Diodes, BJTs and MOSFETs

Priyanshu Singhal
Electrical dept.
Team SolarMobil
Udupi, India
priyanshusinghal9712@gmail.com

Abstract—This document offers a comprehensive overview resistance (ideally zero) in the forward direction and high
of diodes, Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs), and Metal- resistance (ideally infinite) in the reverse direction.
Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs). It
Fig. 1 Symbol of Diode
details their structures, operating principles, characteristics,
and applications. These components are fundamental to modern A. Construction
electronics, playing roles in functions ranging from simple
rectification and signal amplification to complex digital logic There are two types of semiconductor materials: intrinsic
and power regulation. This report aims to enhance the and extrinsic semiconductors. An intrinsic semiconductor is a
understanding of their essential properties and significance in pure semiconductor that has equal numbers of holes and
electronic circuits. electrons at room temperature. In contrast, an extrinsic
semiconductor has impurities added to increase either the
Keywords: Diode, BJT, MOSFET, semiconductor devices, number of holes or the number of electrons. These impurities
electronics, transistors, power electronics. can be trivalent (such as boron, indium, or aluminum) or
pentavalent (such as phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony).
I. INTRODUCTION
Semiconductor devices have transformed the field of
electronics, enabling the design of compact, efficient, and
versatile systems. Among these devices, diodes, BJTs A semiconductor diode consists of two layers: one is made
(Bipolar Junction Transistors), and MOSFETs (Metal-Oxide- of a P-type semiconductor, and the other is made of an N-type
Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors) are three key semiconductor. When trivalent impurities are added to silicon
components that serve various functions in circuit design. or germanium, a greater number of holes are produced, giving
Diodes are straightforward two-terminal devices that it a positive charge; thus, this layer is known as the P-type
allow current to flow in one direction only. In contrast, BJTs layer. Conversely, when pentavalent impurities are added to
are current-controlled devices widely utilized for silicon or germanium, more electrons are generated, resulting
amplification and switching purposes. MOSFETs are known in a negative charge; this layer is known as the N-type layer.
for their high efficiency and speed, and they are voltage- The diode is formed by joining the N-type and P-type
controlled devices ideal for power electronics and digital semiconductors together, creating a combination known as a
circuits. PN junction diode. The interface between the P-type and N-
II. DIODES type layers is called the PN junction.
Fig. 2 Construction of Diode
A diode is a two-terminal device that allows current to
flow in only one direction, making it a key component in B. Working
power electronics. The semiconductor diode was the first In the N-type region of a diode, electrons serve as the
invention in a family of semiconductor devices, and since majority charge carriers while holes are the minority charge
then, many different types of diodes have been developed. carriers. Conversely, in the P-type region, holes are the
However, the most commonly used type remains the majority charge carriers, and electrons are the minority charge
semiconductor diode. carriers. Due to the concentration difference between these
Silicon is typically used to manufacture diodes, although regions, the majority charge carriers diffuse and recombine
other semiconductor materials like germanium and with the opposite charge, resulting in the formation of positive
germanium arsenide are also utilized. or negative ions. These ions accumulate at the junction,
creating what is known as the depletion region.
A diode permits current to flow freely in one direction
while blocking it in the opposite direction. It has low

Fig. 3. Depletion Region

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 When the anode terminal of a diode is connected to the If the voltage exceeds the forward breakover voltage,
negative terminal of a battery and the cathode is connected to which is 0.7V for silicon diodes and 0.3V for germanium
the positive terminal, the diode is said to be in reverse bias. diodes, the majority charge carriers gain enough energy to
Conversely, when the anode is connected to the positive cross the depletion region. When the supply voltage rises
above this threshold, the majority charge carriers are able to
flow through the circuit, and the diode conducts.

During this mode of operation, there is only a small

voltage drop across the diode, known as the on-state voltage
drop.
C. VI-Characteristics of Diode
The VI characteristic of the diode shows the relation
terminal and the cathode to the negative terminal, the diode is between diode current and voltage. It is a graph between
in forward bias. voltage and current where the voltage is on X-axis and current
is on Y-axis.
1) Operation of the Diode in Reverse Bias Condition:
The characteristic is divided into two parts;
In reverse bias, free electrons diffuse into the P-type region
and recombine with holes, forming negative ions. • Forward Bias
• Reverse Bias
When voltage is not applied, the current flowing through
the circuit is zero. The point ‘O’ shows this condition where
voltage and current are zero.

Simultaneously, holes diffuse into the N-type region and

recombine with electrons, creating positive ions. When a
voltage is applied, these immobile ions create a larger
depletion region, preventing the flow of holes or electrons
across the junction. As a result, no significant current flows
through the diode, causing it to behave like an open switch.
Fig. 4. Diode in Reverse Bias

