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Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico

Mechanical engineering department
Mechatronics ME-5250

Professor: Sandra L. Ordez.

SEMICONDUCTORS

1. DIODES

Silicon (Si) is the primary material currently used for manufacturing semiconductor devices. It contains
four valence electrons as well as the Germanium (Ge) that is used in special cases. These electrons,
located in the outer shell, are loosely attached to the nucleus and can be easily altered through a process
known as doping, which consists of adding impurities to intrinsic (pure) silicon to alter its electrical
characteristics. These impurities are known as dopant atoms. The p-type (positive) silicon material is
created by doping intrinsic (pure) silicon (Si) with a dopant element that has three valence electrons such
as boron (B). The n-type (negative) silicon material is created by doping intrinsic silicon with a dopant
element that has five valence electrons such as phosphorous (P).

In a pn silicon bar (a diode) the p region is called anode of the diode, and the n region is called the
cathode. If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the anode, and the negative lead of the battery
is connected to the cathode, the diode is connected in forward-biased mode and current will flow through
the diode. If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the cathode and the negative terminal of the
battery is connected to the anode, the diode is connected in the reverse-biased mode.

For a silicon diode, depending on small manufacturing variations and on the actual current flowing in it,
the voltage drop is around 0.6 to 0.7V. In practice, it is usually assumed to be 0.7V. For germanium
diodes, the drop is assumed to be 0.3V. Therefore, for analysis purposes, we can replace the diode in a
circuit by either a 0.7V or a 0.3V voltage source whenever the diode has a significant forward-biased
current. Of course the diode does not store energy and cannot produce current like a true voltage source,
but the voltages and currents in the rest of the circuit containing the forward-biased diode are exactly the
same as they would be if the diode were replaced by a voltage source. If the diode is connected in reverse-
biased mode, the diode can be approximated as an open circuit, which means that no current is flowing in
the circuit. In Figure 1, we assume that a forward-biased silicon diode has sufficient current to bias it and
that it therefore has a voltage drop of 0.7V (we also assumed that the current through the diode is zero for
all lesser voltages). Using Ohms law and Kirchhoffs voltage law, we can obtain:

R
E 0.7V IR 0
+
0.7V E 0.7
E I I
_ R

Figure 1
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Example

Assume that a silicon diode is used in the circuit shown in Figure 2a and Figure 2b. Answer the following
questions:
Is the diode forward or reverse biased?
What is the voltage drop across diode D1?
Calculate the value of the current I in the circuit.

R/ For the circuit shown in Figure 2a, the diode is forward biased. The KVL for the circuit and current I
are: 12 (1k)xI 0.7 = 0, I = 11.3/1k = 11.3mA (assuming silicon diodes)

R R
+
12 I 0.7V 12
_

a) b)

Figure 2

For the circuit shown in Figure 2b, the diode is reverse biased, then, it will behave as an open circuit, and
then, there is not current in the circuit (I=0), and the voltage across the diode terminals will be the same as
the power supply, 12V in this case.

Example

Determine the current through each branch in the following circuit (Figure 3). Assume silicon diodes.

1 k 0.7V 3 k 1 k 0.7V 3 k

+ + - + - + + + - + + + - + - + + + - +
15V 5V 15V 5V
_ _ _ 0.7V _ _ _ _ 0.7V _
I1 I2 I1 I2
+ -
=
+ -
2 k 2 k
_ + _ +

Figure 3

S/ Mesh 1: 3I1 2I2 = 13.6 and Mesh 2: -2I1 +5I2 = -4.3

I1 = 5.4mA = ID1 , and I2 = 1.3 mA.
ID2 = 5.4 1.3 = 4.1 mA

The relationship between the voltage across the diode and the current through it is given by the diode
equation:

I D I S eVD /VT 1
Where ID = diode current, A
VD = diode voltage, V (positive for forward-bias)
Is = saturation current, A (usually it is a very small value such as 0.1pA)
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= emission coefficient (a function of VD whose value depends also on the material, 1 2.

