofilter and loading/unloading

equipment (typically a front-wheeled loader).

Modular in-vessel systems have the flexibility to do more than just compost SSO. As
with the other static pile type systems, using static tunnels for SSO does not provide the
mechanical agitation to physically break up particles. Therefore, to accelerate the overall
composting time (and thus increase throughput), facilities use mechanical agitation during
the final phases of composting. These systems also only serve to complete the initial
breakdown of the material. The product from these tunnels is not a stable compost product;
there is still the need for a curing stage, which typically is done in a separate windrow
composting facility.

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College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

IN-VESSEL BAYS

General Description: Agitated beds compost

materials in beds contained by long channels with
concrete walls. A turning machine, travelling on top
of the beds, agitates and moves the materials
forward. Forced aeration is provided through the
floor of the channel; the top of the channel is open.
Therefore, an agitated bed is technically not a
vessel, but falls into this category because it almost
always (at least for residential organics composting)
is enclosed in a building. Most systems are operated
in the positive aeration mode (air blown up through
the pile) to avoid leachate building up in the aeration manifolds, reducing the flow of air. To
concentrate the process air to be treated for odours, some systems have plastic curtains
around the perimeter of the bays (and in some cases, there is a drop ceiling to further contain
odourous air). This reduces overall ammonia levels in the entire building, enabling operators
to safely work around the perimeter of the bays (e.g., loading and unloading operations). It
also helps to contain the moisture and ammonia being released from the composting
materials, which contribute to corrosion of the building.

All agitated bays operate in a similar fashion. Feedstocks are mixed and loaded in the
front end of the channel. Starting at the discharge end, the turner moves down the channel
toward the front or loading end. With each pass, material is displaced a set distance toward
the back of the channel until the materials are eventually discharged as compost that has
met time and temperature requirements for pathogen and vector attraction reduction.
Depending on the turner, material is shifted 2m to 4m with each turning. The length of the
channel and the turning frequency determine the composting period in the channel (generally
10 to 28 days). Dimensions of individual channels vary among the commercial systems with
depths ranging from 1 m to 2.4 m and widths of 1.9 m to 3.8 m. Channel lengths typically
range from about 60 to 90 m. Most applications use multiple channels and a single turning

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College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

machine. Larger facilities (expanded by adding more bays) may have two agitating units. There
are some technologies that use a single, wide bed, e.g., 7.4 m to 12 m wide and 30 m long.
An overhead bridge crane supports and moves the turner down the bed in strips.

Agitated Bay Composting Equipment: Proprietary equipment in an agitated bay system is

typically the agitator and the aeration/overall system design. Vendors offer bays of various
widths and heights; some are housed in fabricated metal structures while others are housed
in fabric structures. All facilities processing SSO treat process air through a biofilter. Materials
typically are premixed before being loaded in the bays; most cure material in a separate
structure (open-sided or enclosed). At some installations, aeration is provided in the curing
phase.

IN-VESSEL VERTICAL SILOS

General Description: Vertical silos in use for

composting municipal organics are passively-aerated,
i.e., there is no forced aeration. Instead, the material is
contained in vertical, wire-mesh cages that enable air
to flow through. The cages can be tall (e.g., 3.7 m to
4.3 m high) and long but are usually only several feet
wide. Therefore, the core of the composting mass is, at
most, two feet from the air space that surrounds the
cage.
Several vertical silo technologies were
marketed in the 1980s for composting municipal
biosolids. Unlike the cages just described, these are steel-fabricated vessels that are loaded
on the top by conveyors; air is forced through the composting mass. One system, which is still
marketed in North America, designed a patented air-lance technology, with rigid plastic
aeration tubes running vertically within the silo. Most installations had two silos, one for
active composting and the second for the curing phase. Material was transferred from one
unit to the other via a conveyor.
Biosolids composting facilities using the vertical silo technologies were challenged by
the difficulty in providing an even flow of air throughout the composting mass. Therefore, many
of these operations were plagued with odour problems. Like the other static composting
systems reviewed here, the lack of physical agitation could slow down physical degradation of
the composting materials. Material being composted is predigested, thus it should be fairly
uniform in particle size and somewhat degraded (thus making the lack of agitation a non-
issue). The inability to contain and treat the process air (if the silos are located outside to take
advantage of air flow) could be a challenge for sites using this technology when neighbours
are in fairly close proximity.