A very small amount of current, known as reverse

saturation current or reverse leakage current, can still flow due
to minority charge carriers. However, this current is not
sufficient to conduct through the diode. If the voltage is
increased to the reverse breakover voltage, the minority
charge carriers gain enough kinetic energy to collide with
atoms, leading to the breaking of covalent bonds and
generating a substantial number of electron-hole pairs. This
results in a significant increase in current, which can
potentially damage the diode. Therefore, in typical conditions,
diodes should not be connected in reverse bias. 1) Forward Bias
2) Operation of the Diode in Forward Bias Condition: When the P-type material or anode is connected with the
positive terminal of the battery and N-type material or cathode
In forward bias, when the anode is connected to the is connected with a negative terminal of a battery, then the
positive terminal of the battery and the cathode to the negative diode is connected in forward bias.
terminal, the anode becomes positive relative to the cathode.
As the supply voltage is gradually increased, the majority The applied voltage is controlled by the variable resistor.
charge carriers initially do not have sufficient energy to cross The applied voltage is gradually increased. The current will
the depletion region. In this condition, the width of the not flow until the voltage increases forward breakover voltage.
depletion region is reduced. Because in this condition, the voltage is not sufficient to move
charge carrier from one layer to another.
For silicon, breakover voltage is 0.7V and for germanium,
this voltage is 0.3V. Once the voltage is increased above this
level, the voltage is sufficient to move charge carrier from one
carrier to another carrier. And due to the flow of charge,
current can flow through the diode.
As shown in characteristics, part OP is the non-linear part.
That shows the starting period where voltage is below forward
Fig. 5. Diode in Forward Bias breakover voltage. Here, the current is very small.
 The part PQ shows when the voltage is more than the • It is used in solar panels to prevent current from
forward breakover voltage. And in this condition, the current flowing in the reverse direction and to bypass the
increases linearly. solar plate.
In this condition, the diode behaves as a close switch as it • It is also utilized to modulate and demodulate
allows the current to flow. For the ideal diode, the on-state communication signals.
resistance is zero and It behaves as a pure conductor.
III. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS (BJTS)
2) Reverse Bias
In reverse bias, the N-type material or cathode is A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a bidirectional device
connected with a negative terminal of the battery. This type of that utilizes both electrons and holes as charge carriers. In
connection is known as a reverse bias connection. contrast, a unipolar transistor, such as a field-effect transistor
(FET), uses only one type of charge carrier. A BJT is a current-
In this condition, the voltage is gradually increased with controlled device, where the main current flows from the
the help of a variable resistor. But this voltage is not sufficient emitter to the collector or from the collector to the emitter,
to cause the flow of current. depending on the connection type. This primary current is
regulated by a very small current at the base terminal.
Because the junction created between P-type and N-type
layer is in reverse bias and the depletion width is large in this A. Construction
condition. Therefore, the rated voltage is not sufficient to A bipolar junction transistor is created by combining two
create a movement of charge carrier. back-to-back doped semiconductor materials. In other words,
Hence, the current will not flow through the diode. The a BJT is formed by a "sandwich" of back-to-back extrinsic
curve obtains in this mode is OA. As shown in the graph, a semiconductor materials. These extrinsic semiconductors are
very small amount of current will flow due to the minority essentially PN junction diodes. By sandwiching two PN
charge carrier, this current is not sufficient to turn ON the junction diodes together, we create a three-terminal device
diode. known as a BJT. A BJT has three terminals and consists of
two junctions.
When the applied voltage is more than the reverse
breakdown voltage, a large current will flow due to the After doping an intrinsic semiconductor with trivalent or
avalanche breakdown. pentavalent impurities, a P-type or N-type semiconductor is
produced, respectively. When the number of electrons
D. Advantages of PN Junction Diodes exceeds the number of holes (positive carriers), the material is
• Small in size classified as an N-type semiconductor. Conversely, in a P-type
semiconductor, the number of holes is greater than the number
• Requires less space of electrons. When P-type and N-type materials are connected
• Low weight together, they form a PN-junction diode. BJT transistors are
formed by connecting two PN junctions back to back,
• Highly reliable in operation resulting in either PNP or NPN bipolar junction transistors,
depending on whether a P-type or N-type material is
• Consumes low power
• Offers better lifespan and efficiency
• Low internal resistance
• Easy to install and maintain
• Simple construction and robust design
• Low cost and easily available
E. Applications of Diodes
Diodes are utilized in various applications within power sandwiched in the middle.
electronics. A diode is a unidirectional two-terminal device Fig. 8. Construction of BJT
that allows current to flow in one direction while blocking it
in the opposite direction. This characteristic makes diodes Transistors consist of three sections and two junctions,
suitable for the following applications: known as the Emitter, Collector, and Base. The emitter and
collector enclose the base in between them, with the base
• Rectifiers forming two junctions: the Emitter-Base junction and the
• Voltage multiplier circuits Collector-Base junction.

• Over-voltage limiters B. Terminals of BJT

The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) has three terminals,
• Clipper and clamper circuits which are the collector, emitter, and base. Here’s a brief
• Reverse current protection circuits overview of each terminal:

• Digital Logic Gates 1) Emitter

The emitter is the part of the transistor that emits electrons
or holes to the other two sections. The base is always reverse-
biased with respect to the emitter, allowing for the emission of transistor can transform its resistance. The resistance varies in
a large number of majority carriers. The emitter is the most such way that it can either act as an insulator or conductor by
heavily doped region of the BJT. In both PNP and NPN applying small signal voltage. This changing ability makes it
transistors, the emitter-base junction should always be able to perform both as an “Amplifier” or a “Switch”. It can
forward-biased. In an NPN transistor, the emitter supplies be used either as a switch or an amplifier at a single time.
electrons to the emitter-base junction, while in a PNP Therefore, BJT can operate in three different regions to
transistor, it supplies holes. perform the said operation.
2) Collector 1) Active Region:
In Active region, one of the junctions is in a forward bias
The collector is located on the opposite side of the emitter
while the other is in reverse bias. Here, the base current Ib can
and is responsible for collecting the emitted charge carriers
be used to control the amount of collector current Ic.
(electrons or holes). It is heavily doped, but the doping level
Therefore, the active region is used for amplification purposes
is between that of the lightly doped base and the heavily doped
where the BJT acts as an amplifier with a gain β using the
emitter. The collector-base junction should always be reverse-
equation;
biased in both PNP and NPN transistors. This reverse biasing
helps remove charge carriers from the collector-base junction. ic = β x Ib
In an NPN transistor, the collector collects electrons emitted
by the emitter, while in a PNP transistor, it collects holes. It is also known as linear region. This region is in between
the cutoff region and the saturation region. The normal
3) Base operation of BJT occurs in this region.
The base is the middle section between the collector and 2) Saturation Region:
emitter and forms two PN junctions. It is the most lightly In saturation region, both of the junctions of the BJT are in
doped portion of the BJT, which allows it to effectively forward bias. This region is used for the ON-state of a switch
control the flow of charge carriers between the emitter and where;
collector. The base-collector junction exhibits high resistance
due to being reverse-biased. ic = isat