For a silicon diode this value is usually assumed to be 1 for V D 0.5V and approach 2 as VD approaches
0.)
VT = thermal voltage (at room temperature VT 0.026V)

VD ID
0 0
0.01 0.02 pA
0.05 0.16 pA
0.1 0.58 pA
49mA
0.2 4.58 pA
1.1mA 0.3 31.9 pA
0.4 219 pA
0.6 0.7
0.5 22 A
0.6 1.1 mA
0.7 49 mA

Figure 4

When the diode is polarized as reverse-biased mode, there is a small drift of current, reverse current. This
current increases its magnitude when the reverse-biasing voltage increases. However, this reverse current
magnitude is much smaller than the current that flows under forward-bias (the forward current). If the
reverse-biasing voltage approaches the reverse breakdown voltage, VBR, a substantial reverse current
flows. Furthermore, a very small increase in the reverse-bias voltage in the vicinity of V BR results in a
very large increase in reverse current. Figure 5 shows the complete current-voltage plot for a diode.

Forward biased region

Reverse biased region

Figure 5

Certain special kinds of diodes, called zener diodes ( ), are designed for use in the breakdown
region. The essentially vertical characteristic in the breakdown region means that the voltage across the
diode remains constant in that region, independent of the reverse current that flows through it. This
property is useful in many applications where the zener diode serves as a voltage reference, similar to an
ideal voltage source.
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A diode, like any other electronic device, is susceptible to damage cased by overheating. Unless there is
sufficient current-limiting resistance connected in series with a diode, the large reverse current that would
result if the reverse voltage were allowed to approach breakdown could cause excessive heating.
Remember that the power dissipation of any device is

P = VI watts, where V is the voltage across the device and I is the current through it.

1.1 Half-wave and Full-wave rectifiers

One of the most common uses of a diode in large-signal operation is in a rectifier circuit. A rectifier is a
device that permits current to flow through it in one direction only. In the case of the diode, when the
anode voltage is positive with respect to the cathode (forward-biased) current flows through it from anode
to cathode. If the anode becomes negative respect to the cathode, no current flows (this is ideally
speaking. The real diode lets flow a very small reverse current).

A single-diode circuit (shown in Figure 6) is called a half-wave rectifier because the waveforms it
produces (i(t) and VR(t)) each represent half a sine wave. A full-wave rectifier effectively inverts the
negative half-pulses of a sine wave to produce an output that is a sequence of positive half-pulses with no
intervals between them. A widely used full-wave rectifier constructed from four diodes and called a full-
wave diode bridge is showed in Figure 6.

Figure 6

2. BJT INVERTER (TRANSISTOR SWITCH)

A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a specially constructed, three-terminal semiconductor device

containing two pn junctions. The transistor is the base of the modern electronic circuits.

The middle region of each transistor type (npn or pnp), is called the base of the transistor. Of the
remaining two regions, one is called the emitter and the other is called the collector, as shown in Figure 7.
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Emitter (E) Emitter (E) Collector (C)

n p n Collector (C) p n p
Base (B) Base (B)

NPN PNP

Figure 7

Transistors are widely used in digital logic circuits and switching applications. The fundamental transistor
circuit used in switching applications is called an inverter. A resistor RB is connected in series with the
base and then directly to a square or pulse-type waveform that serves as the inverters input (see Figure
8). In the circuit shown in the figure, V CC and the high level of the input are both +5V. The output is the
voltage between collector and emitter (V CE).

When the input to the inverter is high (+5V), the base-emitter junction is forward-biased and current
flows through RB into the base. The values of R B and RC are chosen (designed) so that the amount of base
current flowing is enough to saturate the transistor, that is, to drive it into the saturation region of its
output characteristics. When the transistor is saturated, it I said to be ON.
IC
o V = +5V
cc
Vcc / RC
RC IB
+5V IC(SAT)
+5V +5V
0V 0V o
RB
o Vo = VCE 0V
Input VCE
VCE (SAT) = 0V Vcc = +5V
o

Figure 8

When the input to the transistor is low, that is, 0V, the base-emitter junction has no forward-bias applied
to it, so no base current, and hence no collector current flows. There is therefore no voltage drop across
RC, and it follows that VCE must be the same as VCC = +5V. In this situation, the transistor is in the cutoff
region and is said to be OFF.