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College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

ROTARY DRUMS

General Description: Rotary drums (also called digesters) are included in this section because
a number of the solid waste composting systems in North America utilize a drum as the first
stage of composting. Rotary drums are not, in and of themselves, a composting technology.
They must be used in tandem with another composting method. Rotary drums are popular
because they serve several purposes: blending, size reduction without shredding, and
screening. Over the three day retention time, the composting process is initiated, providing
some degradation of feedstocks, particularly food waste. Air is fed into the drum to aerate the
material; process air typically is treated through a biofilter. As material exits the drum, it
passes through a screen, removing contaminants. Proponents of drums over mechanical
shredding of composting feedstocks cite a better ability to sort contaminants, especially
plastic, as it has not been reduced to small pieces that can keep passing through screening
systems.

One important distinction between rotary drums and in-vessel containers is that the
latter can be used for the entire composting process (active and curing phases), whereas the
drums, realistically, can only be used for the initial step. Most facilities with in-vessel
containers only use them for the first stage where maximizing process controls is critical; using
containers for the entire composting process would be costly.

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College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

Rotary Drum Equipment: Essentially the drum stands alone, replacing grinders or shredders
and mixing equipment at a composting facility. There are usually infeed and outfeed
conveyors.

ANAEROBIC DIGESTION

General Description: Anaerobic digestion (AD) is the biological breakdown of organic materials
in the absence of oxygen. In the process, biogas containing methane and carbon dioxide is
produced. This biogas can be used as a fuel to generate energy. The material remaining after
digestion is a partially stabilized organic material, which can then be aerobically cured and
used as compost.

Anaerobic Digestion Equipment: Proprietary equipment with a pulping system to pulverize or

machinate the infeed materials into a consistent size feedstock for the anaerobic digestion
chamber or silo. Vendors offer systems of various throughput capacities, with abilities to
directly inject liquids (e.g., manures, sludges, etc.). One and two stage anaerobic digestion
systems are available, where the solids are pressed from the liquids and processed in a
separate system. All facilities processing SSO treat process air through a biofilter. Materials
typically are premixed before being loaded in the silos; all curing of materials are done in a
separate structure (open-sided or enclosed). At some installations, aeration is provided in the
curing phase.

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College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

Anaerobic digestion has a number of advantages, including:

Energy Generation: The biogas produced in AD provides a fuel for the generation of
electricity and/or heat, displacing the use of fossil fuels. AD can be a net producer of
energy. This is in contrast to composting, which requires the consumption of energy to
provide aeration for microbial activity.
Environmental Benefits: Greenhouse gas emissions are reduced by the processing of
waste by anaerobic digestion, both by the displacement of fossil fuel emissions and the
capture of carbon in the waste, which would otherwise have been released to the
atmosphere as CO2 (composting) or CH4 (landfilling).
The disadvantages of anaerobic digestion include the following:
Cost: Anaerobic digestion is substantially more expensive than aerobic composting.
Economies of scale can bring costs down for larger plant sizes, but the cost can be
expected to be in a range that is comparable to incineration and advanced thermal
treatment.
Track Record of Technology: Although anaerobic digestion has had some success in
Europe, the technology remains to be proven in North America. There have been facilities
of demonstration scale and some attempts at large scale facilities. The success of AD is
contingent on a number of factors including quality of feedstock, electricity prices, and
end product markets; conditions in North America for these factors differ from those in
Europe.
Odour Concerns: Since anaerobic digestion deals with the biodegradable portion of the
waste stream (the portion that rots), odours from an AD plant can be a concern. Although
public perception of AD is generally positive, odour episodes from a working AD plant can
turn local public opinion against the plant. A plant that is designed and operated to
minimize odour releases should not have major odour problems, but it is an issue that
should be considered in the planning and siting of a plant.

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 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

Conditioning
Sludge conditioning is a process whereby sludge solids are treated with chemicals or
various other means to prepare the sludge for dewatering processes.