C. Types of BJTs (Bipolar Junction Transistors) Isat is the saturation current & it is the maximum amount
of current flowing between emitter and collector when BJT is
Bipolar Junction Transistors are three-layer devices that in saturation region. Since both junctions are in forward bias
can be classified as either PNP or NPN. Here, we will briefly so, BJT acts as a short circuit.
discuss both types.
3) Cutoff Region:
1) PNP Construction In cutoff region, both junctions of a BJT are in reverse
In a PNP bipolar transistor, an N-type semiconductor is bias. Here the BJT work as off state of a switch where
sandwiched between two P-type semiconductors. PNP
transistors can be formed by connecting the cathodes of two ic = 0
diodes. The cathodes are joined at a common point known as The operation in this region is completely opposite to the
the base, while the anodes of the diodes on either side are
saturation region. There are no external supplies connected.
referred to as the collector and the emitter. There’s no collector current and hence no emitter current. In
In a PNP transistor, the emitter-base junction is forward- this mode, transistor acts as an off-state of the switch. This
biased, while the collector-base junction is reverse-biased. mode is achieved by reducing base voltage less than both
Consequently, current flows from the emitter to the collector. emitter and collector voltage.
In this case, the emitter is at a higher potential than both the
Vbe < 0.7
collector and the base.
E. Working Principle of BJT
2) NPN Construction
The NPN transistor operates in a manner that is the BJT have two junctions formed by the combination of two
opposite of the PNP type. In an NPN bipolar transistor, a P- back to back PN junctions. Base-Emitter junction (BE) is
type semiconductor is sandwiched between two N-type forward bias while collector-emitter junction (CE) is
semiconductors. An NPN transistor is formed when the reverse bias. At BE junction, the potential barrier decreases
anodes of two diodes are connected together. Here, current with forward bias. So, electron start flowing from emitter
flows from the collector to the emitter because the collector terminal to base terminal. As the base is lightly doped
terminal is at a higher positive potential compared to the terminal, so very little number of electrons from emitter
emitter. terminal combine with holes in base terminal. Due to
combination of electrons and holes, current from base
The key difference between PNP and NPN symbols lies in terminal will start flowing known as Base current (ib). Base
the direction of the arrow at the emitter, which indicates the current is only 2% of the emitter current Ie while the
direction of current flow. In a PNP transistor, the arrow is remaining electrons will flow from the reverse bias collector
inward, showing that current flows from the emitter to the junction known as Collector current (ic). The total emitter
collector. Conversely, in an NPN transistor, the arrow points current will be the combination of base current & collector
outward, indicating that current flows from the collector to the current given by;
emitter.
ie = ib+ic
D. Working of BJT
Where ie is approximately equal to ic because Ib is almost
The word “transistor” is the combination of two words, 2% of the IC.
“Trans” (Transform) and “istor” (Varistor). So, it means the
 F. BJT Configuration
BJT is three-terminal device so there are three possible
ways to connect BJT in a circuit with one terminal being
common among others. In other words, one terminal is
common between input and output. Each connection responds
differently to input signal as shown in the table below:

Outpu
Input Phas
Configurati Voltag Curren Power t
Imped e
ons e gain t Gain Gain Imped
ance Shift
ance
Voltage
Gain
Common
0
base Very
High Low Low Low degr
configurati high
ee Current
on Ic/ie
Gain

Common
180 Resistance
emitter Mediu Mediu Mediu RL/Rin
High High degr Gain
configurati m m m
ee
on

Common 2) Common Emitter Configuration

0 As its name suggests, in common emitter, the emitter is
collector Mediu
Low High High Low degr common between input and output. The input is applied
configurati m
ee between base & emitter while output is taken between
on
collector & emitter. It can be simply recognized by looking at
the circuit. If the emitter is grounded while input and output
are taken from the base and collector respectively.
1) Common Base Configuration:
In common base configuration, the base terminal is This configuration has the highest current and power
common between the input and output signals. The input gain among all three configurations. The reason is because the
signal is applied between base and emitter terminal while input is at forward bias junction, so its input impedance is
output is taken between the base and collector terminal. very low. While output is taken from reverse bias junction, so
its output impedance is very high.
The output signal at collector side is less than the input
signal at emitter. So, its gain is less than 1. In other words, it
“attenuates” the signal. The emitter current in this configuration is equal to the
sum of base and collector currents. Given in equation as;
Ie= ic + ib
Where ie is the emitter current