In designing and analyzing transistor inverters, it is usually assumed that I C(sat) = VCC/RC and that VCE(sat) =
0.These are very good approximations and lead to results that are valid for most practical applications.
Under these assumptions, the equations for an inverter transistor are:

IC = IC(sat) = VCC/RC
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IB(sat) = IC(sat) / = VCC / RC

IB = (VHI - VBE)/RB, where VHI is the high level of the input voltage, usually the same as VCC.

Example

Verify that the circuit in Figure 9 behaves like an inverter when the input switches between 0V and +5V.
Assume that the transistor is silicon and that = 100.
o V = +5V
cc

RC = 5K
+5V
+5V +5V
0V 0V o
RB= 100K 0V
Input o Vo = VCE
o

Figure 9

S/ It is only necessary to verify that the transistor is saturated when V input = +5V.

IB = (5 - 0.7)V / 100K = 43A, then, IC = IB = 100(43A) = 4.3mA

And VCE = 5 (4.3mA)(5K) = 5 21.5 = -16.5V
A negative VCE indicates that the transistor is indeed in saturation and that V CE = VCE(sat) 0V and
IC = IC(sat) VCC/RC = 1mA.
We could have concluded that the transistor was in saturation by calculating I C(sat) VCC/RC and comparing
it to the calculated IC of 4.3mA. When IC = IB is greater than IC(sat), saturation occurs.

2.1 Inverter Design

To design a transistor inverter we must have criteria for specifying the values of R B and RC. Typically, one
of the two is known (or chosen arbitrarily), and the value of the other is derived from the first. We can use
the following equations:

RB = (VHI - VBE)/IB = (VHI - VBE) RC/VCC

RC = VCC RB / (VHI - VBE)

However, because these equations are valid only for a specific value of , they are not entirely practical.
The of a transistor of a given type is likely to vary over a wide range. If the actual value of is smaller
than the one used in the design equations, the transistor will not saturate. For this reason, the used in the
design equations should be always be the smallest possible value that might occur in a given application.
Then, it is more practical to use the following equations:

RB < (VHI - VBE) RC/VCC

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RC > VCC RB / (VHI - VBE)

When a transistor has a higher value of than the one for which the inverter circuit was designed, a high
input simply drives it deeper into saturation. This overdriving of the transistor creates certain new
problems, including the fact that it slows the speed at which the device can switch from ON to OFF, but
the output is definitely low in the ON state. The results from the example above indicate an overdriving
condition, because IB was about four times larger than the minimum required. In practice, however, a
moderate amount of overdriving is normally used in order to maintain a low VCE(sat).

Example

An inverter having RC = 1.5K is to be designed so that it will operate satisfactorily with silicon
transistors whose values range from 80 to 200. What value of R B should be used? Assume that VCC = VHI
= +5V.

S/ Using the minimum = 80 we find: RB < (VHI - VBE) RC/VCC = (4.3)(80)(1500)/5 = 103.2K
An actual value of 100K would be appropriate.

2.2 The transistor as a switch

A transistor inverter is often called a transistor switch. This terminology is appropriate because the ON
and OFF states of the transistor correspond closely to the closing and opening of a switch connected
between the collector and the emitter. When the transistor is ON, or saturated, the voltage between
collector and emitter is nearly 0, as it would be across a closed switch, and the current is the maximum
possible, VCC/RC. When the transistor is OFF, no current flow from collector to emitter and the voltage is
maximum, as it would be across an open switch. The switch is opened or closed by the input voltage: A
high input closes it and a low input opens it. Figure 10 shows this behavior.
o +Vcc o +Vcc
RC Ic = Vcc/Rc RC Ic = Vcc/Rc
+Vcc o RB
0V =
o
o
0V
o o

Transistor Saturated

o +Vcc o +Vcc
RC
RC

o RB Vcc =
o
o
Vcc
o o

Transistor Cutoff
Figure 10
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3. FOUR-LAYER DEVICES

Four-layer devices, also called thyristors, comprise a class of semiconductor components whose structure
is characterized by alternating layers of p and n material. By altering the terminal configuration and
geometry of the basic structure, it is possible to construct a variety of useful devices, including silicon-
controlled rectifiers, silicon-controlled switches, diacs, triacs, and Shockley diodes. These are widely used
in high-power switching applications where the control of hundreds of amperes and thousands of watts is
not usual. They are especially useful in the control of ac power delivered to heavy loads such as electric
motors and lighting systems.