1. Chemical Conditioning
Chemical conditioning prepares the sludge for better and more economical treatment
with vacuum filters or centrifuges. Many chemicals have been used such as sulfuric acid,
alum, chlorinated copperas, ferrous sulfate, and ferric chloride with or without lime, and
others.
The addition of the chemical to the sludge lowers or raises its pH value to a point where
small particles coagulate into larger ones and the water in the sludge solids is given up most
readily. There is no one pH value best for all sludge. Different sludge such as primary, various
secondary and digested sludge and different sludge of the same type have different optimum
pH values which must be determined for each sludge by trial and error. Tanks for dissolving
acid salts, such as ferric chloride, are lined with rubber or other acid-proof material. Intimate
mixing of sludge and coagulant is essential for proper conditioning. Feeders are also
necessary for applying the chemicals needed for proper chemical conditioning.
The most frequently encountered conditioning practice is the use of ferric chloride
either alone or in combination with lime. The use of polymers is rapidly gaining widespread
acceptance. Although ferric chloride and lime are normally used in combination, it is not
unusual for them to be applied individually. Lime alone is a fairly popular conditioner for raw
primary sludge and ferric chloride alone has been used for conditioning activated sludge. Lime
treatment to a pH of 10.4 or above has the added advantage of providing a significant degree
(over 99 percent) of disinfection of the sludge.
Organic polymer coagulants, and coagulant aids have been developed in the past 20
years and are rapidly gaining acceptance for sludge conditioning. These polymers are of three
basic types:
a. Anionic (Negative Charge)
Serve as coagulants aids to inorganic Aluminum and Iron coagulants by
increasing the rate of flocculation, size, and toughness of particles.
b. Cationic (Positive Charge)
Serve as primary coagulants alone or in combination with inorganic coagulants
such as aluminum sulfate.

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College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

c. Nonionic (Equal Amounts of Positively and Negatively Charged Groups in

Monomers)
Serve as coagulant aids in a manner similar to that of both anionic and cationic
polymers.

The popularity of polymers is primarily due to their ease in handling, small storage
space requirements, and their effectiveness. All of the inorganic coagulants are difficult to
handle and their corrosive nature can cause maintenance problems in the storing, handling,
and feeding systems in addition to the safety hazards inherent in their handling.

Factors Affecting Chemical Conditioning

Factors that affect the selection of the type and dosage of the conditioning agents are
the properties of the solids and the type of mixing and dewatering devices to be used.
Important solids properties include source, solids concentration. age. pH, and alkalinity.
Sources such as primary sludge, waste-activated sludge, and digested biosolids are good
indicators of the range of probable conditioner doses required, Solids concentrations will
affect the dosage and the dispersal of the conditioning agent. The pH and alkalinity may affect
the performance of the conditioning agents, in particular the inorganic conditioners. When
lime is used to maintain a high pH for dewatering, strong ammonia odor and lime scaling
problems may occur. The method of dewatering may also affect the selection of the
conditioning chemical because of the differences in mixing equipment used by various
vendors and the characteristics of particular methods of dewatering. For example, polymers
are used commonly in centrifuge and belt-press dewatering but are used less frequently for
pressure filtration. Laboratory- or pilot-scale testing is recommended to determine the types
of chemical conditioning agents required, particularly for solids and biosolids that may be
difficult to dewater.

2. Thermal Conditioning
There are two basic processes for thermal treatment of sludge. One, wet air oxidation,
is the flameless oxidation of sludge at temperatures of 450F to 550F and pressures of about
1,200 psig. The other type, heat treatment, is similar but carried out at temperatures of 350F
to 400F and pressures of 150 to 300 psig. Wet air oxidation reduces the sludge to an ash
and heat treatment improves the dewaterability of the sludge. The lower temperature and
pressure heat treatment is more widely used than the oxidation process.
When the organic sludge is heated, heat causes water to escape from the sludge.
Thermal treatment systems release water that is bound within the cell structure of the sludge
and thereby improves the dewatering and thickening characteristics of the sludge. The
oxidation process further reduces the sludge to ask by wet incineration (oxidation). Sludge is
ground to a controlled particle size and pumped to a pressure of about 300 psi. Compressed

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De Umania, G.J., Dizon, G.G., Maninang,C.T., Sangalang, K.P.H. 19
 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