It has a non-inverting output that means that both input and

output signals are in-phase. This type of configuration is not
commonly used because of its high voltage gain. This configuration has high current gain which is ic/ib. The
reason for this tremendous current gain is that the load
Due to its very high-frequency response, this configuration
resistance is connected in series with collector. It can be seen
is used for single stage amplifier. These single stage amplifiers
from the equation that minute increase in base current will
can be used as radio frequency amplifier, microphone pre-
result in extremely high current at output side.
amplifier.
This configuration acts as an inverting amplifier where the
a) Common Base Configuration Gains
output signal is completely opposite in polarity to the input
signal. Therefore, it shifts the output signal at 180° with
respect to its input signal.
 3) Common Collector Configuration Without biasing the transistor will work as an insulator or
Common collector configuration known as voltage conductor. So, for proper amplification purpose BJT is biased
follower or emitter follower has a grounded collector. In through different techniques. Though there are many different
Common collector configuration, the collector terminal is techniques, but few most common techniques are discussed
grounded to the supply. So the collector terminal is common briefly.
to both input and output. The output is taken from the emitter
a) Fixed Bias
terminal with load connected in series while the input is given
to base terminal directly. A single power supply is used for both collector and base.
In the fixed bias configuration, the base current of the BJT
remains constant irrespective of input DC voltage (V cc). This
It has high input impedance and low output impedance. depends on selecting the resistor such that to keep the Q-
This enables it to perform as an impedance matcher. So, this point fixed and hence known as fixed biased configuration.
configuration is very helpful in the impedance matching The value of bias resistor can be found by
technique. (Vcc-Vbe) / Ib.
G. BJT Biasing where Vbe=0.7v for standard transistors and
The process of setting the transistor DC voltage or current Ib = Ic / β.
levels such that to achieve proper amplification of the applied
AC input signal. By elaborating further, biasing is the
technique using for preventing the transistor to work either in
cutoff mode or saturation mode.

ADVANTAGES OF FIXED BIAS

Some of the advantages of this circuitry are discussed.
• No loading effect: There’s no loading effect. Where
the loading effect can be defined as the effect of the
load on the source. By using this circuitry for biasing,
we can get rid of the reducing level of voltage of the
voltage source.
• Simple circuit: Its circuit is very simple because it
To retain output signal without any loss after only requires one fixed resistor RB.
amplification, proper biasing is a must. The operation of
steady-state in mainly dependent on collector current (ic), base • Easy calculation: The calculation method is very
current (ib) and collector to emitter voltage (Vce). If the simple.
transistor is meant to operate properly as an amplifier. Then
these parameters must be chosen correctly which is known
as biasing of transistor. The aim of the transistor biasing is
to achieve a known quiescent operating point or Q-
point for BJT to produce an undistorted output
signal. Q2 given in the above graph is not a proper q-point &
it causes to clip the upper portion of the output signal.