3.1 Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCR)

As the name and the symbol imply, the SCR behaves like a diode (rectifier), which is normally forward-
biased but conducts from anode (A) to cathode (K) only if a control signal is applied to the gate (G).
SCRs are normally operated with an external circuit connected to the gate that triggers the SCR into a
regenerative breakover. The gate serves as a control input that can be used to switch the SCR from OFF to
ON when desired. It is important to know that it is necessary to supply only a short pulse of current
through the gate to cause the switching action. Once the regeneration is initiated, latching quickly occurs
and gate current is no longer required (See Figure 11). The larger the gate current, the smaller the
breakover voltage.

The SCR cannot be turned OFF by simply reducing the gate current to 0. The SCR can only be turned
OFF by reducing the anode-to-cathode current to a value below the holding current.

+VA
o
R

IG VAK
o
o

Figure 11. Characteristic equation taken from: http://www.americanmicrosemi.com/tutorials/scr.htm

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Example

The voltage drop across the SCR in Figure 12 is 1V when it is conducting. It has a holding current of
2mA when IG = 0. If the SCR is triggered on by a momentary pulse of gate current, to what value V A must
be reduced to turn the SCR of?
+VA = +30V
o
IA R = 50

IG VAK
o

Figure 12

S/ the current in the resistor is: I A = (VA VAK)/50 = (VA - 1)/50. Assuming that VAK remains constant at
1V as VA and IA are reduced, the value necessary to make IA = IH = 2mA is:

2mA = (VA 1)/50 or VA = 1.1V.

This example shows that VA must be reduced to a very small value to turn the SCR off. In practice, turn-
off is accomplished either by switching the supply voltage off entirely or by short-circuiting the SCR.

3.1.1 Half-wave power control using SCRs

SCRs are commonly used to adjust, or control, the average power delivered to a load from an ac source.
In these applications, the SCR is periodically switched ON and OFF, and the average power delivered to
the load is controlled by adjusting the total length of time the SCR conducts during each ac cycle.

In Figure 13, when the ac voltage is positive and the SCR is conducting, current flows through load
resistance RL. The total length of time the SCR conducts depends on the point in each cycle at which the
SCR switches on, or fires. After firing, the SCR continues to conduct until the ac voltage drops to near 0,
causing the SCR current to fall below the holding current. It then remains off until firing again at the same
point in the next positive half-cycle. The angle of the ac waveform at which the SCR switches on is called
the firing angle f, or the delay angle. The firing angle is controlled adjusting Rp. When Rp is large, the ac
voltage must reach a large value to generate enough gate current to fire the SCR, then, the firing angle is
large. Conversely, when Rp is small, a relatively small voltage will cause the SCR to fire, and f will be
small. In the circuit shown, f can be adjusted from 0 to 90. The diode is used to protect the gate from
the negative portion of the ac voltage.

IL RL
vi
D1

Rp
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Figure 13

SCR
TRIAC

Figure 14. Half-wave power control with an SCR vs full-wave power control with a triac. Current flows
in the load during the shaded intervals shown in the waveforms.

When the SCR conducts, the peak load current Ip, the average current IAVG and the Irms are:
V V AK
Ip p
RL
Ip
I AVG (1 cos f )
2
Ip f sin 2 f
I rms (1 )
2 180
2

Where Vp is the peak ac voltage and VAK is the drop across the SCR, about 1V, when it is conducting.

When f = 0, IAVG = Ip/ and Irms = Ip/2

When f = 90, IAVG = Ip/2 and Irms = Ip/2

Sometimes the SCR tends to do a false trigger if there is a large rate of change of anode voltage. To
avoid this, a capacitor is sometimes connected between anode and cathode.
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Example

If vinput is a 120-Vrms ac voltage and RL = 40, what should be the firing angle if it is desired to deliver an
average current of 1A to the load? (Assume a 1V drop across the SCR).