air is added to the sludge (wet air oxidation only), the mixture is brought to a temperature of
about 350F by heat exchange with treated sludge and direct steam injection, and then is
processed (cooked) in the reactor at the desired temperature and pressure. The hot treated
sludge is cooled by heat exchange with the incoming sludge. The treated sludge is settled
from the supernatant before the dewatering step. Gases released at the separation step are
passed through a catalytic after-burner at 650 to 705O F or deodorized by other means. In
some cases, these gases have been returned through the diffused air system in the aeration
basins for deodorization.
An advantage of thermal treatment is that a more readily dewaterable sludge is
produced than with chemical conditioning. Dewatered sludge solids of 30 to 40 percent (as
opposed to 15 to 20 percent with chemical conditioning) have been achieved with heat
treated sludge at relatively high loading rates on the dewatering equipment (2 to 3 times the
rates with chemical conditioning). The process also provides effective disinfection of the
sludge.
Unfortunately, the heat treatment process ruptures the cell walls of biological
organisms, releasing not only the water but some bound organic material. This returns to
solution some organic material previously converted to particulate form and creates other fine
particulate matter. The breakdown of the biological cells as a result of heat treatment converts
these previously particulate cells back to water and fine solids. This aids the dewatering
process, but creates a separate problem of treating this highly polluted liquid from the cells.
Treatment of this water or liquor requires careful consideration in design of the plant because
the organic content of the liquor can be extremely high.

3. Blending
Blending is a process where two or more types of sludge are "blended" together to
facilitate a higher sludge solids concentration and a more homogenous mixture of sludge prior
to dewatering. Blending operations tends to decrease the chemical demand for conditioning
and dewatering sludge.
The blending operation usually takes place in sludge holding tanks normally where
primary sludge is mixed with waste activated sludge. The amounts of the sludge to be blended
can only be found by experimentation, with the final results being seen at the dewatering
operations.

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 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

Sludge Stabilization and Conditioning Process

In wastewater treatment system, generated sludge has to undergo proper
pretreatment process before it is sent for dewatering or thickening. Therefore, both
Stabilization and Conditioning are considered as integral steps towards proper wastewater
sludge handling and disposal. Usually the process involves prolonged storage in either
specially designed large process buffer tank or even clarification basins depending on the size
of treatment system. Certain higher capacity plants will also utilize aerobic digester or
facultative lagoon with the primary aim to increase the detention period to store and condition
the sludge.

Advanced wastewater system also installs additional facilities such as grit removal and
shearing or grinding as special pretreatment steps. Grit removal basically works to remove
large particle contaminants so that this can help to reduce wear and tear and also avoid
damage to the sludge transfer pumps. Shearing or sludge grinding is also considered an
important step because it helps to break down large solid or lumps into smaller size particles
so that it wont clog up piping and jam up inside the pumps. While it may introduce further
cost to the whole operation, nevertheless doing this will actually reduce the likelihood of
mechanical equipment breakdown which is even harder to deal with.

Grit Chambers (Horizontal, Aerated & Vortex)

Grit removal, which involves separating foreign particles such as sand and gravel is
very important and needs to be carried out in every wastewater treatment system. In order to
accomplish this, a Grit Chamber is usually constructed for this purpose, as this is needed to
protect major mechanical equipment from wear and tear including damage. Other than that,
it also ensures that formation of deposit especially in pipelines can be avoided and overall
this can save the time that otherwise would be spent to clean the accumulation of waste.

A grit chamber is usually installed before primary sedimentation tanks and it is sensible
to say that it should be placed well before wastewater pumps. There are basically three
different types of grit chambers. One is called the horizontal flow type, another is the aerated
grit chamber and the last one is the vortex type. The design of a horizontal flow type is such
that as wastewater flows through in horizontal direction at a certain velocity (0.3m/s) particles
will start to settle at the channel before reaching the outlet point. Normally it is constructed
with consideration put in mind to remove particles that would otherwise be trapped on a 0.21
diameter mesh size. Once the grit settles to the bottom of the chamber, it can then be
removed out from the system, using conveyor with buckets or plows.

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College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

Aerated grit chamber consists of an aeration tank, which is designed to create a spiral
flow of wastewater as it moves through the chamber. With the velocity created from the
movement of water, a certain particle sized grit will settled at the bottom. A well-designed
system should have the incoming velocity travelling at a precise speed in order to avoid the
grit exiting out of the chamber with the wastewater as well. A trial and error observation can
be carried out to determine the right adjustment on the feeding of air to the system. Similar
like a horizontal flow type, the accumulated particles which settled at the bottom can then be
removed using conveyor buckets.

A vortex type grit chamber operates on similar principal and basically it has a cylindrical
tank, which is designed to create a vortex flow pattern. In order to achieve this, wastewater
basically has to enter the chamber tangentially and as such a centrifugal force will ensure that
the grit is taken out. Find out more about other forms of physical treatment in wastewater
plant such as the use of Dissolved Air Flotation System.