1) Types of Biasing
 b) Fixed Bias with Emitter Resistance If there is a change in beta due to piece-to-piece-variation
It is the modified form of fixed biased circuit where or the temperature rise in beta and Ico, then collector current
external resistance is connected to the emitter terminal. This
circuit requires an extra resistor for emitter which provides
negative feedback.
The bias voltage VBB-VBE = IBRB + IERE should appear
across RE to set IE≈Ic.
ADVANTAGES OF FIXED BIAS WITH EMITTER
CONFIGURATION
• No thermal Runaway: The deficiency of thermal
run away in fixed bias can be overcome with fixed
bias with emitter resistance configuration. Thermal
runaway can be defined as the increase in collector
current with an increase in temperature. This causes
self-destruction because the overcurrent cause
overheats.
• The problem with this configuration is that it reduces tries to increase further due to which the voltage drop across
the gain of BJT amplifier. This problem can be Rc increases. As a result, Vce and Ib decreases. Therefore, the
overcome very easily by bypassing emitter final value of the collector value Ic is maintained stable by the
resistance. circuit, which keeps the Q point fixed.
c) Collector to Base Bias This circuit is also known as Voltage Feedback Bias
Base resistor is connected to the collector terminal in this circuit because Rb appears directly across input and output in
type of biasing. This configuration stabilizes the operating this circuit. increase in collector current decreases the base
point and preventing thermal runaway by employing negative current.
feedback. This configuration is also the improved version of d) Voltage Divider Bias or Potential Divider
the fixed bias configuration. The biasing resistor is connected
between collector and base which provide feedback path. Two external resistors R1 and R2 are used for this type.
Collector to base bias is an improved technique over fixed bias The voltage across R2 forward biases the emitter junction.
technique. With the proper selection of R1 and R2, the operating point of
the transistor can be made independent of Beta. Potential
This configuration is also known as voltage biased divider bias is the most popular and used method for biasing
feedback circuit. Because Rb directly appears across output of transistor. The emitter diode is forward biased by
and input. In other words, a part of output is feedbacked to controlling the voltage drop at R2.
input. So negative feedback exists in the circuit.
Rb = R1 || R2
In the voltage divider bias circuit, the value of Rb is equal
to the parallel combination of R1 and R2.
 This out of control is known as early effect and is one
of the main limitations among limitations of BJT.
I. Vulnerability
Radiation damage causes to transistor when transistors are
exposed to ionization radiation. The minority carrier’s lifetime
reduces after exposure to radiation, which causes gradual loss
of gain of the transistor.
Transistor has power ratings and reverse breakdown
voltage beyond which the BJT may fail to work. When BJTs
are operated beyond their power rating or reverse breakdown
voltage then BJT will not work properly or may be damaged
permanently.
In case of reverse biasing, the emitter-base junction will
cause avalanche breakdown which will permanently
damage the current gain of the bipolar junction transistor.
J. Advantages of BJT
• Large gain bandwidth: Gain bandwidth is the
difference between maximum & minimum cutoff
frequency. The gain at the cutoff frequency is 0.7. By
further increasing or decreasing the frequency from
maximum & minimum cutoff frequency
respectively, the gain decreases, which is not usable.
So BJT offers a wide range of frequency offering a
greater gain then 0.7. Therefore, the BJT has
a tremendous gain bandwidth.
ADVANTAGE OF VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS • Low forward voltage drops: BJTs have 0.6v of
Independent of beta: The main advantage of voltage forward voltage drop which is very low and quite
divider bias circuit is that the transistor will be no more important point. The point is of great significance
dependent on beta. The reason is that the terminal’s voltages because more forward voltage will cause
of transistor i.e. collector, emitter, and base voltages will be unnecessary power loss according to P=VI. It means
dependent on the external circuit. Emitter Resistance that for the same type of load, a device having high
Re allows the stability of the gain despite fluctuations in beta. forward voltage drop will cause unnecessary power
loss.
H. Limitations of BJT
Here are some limitations of Bipolar junction transistor; • Darlington pair: Due to its low output impedance
and high input impedance, BJT can
• Bulky: BJTs are bulky which require more space provide meritorious current gain.
and hence very rarely used in integrated circuits (IC)
fabrications. • Long life: BJTs have relatively long life of
operation. The device gets festered because the
• Low switching Frequency: its switching time is saturation current increases with the passage of time.
very low which is another reason for rarely been While different techniques of biasing may be used to
using in IC As compare to MOSFETs the frequency overcome this problem and increase the life of the
is very low device further.
• Leakage current: leakage currents with BJTs are K. Application of BJT
enough so they can’t be used for high frequency. Here are some of the applications of Bipolar Junction
• Thermal stability of BJT: compared to other Transistor;
transistors, the thermal stability of BJT is very low • Converters: BJTs can be used in vast majority of
and it is a noisy device. converters. These converters can be of different
• Thermal runaway: BJT suffers from thermal run- types such as inverters, buck converters, boost
away problem which results in excess heat produced. converters or any DC-DC, DC-AC, AC-DC or AC-
In other words, it causes self-destruction. As the heat AC
produces is equal to I2 So, the excess current will • Temperature sensors: Finding temperature is one
cause excessive heat which will burn the BJT. of the other applications of BJT. Where this can be
• Early effect: The emitter to collector current is found by two voltages at two different levels in a
controlled by base current. If the base width is moved known ratio are subtracted
to zero known as punch through, then the junction • High driving capability: It has High driving
of collector and emitter touches each other. After that capability. For high voltage or current-handling
a tremendous current starts flowing from emitter to capability, devices are connected in series and in
collector which cannot be controlled by base current.
 parallel correspondingly. But the driving capability MOSFET is a voltage-controlled device whose output
of individual devices is always considered. depends on the gate voltage. The metal oxide gate is
electrically isolated from the channel using a thin layer of
• High-frequency operation: BJTs can be operated silicon dioxide. It increases its input impedance significantly
on a very high frequency. The frequency of the BJT
for small signal is much higher than its switching
frequency, principally due to storage delay. The
storage time of 2N2222 is 310ns, thus the maximum
switching frequency is about 3MHZ.
• Digital switch: The digital logic family has emitter-
coupled logic used in BJTs as a digital switch.
• Oscillation circuit: These are preferred in
oscillation circuits.
• Clippers: BJTs can be used in clipping circuits for
changing the shape of waves. This can be used as a
simple diode for clipping purpose but the problem in the range of Megaohms ” 106 = MΩ”. Therefore, MOSFET
with diode is that diode is uncontrolled. does not have any input current.
• Demodulator and modulator: BJTs can be used in
demodulation and modulation circuits. BJTs are still
using in the very old known modulation technique Symbol
known as “Amplitude modulation”. The MOSFET has mainly two types
• Detection circuits: BJTs can be used in detector • Depletion MOSFET or D-MOSFET
circuits. BJT could be a new semiconductor sensor
type for measuring ionization radiation dose. • Enhancement MOSFET or E-MOSFET
Both of these types can be divided based on N-channel and
P-channel.
The D-MOSFET is also known as “normally ON”
MOSFET because they have a built-in channel is during
manufacturing. Applying gate voltage reduces the channel
width, switching the MOSFET OFF. While the E-MOSFET is
also known as “Normally OFF” MOSFET because there is no
channel during fabrication but it is induced by applying
voltage.

• Amplifiers: One of the most important applications Therefore the D-MOSFET symbol has a continuous line
of BJTs is amplification where it is used in to represent a channel between the drain and source that
amplifier’s circuit to amplify small signals. such as allows the current flow at zero gate-source voltage. While the
in audio amplifiers, these tiny components amplify broken line in E-MOSFET represents a broken path or
very low audio signal to hearable range. absence of channel for current flow at zero gate-source
voltage. The arrow pointing inward shows N-channel while
• Electronic switches: It can be used as an electronic the arrow pointing outward show P-channel MOSFET.
switch. BJTS are used in inverter for changing the
direction of DC current and become AC current. MOSFET Regions of Operation