Solution.
Vp = (120V)x2 = 169.7V
Ip = (Vp-VAK)/RL = (169.7 1)/40 = 4.2175 A
Using the equation for IAVG, and assuming that it is equal to 1A according to the problem,
4.2175
I AVG 1 (1 cos f )
2
cos f 0.4898
f 60.67

The basic purpose of the SCR is to function as a switch that can turn on or off small or large amounts of
power. It performs this function with no moving parts that wear out and no points that require replacing.
There can be a tremendous power gain in the SCR; in some units a very small triggering current is able to
switch several hundred amperes without exceeding its rated abilities. The SCR can often replace much
slower and larger mechanical switches.

3.2 TRIACS

Is a thyristors, family of the semiconductors, which its primary function is to control power bilaterally in
an AC circuit. Its operation can be related to two SCRs connected in parallel in opposite directions.
Although the gates are shown separately for each SCR in the figure, a triac has a single gate and can be
triggered by either polarity. Since a triac operates in both directions, it behaves essentially the same in
either direction as an SCR would behave in the forward direction (blocking or operating). To turn a triac
ON, a gate current IGT must be applied until the load current is I L. This condition must be met at the
lowest
expected operating temperature. To turn off (commutate) a triac, the load current must be < IH for
sufficient time to allow a return to the blocking state. This condition must be met at the highest expected
operating temperature.

The characteristic curve for the triac is shown in Figure 15, while Figure 16 shows its modes of operation
by quadrants.
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Figure 15

Figure 16

Triacs can be gated in four basic gating modes. The most common quadrants for triac gating-on are
Quadrants I and III, where the gate supply is synchronized (gate positive, MT2 positive; or gate negative,
MT2 negative) with the main terminal supply. Gate sensitivity of triacs is most optimum in Quadrants I
and III due to the inherent thyristor chip construction. If, however, Quadrants I and III operation cannot
be used, the next best operating modes are Quadrants II and III where the gate has a negative polarity
supply with an AC main terminal supply. Typically, Quadrant II is approximately equal in gate sensitivity
to Quadrant I; however, latching current sensitivity in Quadrant II is lowest. Therefore, it is difficult for
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triacs to latch on in quadrant II when the main terminal current supply is very low in value. Quadrant IV
has the lowest gate sensitivity of all four operating quadrants. Considerations should be given in gating
circuit design when Quadrants I and IV are used in actual application.

Similarly to the SCR, the firing angle using triacs can be adjusted in practical circuits from near 0 to near
180, so load current can be made to flow for nearly an entire cycle. Because the positive and negative
areas of the current waveform are equal, the average current I AVG is 0.

The Irms load current is:

Ip f sin 2 f
I rms (1 )
2 180
2

3.3 POWER ELECTRONICS THYRISTORS APPLICATIONS

Power electronics refers to control and conversion of electrical power by power semiconductor devices
wherein these devices operate as switches. The application spread to many fields such as drives, power
supplies, aviation electronics, high frequency inverters and power electronics.

Tasks of Power Electronics:

Rectification referring to conversion of ac voltage to dc voltage
DC-to-AC conversion
DC-to DC conversion
AC-to-AC conversion

Another universal power electronics application is the automobiles ignition system. Thousands of volts
are required to ignite the fuel-air mixture inside a cylinder so that internal combustion can occur. Todays
cars employ all-electronic ignition systems, which have replaced the traditional spark plugs with boost
converters coupled to transformers.

Also thyristors are used in the new electric and hybrid cars, in which the primary electrical system is
dominated by power electronics. Electric cars offer high performance, zero tailpipe emissions, and low
costs, but are still limited in range by the need for batteries. Hybrid car designs use various strategies to
combine both an engine and electrical elements to gain advantages of each. Inverters and DC-DC
converters rated for many kilowatts serve as primary energy control blocks. See
http://www.howstuffworks.com/hybrid-car2.htm.

Other applications for the triacs include washing machines, vacuum cleaners, dimmers, remote switches,
and ac motor control.
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Light Control with TRIAC

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Motor control with SCR

3-PHASE RECTIFICATION WITH SCR

Attached to this document are described the thyristors automotive applications.