Sludge Conditioning

Sludge Conditioning also involve the use of chemicals or heat treatment system
(Zimpro) whereby each method has it own advantages. Thermal stabilization as described
earlier in the Zimpro url link above basically involves the use of heat treatment process in
order to coagulate and breakdown the solid cell structure while overall reduce some of the
water content so that it can be sent later for further decanting. Likewise for chemical
conditioning process, either organic or inorganic chemicals or both can be used to achieve
the same desired results. Basically choice of organic polymers is more preferred compared to
inorganic chemical such as use of ferric chloride since it does not contribute to increase of
sludge volume but however, high cost factor is the main reason that prevents widespread use.

Zimpro Sludge Heat Treatment System

Heat Treatment can be applied towards wet sludge in order to stabilize and condition
it. This process has several advantages because the treated sludge can easily sent for
dewatering steps since it now has softer gel structure with less water content in the solids.
Heat treatment can also be used to coagulate and thicken the sludge so that later part it can
be readily transported between one location to another. The high temperature involved in the
process will also help to sterilize and prevent accelerated sludge degradation that usually
leads to foul odor.

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De Umania, G.J., Dizon, G.G., Maninang,C.T., Sangalang, K.P.H. 22
 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

One of the commonly used sludge stabilization and conditioning method is the Zimpro
system which uses wet air oxidation, that operates under elevated pressure condition. The
concept behind the whole operation involves feeding the sludge to a reactor accompanied by
compressed air and live steam injection. The partially oxidized outgoing sludge generated
from this reactor will later undergo heat exchange with the incoming sludge feeding to the
reactor in order to recover back the heat for energy efficiency purposes. Further processing
steps that includes lime dewatering, centrifugal thickening or sand drying beds can be
considered to be used later part. The advantages with using the system is that sludge
undergoing the heat treatment process has low water content with the solids ranging as high
as 40 to 50 percent depending on whether fine-tuning of the system and optimization has
been carried out.

Setting up and maintaining the system require high cost and strict maintenance
schedule, which is why the system is rarely used today. Furthermore, the ash and volatile
residuals generated can be health hazardous with adverse environmental effect. However,
with all the considerations put into account, it may be economical to operate if it involves large
volume waste capacity as in large treatment plants and installation. In fact, the system can
only benefit if it is operated with a lot of focus put in towards maintenance especially
prevention on formation of scales in pipelines and heat exchangers.

Sludge Stabilization

Sludge Stabilization using chemicals on the other hand is a process whereby the
sludge matter is mixed with chemicals so that it will stabilize the solids in terms of odor and
pathogen removal. Further reading on this topic involves the use of lime stabilization to
achieve the desired results.

Lime Dewatering

Stabilization of wastewater sludge using lime is a common method applied to eliminate

growth of pathogens and to get rid of undesirable odor prior to dewatering and disposal. There
are basically two types of procedures involved in the stabilization process, whereby one is
through addition of lime just before dewatering and another is after dewatering, which you
would call it as "lime post-treatment" steps. In terms of lime usage, there are also two different
types which is either using hydrated lime, Ca(OH)2 or quicklime, CaO or what you would call
as dry lime. Usually in treatment process, quicklime is often selected because the exothermic
reaction when mixed with water can easily disinfect and rid the sludge of pathogens.

Composting and Conditioning for Activated Sludge Disposal

De Umania, G.J., Dizon, G.G., Maninang,C.T., Sangalang, K.P.H. 23
 PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MAYNILA
College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department

Comparing between pretreatment and post-treatment process during addition of lime,

the latter always has more advantages and is often the preferred method for use in
wastewater plant. First of all, it allows use of quicklime and because the lime is dry, addition
of it does not reintroduce water back to the sludge once it has undergone drying process.
Second, problems related to scaling and other maintenance issues can be avoided. However,
the negative point is that, post-treatment stabilization requires sufficient mixing to avoid
formation of putrescible materials. As such presence of a good mixer is a must to ensure
maximum efficiency coupled with a reliable dry lime feed system. A well-mixed sludge will
create a soft texture that allows easy handling especially on the disposal part.

On the design of the sludge stabilization process, several points have to be taken into
consideration as well especially on local regulatory control. With an expected quantity of
produced sludge, steps must be taken to have a good lime dosing system with a mixer, which
are able to treat the sludge and significantly reduced pathogen count prior to disposal. In most
wastewater system, sludge stabilization often involved other processes as well and working
in tandem together with the heat treatment system, anaerobic digester and also aerobic
digester.

Composting and Conditioning for Activated Sludge Disposal

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