• Automatic switch: It can be used instead of manual Transistors act like an insulator or a conductor based on a
switch in an electrical circuit. the output signal of very small signal. The MOSFET just like any other transistor
sensors is sometimes useless in electrical circuits also operates in three regions.
because these signals are very low. However, these Cutoff Region: In this region, the MOSFET remains
signals will become useful if they drive BJTs. As turned off and there is no drain current ID. When MOSFET is
BJT operates on low signals. Then these BJT used as a switch, it utilizes this region as OFF-state or opened-
switches can run heavy loads including motors. state of a switch.
IV. MOSFETS Saturation Region: In the saturation region, the
MOSFET allows a constant current between source and drain.
MOSFET or Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect
It acts as the ON-state or closed-state of a switch. The
Transistor is a type of FET having four
MOSFET is fully on allowing maximum drain current ID -
terminals namely Drain, Gate, Source and Body/Substrate
through it.
. The body terminal is shorted with the source terminal leaving
a total of three working terminals just like any other transistor. Linear or Ohmic Region: In this region, the MOSFET
offers constant resistance that is controlled by the voltage level
The MOSFET conducts current between its source and
VGS. The drain current ID increases with the level of the
drain through a path called a channel. The width of this
voltage VGS. Therefore, this region is used for amplification.
channel is controlled by the voltage at the gate terminal.
 Types of MOSFETs
The MOSFET is classified into two main types:
• Depletion type MOSFET or D-MOSFET – (D & N
Channels)
• Enhancement type MOSFET or E-MOSFET – (D &
N Channels)
Depletion MOSFET
The Depletion type MOSFET or D-MOSFET is a type of
MOSFET that has a channel constructed during the process of When the gate is connected in reverse bias i.e. negative
fabrication. In other words, it has a channel even when there voltage VGS < 0 volt is applied, the holes from the P-substrate
is no voltage applied to it. Therefore, it can conduct current will attract towards the gate, depleting it of the electrons and
between source and drain when the gate-source voltage VGS = reduce the channel size. At certain negative VGS the MOSFET
0 volts. Due to this reason, it is also known as “Normally ON” will stop conduction as there will be no channel. This VGS is
MOSFET. threshold voltage Vth. N-channel MOSFET has –Vth,
Connecting the gate-source terminal in reverse bias will While increasing VGS will enhance (increase) its
deplete the channel of the charge carrier thus the name conductivity i.e. the drain current ID will increase with the
depletion MOSFET. It reduces the width of the channel until drain-source voltage VDS. However, this works in the ohmic
it completely vanishes. At this point, the D-MOSFET stops region. When the VDS reaches the pinch-off voltage Vp, the
conduction and this VGS voltage is known as VTH threshold IDS become saturated IDSS and the current stops increasing.
voltage. This mode is used for switching applications.
If Gate and source is connected in forward bias and the Operating Regions of N-Channel D-MOSFET
VGS is increased, more majority carriers will get induced in the
channel and its width will increase. It will result in increasing Cutoff Region: In this region, the gate-source voltage V-
the current flow between drain and source. This is why the D- GS≤ -Vth. There is no drain current ID = 0 regardless of the
MOSFET can work in both depletion and enhancement mode. value of VDS. The MOSFET is switched off.
The D-MOSFET can be ‘N-channel D-MOSFET’ or ‘P- Saturation Region: In this region, the VGS > -Vth and the
channel D-MOSFET’ depending on the channel being used. VDS > Vp . The MOSFET allows maximum drains current
The type of channel also affects its biasing as well as its speed IDSS which depends on the VGS.
and current capacities. Linear or Ohmic Region: In this region, VGS > -Vth and
N-Channel D-MOSFET the VDS < Vp. the MOSFET acts as an amplifier. In this region,
the current ID increases with the VDS while its amplification
In N-channel D-MOSFET, the source and drains electrode depends on the VGS as shown in the VI characteristics.
is placed on small N-type layers. While the gate electrode is
placed on top of an insulating metal oxide layer that P-Channel D-MOSFET
electrically insulates it from the channel beneath it. The
channel made for N-type material is fabricated on top of a P-
type substrate.

The P-channel D-MOSFET has the same construction as

an N-channel except for the drain, source electrodes lie on P-
type layers. and the channel is made of P-layer over an N-type
substrate. The charge carriers used are holes. The holes have
The channel as it is made of N-type material consists of one disadvantage over electrons. They are quite heavier than
electrons as charge carriers. The voltage at the gate produces
an electric field that affects the flow of these charge carriers.
electrons and therefore can cause it to lose some speed in
operation.

Under normal conditions, it can conduct current between

its source and drain as long as there is a voltage between them.
the gate voltage can affect the channel width to increase or
decrease it.

When a positive VGS is applied at its gate, the electric field

will cause to attract the electrons from the N-type substrate
that combines with the holes thus depleting the channel of N-channel E-MOSFET will not conduct current between
charge carriers. It reduces the width of the channel and the its source and drain terminal when the VGS = 0 volts. Because
amount of current. at a certain point, the VGS completely there is no channel to allow current flow. Applying a positive
eliminates the channel and stops the flow of current. voltage +VGS to the gate produces an electric field beneath the
Therefore, P-channel D-MOSFET has a positive threshold gate layer. It results in attracting the electrons from the P-
voltage i.e. it switches off when positive VGS is applied and substrate and pushing back holes away from the insulating
switches on when there is no VGS. Applying negative voltage layer. A channel in induced which allows the current between
will induce more holes into the channel causing it to increase the source and drain.
or enhance its current conduction.
Operating Regions of P-Channel D-MOSFET
Cutoff Region: In this region, the gate-source voltage V-
GS= +Vth. There is no drain current ID = 0 regardless of the
value of VDS. The MOSFET is switched off.
Saturation Region: In this region, the VGS < +Vth and the
VDS > Vp. The MOSFET allows maximum drains current
IDSS which depends on the level of VGS.
Linear or Ohmic Region: In this region, VGS < +Vth and
the VDS < Vp. the MOSFET acts as an amplifier. In this region,
the current ID increases with the VDS while its amplification
depends on the VGS as shown in the VI characteristics.
Enhancement MOSFET The VGS at which the channel is induced is called
Vth threshold voltage and increasing the voltage above
Enhancement MOSFET or E-MOSFET is a type of Vth causes to enhance the channel width.
MOSFET that does not have a channel during its fabrication.
Instead, the channel is induced in the substrate by applying the Operating Regions of N-Channel E-MOSFET
voltage through its gate electrode. The voltage enhances its Cutoff Region: In this region, the gate-source voltage V-
conduction ability hence the name. GS ≤ 0v. There is no drain current ID = 0 regardless of the value
The E-MOSFET does not conduct and remains switched of VDS. It operates as a switch.
OFF when there is no voltage at its gate. It is why it is also Saturation Region: In this region, the VGS > 0v and the
known as “Normally OFF” MOSFET. By applying a forward VDS > VGS. The MOSFET allows maximum drains current
voltage between the gate and source, charge carriers are IDSS which depends on the level of VGS.
induced in the substrate that produces a channel for the
conduction of current between the source and drain. Linear or Ohmic Region: In this region, VGS > 0 and the
VDS < VGS. the MOSFET acts as an amplifier. In this region,
Applying voltage above threshold voltage enhances the the current ID increases with the VDS while its amplification
width of the channel and increases the current flow therefore depends on the VGS as shown in the VI characteristics.
it is named enhancement MOSFET.
P-Channel E-MOSFET
The E-MOSFET is also divided into N-Channel and P-
Channel E-MOSFET. P-channel E-MOSFET has the same structure as P-channel
D-MOSFET except for the absence of channel. There is no
N-Channel E-MOSFET channel during its construction. It is induced by applying VGS.
The N-Channel E-MOSFET has the same structure as D-
MOSFET except there is no channel during manufacturing.
The channel is induced by the application of a voltage across
its gate.
 In depletion mode, MOSFET has a built-in channel
between the source and drain terminal. Applying a voltage
VDS between the source and drain causes the drain current ID to
flow. To reduce or stop the conduction of current ID, the
reverse bias voltage VGS is applied to the gate. it depletes the
channel of charge carriers, reducing it width.
In Enhancement mode, a forward bias voltage VGS is
applied to the gate which attracts the minority charge carriers
from the substrate. They accumulate beneath the gate
electrode to increase or enhance the width of the channel. This
width depends on the amount of gate voltage. Higher the
voltage, higher the amount of charge accumulates and wider
When –VGS is applied to the gate, positive charges (holes) the channel. Therefore, the drain current ID also increases.
gather beneath the insulating layer and the electrons are
pushed back. The holes accumulate together to form a channel The following table shows the status of all four types of
between the source and drain. Now, if the voltage between MOSFET at different levels of Gate-Source voltage VGS
source and drain is applied, it will start to conduct current. MOSFET
Type +ve
VGS =
0
VGS =
-ve
VGS =

N-
Channel
ON ON OFF
D-
MOSFET

P-
Channel
OFF ON ON
D-
MOSFET

N-
Channel
ON OFF OFF
E-
MOSFET

P-
Channel
OFF OFF ON
E-
MOSFET

The following table shows the operating region of all four

MOSFETs.
MOSFET Cutoff Linear/Ohmic Saturation
Same as N-channel, it does not conduct when the VGS = 0 Type Region Region Region
(OFF- (Amplifier) (ON-State)
V. reducing the voltage below Vth, the channel width State)

increases, allowing more current to flow through it. N- VGS ≤ - VGS > -Vth VGS > -Vth
Channel Vth VDS < VP VDS ≥ VP
D- VDS =
Operating Regions of N-Channel E-MOSFET MOSFET ….
P- VGS ≥ VGS < -Vth VGS < -Vth
Channel +Vth VDS < VP VDS ≥ VP
Cutoff Region: In this region, the gate-source voltage V- D- VDS =
….
GS ≥ 0v. There is no drain current ID = 0 regardless of the value
MOSFET
N- VGS ≤ VGS > +Vth VGS > +Vth
Channel +Vth VDS < VGS VDS ≥ VGS
of VDS. It operates as a switch. E- VDS =
MOSFET ….
P- VGS ≥ - VGS < -Vth VGS < -Vth
Saturation Region: In this region, the VGS < 0v and the Channel Vth VDS < VGS VDS ≥ VGS
E- VDS =
VDS > VGS. The MOSFET allows maximum drains current MOSFET ….

IDSS which depends on the level of VGS.

Linear or Ohmic Region: In this region, VGS < 0 and the VGS Gate to Source Voltage VDS Drain to
VDS < VGS. The MOSFET acts as an amplifier. In this region, Source Voltage
the current ID increases with the VDS while its amplification
depends on the VGS as shown in the VI characteristics. Vth Threshold Voltage VP Pinch off
Voltage
Working of MOSFET
The Depletion MOSFETs can work in both depletion-
MOSFET can operate like a switch or an amplifier. The mode and enhancement-mode while the Enhancement
operation of a MOSFET depends on its type and its biasing. MOSFET can only work in Enhancement mode.
They can operate in depletion mode or enhancement mode.
In FETs, since the drain and source are made from same
MOSFETs have an insulating layer between the channel material, they are interchangeable. The drain is the terminal
and the gate electrode. This insulating layer increases its input whose voltage is more positive than the source.
impedance. Therefore, it does not allow any gate current.
Instead, it operates on the voltage applied to its gate terminal. Characteristics or V-I Curve of MOSFETs

The insulating layer forms a flat capacitor that has Transfer Characteristics: The transfer characteristics
advantages and disadvantages. It creates a very high input curve shows the relationship between the input gate voltage
impedance and therefore, has very low power consumption. VGS and the output drain current ID.
But an electrostatic charge can permanently damage this thin Drain Characteristics: The drain characteristics curve
insulating layer. shows the relation between the drain-source voltage VDS and
drain current ID.
 N-Channel D-MOSFET
The N-channel D-MOSFET transfer curve shows that
the MOSFET conducts drain current ID when the VGS exceeds
above the VTh threshold voltage. The threshold voltage is
below 0v which means that it can conduct at 0 VGS.

At VGS < VTh, the MOSFET operates in the cutoff region

where there is no drain current ID. As the VGS increase above
VTh, the ID starts to increases with VDS in the ohmic region.
When the VDS cross pinch-off voltage VP, determined by the
locus of pinch-off, the ID saturates and becomes constant.
The drain characteristic shows the three operating regions
of the MOSFET; cutoff, ohmic and saturation region P-Channel E-MOSFET
including both modes of operations i.e. depletion and The P-channel E-MOSFET has the same characteristics
enhancement mode. The ohmic and saturation regions are curve as the N-channel E-MOSFET except the voltages are
separated by a boundary line called locus of pinch-off. The reversed.
pinch-off voltage is the minimum voltage at which saturation
occurs.
In the ohmic region, the drain current ID increases with the
VDS . In saturation region, the ID becomes constant called
saturation current and only varies with the level of the VGS. In
cutoff region, the ID remains zero but the VGS must be brought
down below –VTh shown by the transfer curve.
At VGS = 0V or below, the MOSFET operates in depletion
mode where the channel width and conductivity reduces with
the drop in voltage. While above 0V, it starts to enhance and
increase conductivity.
Advantages & Disadvantages of MOSFET’s
P-Channel D-MOSFET
Advantages
The negative curve of transfer characteristics shows that
P-channel D-MOSFET switches on when the VGS is below the • The main advantage of MOSFET is that there is no
+Vth limit. The drain characteristic curve shows the relation gate current i.e. it does not have any input current.
between VDS and ID for different values of VGS. As the gate-
source voltage VGS decreases, the current ID starts to increase. • It has a very high input impedance due to the
insulation layer.
• It consumes negligible energy in its operation due
to a very low leakage current.
• It has a very high switching speed.
• It is used for very high-frequency applications.
• It has very low output resistance.
• It has very small size.
There is not much of a difference between N-channel and
p-channel MOSFET except the voltages are reversed. • They can operate at either depletion mode or
enhancement mode.
N-Channel E-MOSFET
• It provides greater efficiency while operating at low
E-MOSFET does not conduct at 0 VGS due to the absence voltages.
of a channel as shown in the graph. However, once the V GS
exceeds threshold voltage Vth, it starts conduction. It has the • It is unipolar having a noiseless operation.
same operation as a D-MOSFET operating in Enhancement
mode. • It is a voltage-controlled device with very low
power loss.
Disadvantages
• Due to insulating layer, there is a capacitance
between the gate and channel which can get damaged
due to any electrostatic charge buildup.
• It cannot handle high voltages.
 • MOSFETs are expensive than BJTs • They are also used in buck converters and boost
converters.
Applications of MOSFETs
MOSFET are mainly used for switching and amplification V. CONCLUSION
in electronic circuits. Following are some of the applications Diodes, BJTs (Bipolar Junction Transistors), and
of MOSFETs. MOSFETs (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect
Transistors) are essential components in electronic circuit
• It is used for fast switching and amplification of design. Diodes are particularly effective in applications that
very small signals such as in high frequency require unidirectional current flow. BJTs are widely used for
amplifiers. amplification and switching tasks. MOSFETs, known for their
• Power MOSFETs are used for power high input impedance and fast switching capabilities, are ideal
regulation in DC motors. for power regulation and high-speed applications.
Understanding how these components operate and their
• MOSFET are best for chopper circuits due to its characteristics is crucial for designing efficient and reliable
high switching speed. electronic systems. Their integration into various devices
• Due to their high efficiency and low power highlights their significance in advancing technology and
consumption, they are used for their superior meeting a wide range of electronic needs.
switching speed in digital IC (integrated
circuits) such as microcontroller and
microprocessors. REFERENCES
• They are used in SMPS (Switch Mode Power
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Oxide Semiconductor) logic circuit where the layers [2] A. Johnson, "The Role of BJTs in Modern Circuits," Circuit World,
Mar. 10, 2023. [Online]. Available: http://www.circuitworld.com/bjts.
of P-MOS and N-MOS are combined together to [Accessed: Oct. 15, 2023].
reduce the space and power consumption. [3] M. Lee, "MOSFETs Explained: How They Work and Where They're
Used," Tech Innovations, Feb. 5, 2023. [Online]. Available:
• They are used in H-bridge circuit. http://www.techinnovations.com/mosfets. [Accessed: Oct. 15, 2023].